Wikibooks enwikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.20 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikibooks Wikibooks talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Cookbook Cookbook talk Transwiki Transwiki talk Wikijunior Wikijunior talk Subject Subject talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 4 385 4671787 4671674 2026-09-22T13:39:31Z ~2026-51010-27 3626489 /* A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027 */ Reply 4671787 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Suicide]] == I realize this book has been nominated for deletion before ([[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide|1]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide (2)|2]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide/Suffocation|3]]), but it's been over ten years since the last nomination. The project's position on what material is in its educational scope has shifted, as have some of the facts on the ground. * The chartered purpose of Wikibooks is to produce "open-content textbooks" (cf. [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?]]) which are suitable for use in an instructional environment. Providing educational information about suicide in the context of psychiatry could certainly be in scope, as psychiatry is an educational topic; however, instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic, and should not be considered in scope. * This book is, and has always been, primarily intended as an instructional work guiding users on how to commit suicide. It provides effectively no meaningful analytical content ''about'' suicide as a topic. Most of the original content in the book was imported from an early-2000s wiki associated with the <code>alt.suicide.holiday</code> Usenet group, the "ASH wiki", which was specifically and unequivocally dedicated to describing and recommending methods by which readers could commit suicide, and this has carried through to the current version of the book. * Most of the content in the book was removed in 2020 (by redirecting it to the book's main page, e.g. [[Special:Diff/3660495]]) over concerns that it was created by a WMF-banned user ([[User:Leucosticte]]), and because it was likely in violation of the ASH wiki's (unclear) copyright. These changes removed most of the content of the book; much of what remains is image gallery pages like [[Suicide/Blades]] which have no educational value. Suicide is a sensitive topic; if it is covered by a textbook, it should be covered tastefully and with an aim to educate. This book is largely the opposite of that. Having it here is doing more harm than good. If this book is deleted, the following related pages should be deleted as well: * [[Template:Suicide methods]] * [[Template:Infobox suicide method]] (currently unused) * [[User:Leucosticte/About ASH]] - from the ASH wiki, as mentioned above * [[User:Leucosticte/Frequently Asked Questions]] - also from the ASH wiki [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:41, 21 July 2026 (UTC) : {{keep|weak keep}} a)&nbsp;Age is no argument. There are many stale underdeveloped books I would rather delete than keeping around. b)&nbsp;The book’s topic is exceptionally difficult to write about. ''This'' impedes collaborative authoring. c)&nbsp;The book does not really explain ''how'' to commit suicide (like a step‐by‐step guide), neither is it the book’s learning objective. d)&nbsp;Even if ''you construed'' the chapter summarizing various suicide methods ''as instructions'', instructional material on how to commit suicide ''is'' an educational topic. In most ''present‐day societies'' it is not ''ethical'' to teach students how to commit suicide, though. e)&nbsp;Therefore the correct path is to first alter the [[WB:WIW#Wikibooks includes instructional texts|project scope]] to censor books on ethical grounds ''and then'' nominate the book for censorship. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 04:50, 28 July 2026 (UTC) ::Re. c: most of the explicit directions were edited out in 2020, as noted in my nomination, but are still visible in page history. For a couple of explicit examples, see e.g. [[Special:Permalink/3318613]] or [[Special:Permalink/3654645]]. Providing specific instructions was the original intent of this book, and it has never escaped that legacy. If someone were interested in writing a book ''about'' the phenomenon of suicide, they would be better off starting afresh. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:26, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *'''Delete all'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:17, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *:why? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:49, 19 September 2026 (UTC) * '''Delete all''' per the nomination above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:17, 30 July 2026 (UTC) * '''Keep''' with caution. Rename to "suicide prevention"?--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 04:03, 2 September 2026 (UTC) *:Re. the rename: absolutely not. There is no content in the book about suicide prevention. If you are interested in writing a book on that topic, please start a new one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - :1. "instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic" - I think it can be construed as one depending on the person (and does not have to imply that the person is at risk) :2. Not a reason. :3. Not a reason. It is up to the community to decide whether to accept a banned user's work. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 13:37, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6]] == Nonsense position, one of the worst opening moves for White countered by a move hurting development for Black. [https://www.365chess.com/search_position.php Searching] on 365chess.com finds zero games with this position. See also a similar [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Na3]]. [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰]] ([[User talk:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠]]) 02:20, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} With some reservations, in that just being a bad move doesn't make it ''not'' a strategy. That said, the lack of actual game presence means it's unnecessary to keep around. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 16:16, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Art And AI]] == Suspected rampant LLM use; this also seems to violate [[WB:BLOG]] and [[WB:SOURCE]], since this seems largely like personal research/personal essays and opinions. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:25, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - as a book, this isn't even particularly coherent. For instance, chapters like [[Art And AI/Tools Of The Artist]] have no clear relationship to the intended topic. And the chapters which do address the topic, like [[Art And AI/Can AIs Go On Strike]], certainly seem more like an opinion piece (if not outright fantasy content) than serious material appropriate for an instructional text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:03, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}}, does not fit this project and appears to be LLM-generated. No useful content. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:13, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == [[A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027]] == This was proposed for speedy deletion by [[User:Omphalographer]] as 'not being a book'. However, I think this page's future requires further discussion from the community. Maybe some input would be appreciated?[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:51, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :As best I can tell, this is a page students are using to collaborate on solutions for a standardized test. There are a number of similar pages for other years linked from [[A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program]]. :This is not a good fit for Wikibooks. If these students are interested in this kind of collaboration, it should take place elsewhere. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:14, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::The project can be moved to Wikiversity, I think. If the students can contribute it and make sure it complies with Wikibooks' guidelines, it can stay here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] :::There's been a Wikibook on this every single year, as I mentioned in my comment on the deletion notice. That doesn't mean that this shouldn't be on Wikiversity, just that there is ample precedent of it being a Wikibook. Dunno if this matter to those kind of editorial decisions, though. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51010-27|talk]]) 13:39, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 6no5vfspxyy7yul8anhs6hh6g4oqzr0 4671792 4671787 2026-09-22T13:58:41Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027 */ Reply 4671792 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Suicide]] == I realize this book has been nominated for deletion before ([[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide|1]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide (2)|2]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide/Suffocation|3]]), but it's been over ten years since the last nomination. The project's position on what material is in its educational scope has shifted, as have some of the facts on the ground. * The chartered purpose of Wikibooks is to produce "open-content textbooks" (cf. [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?]]) which are suitable for use in an instructional environment. Providing educational information about suicide in the context of psychiatry could certainly be in scope, as psychiatry is an educational topic; however, instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic, and should not be considered in scope. * This book is, and has always been, primarily intended as an instructional work guiding users on how to commit suicide. It provides effectively no meaningful analytical content ''about'' suicide as a topic. Most of the original content in the book was imported from an early-2000s wiki associated with the <code>alt.suicide.holiday</code> Usenet group, the "ASH wiki", which was specifically and unequivocally dedicated to describing and recommending methods by which readers could commit suicide, and this has carried through to the current version of the book. * Most of the content in the book was removed in 2020 (by redirecting it to the book's main page, e.g. [[Special:Diff/3660495]]) over concerns that it was created by a WMF-banned user ([[User:Leucosticte]]), and because it was likely in violation of the ASH wiki's (unclear) copyright. These changes removed most of the content of the book; much of what remains is image gallery pages like [[Suicide/Blades]] which have no educational value. Suicide is a sensitive topic; if it is covered by a textbook, it should be covered tastefully and with an aim to educate. This book is largely the opposite of that. Having it here is doing more harm than good. If this book is deleted, the following related pages should be deleted as well: * [[Template:Suicide methods]] * [[Template:Infobox suicide method]] (currently unused) * [[User:Leucosticte/About ASH]] - from the ASH wiki, as mentioned above * [[User:Leucosticte/Frequently Asked Questions]] - also from the ASH wiki [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:41, 21 July 2026 (UTC) : {{keep|weak keep}} a)&nbsp;Age is no argument. There are many stale underdeveloped books I would rather delete than keeping around. b)&nbsp;The book’s topic is exceptionally difficult to write about. ''This'' impedes collaborative authoring. c)&nbsp;The book does not really explain ''how'' to commit suicide (like a step‐by‐step guide), neither is it the book’s learning objective. d)&nbsp;Even if ''you construed'' the chapter summarizing various suicide methods ''as instructions'', instructional material on how to commit suicide ''is'' an educational topic. In most ''present‐day societies'' it is not ''ethical'' to teach students how to commit suicide, though. e)&nbsp;Therefore the correct path is to first alter the [[WB:WIW#Wikibooks includes instructional texts|project scope]] to censor books on ethical grounds ''and then'' nominate the book for censorship. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 04:50, 28 July 2026 (UTC) ::Re. c: most of the explicit directions were edited out in 2020, as noted in my nomination, but are still visible in page history. For a couple of explicit examples, see e.g. [[Special:Permalink/3318613]] or [[Special:Permalink/3654645]]. Providing specific instructions was the original intent of this book, and it has never escaped that legacy. If someone were interested in writing a book ''about'' the phenomenon of suicide, they would be better off starting afresh. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:26, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *'''Delete all'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:17, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *:why? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:49, 19 September 2026 (UTC) * '''Delete all''' per the nomination above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:17, 30 July 2026 (UTC) * '''Keep''' with caution. Rename to "suicide prevention"?--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 04:03, 2 September 2026 (UTC) *:Re. the rename: absolutely not. There is no content in the book about suicide prevention. If you are interested in writing a book on that topic, please start a new one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - :1. "instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic" - I think it can be construed as one depending on the person (and does not have to imply that the person is at risk) :2. Not a reason. :3. Not a reason. It is up to the community to decide whether to accept a banned user's work. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 13:37, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6]] == Nonsense position, one of the worst opening moves for White countered by a move hurting development for Black. [https://www.365chess.com/search_position.php Searching] on 365chess.com finds zero games with this position. See also a similar [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Na3]]. [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰]] ([[User talk:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠]]) 02:20, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} With some reservations, in that just being a bad move doesn't make it ''not'' a strategy. That said, the lack of actual game presence means it's unnecessary to keep around. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 16:16, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Art And AI]] == Suspected rampant LLM use; this also seems to violate [[WB:BLOG]] and [[WB:SOURCE]], since this seems largely like personal research/personal essays and opinions. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:25, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - as a book, this isn't even particularly coherent. For instance, chapters like [[Art And AI/Tools Of The Artist]] have no clear relationship to the intended topic. And the chapters which do address the topic, like [[Art And AI/Can AIs Go On Strike]], certainly seem more like an opinion piece (if not outright fantasy content) than serious material appropriate for an instructional text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:03, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}}, does not fit this project and appears to be LLM-generated. No useful content. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:13, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == [[A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027]] == This was proposed for speedy deletion by [[User:Omphalographer]] as 'not being a book'. However, I think this page's future requires further discussion from the community. Maybe some input would be appreciated?[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:51, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :As best I can tell, this is a page students are using to collaborate on solutions for a standardized test. There are a number of similar pages for other years linked from [[A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program]]. :This is not a good fit for Wikibooks. If these students are interested in this kind of collaboration, it should take place elsewhere. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:14, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::The project can be moved to Wikiversity, I think. If the students can contribute it and make sure it complies with Wikibooks' guidelines, it can stay here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] :::There's been a Wikibook on this every single year, as I mentioned in my comment on the deletion notice. That doesn't mean that this shouldn't be on Wikiversity, just that there is ample precedent of it being a Wikibook. Dunno if this matter to those kind of editorial decisions, though. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51010-27|talk]]) 13:39, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]]: How would the page comply with [[WB:What is Wikibooks?|Wikibooks' mission]]?. Could you provide an explanation of what the project is? If it's a collaborative project to work on solutions for a standardized test (like @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] said), it would be more suitable for Wikiversity. If it's a textbook about A-level computing, then it would be suitable here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 8640t0srustly5rlmz9nt602ql038hw 4671800 4671792 2026-09-22T15:32:56Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6 */ Deleted. ([[:m:User:Max/MaxEdit.js|MaxEdit]]) 4671800 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Suicide]] == I realize this book has been nominated for deletion before ([[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide|1]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide (2)|2]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide/Suffocation|3]]), but it's been over ten years since the last nomination. The project's position on what material is in its educational scope has shifted, as have some of the facts on the ground. * The chartered purpose of Wikibooks is to produce "open-content textbooks" (cf. [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?]]) which are suitable for use in an instructional environment. Providing educational information about suicide in the context of psychiatry could certainly be in scope, as psychiatry is an educational topic; however, instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic, and should not be considered in scope. * This book is, and has always been, primarily intended as an instructional work guiding users on how to commit suicide. It provides effectively no meaningful analytical content ''about'' suicide as a topic. Most of the original content in the book was imported from an early-2000s wiki associated with the <code>alt.suicide.holiday</code> Usenet group, the "ASH wiki", which was specifically and unequivocally dedicated to describing and recommending methods by which readers could commit suicide, and this has carried through to the current version of the book. * Most of the content in the book was removed in 2020 (by redirecting it to the book's main page, e.g. [[Special:Diff/3660495]]) over concerns that it was created by a WMF-banned user ([[User:Leucosticte]]), and because it was likely in violation of the ASH wiki's (unclear) copyright. These changes removed most of the content of the book; much of what remains is image gallery pages like [[Suicide/Blades]] which have no educational value. Suicide is a sensitive topic; if it is covered by a textbook, it should be covered tastefully and with an aim to educate. This book is largely the opposite of that. Having it here is doing more harm than good. If this book is deleted, the following related pages should be deleted as well: * [[Template:Suicide methods]] * [[Template:Infobox suicide method]] (currently unused) * [[User:Leucosticte/About ASH]] - from the ASH wiki, as mentioned above * [[User:Leucosticte/Frequently Asked Questions]] - also from the ASH wiki [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:41, 21 July 2026 (UTC) : {{keep|weak keep}} a)&nbsp;Age is no argument. There are many stale underdeveloped books I would rather delete than keeping around. b)&nbsp;The book’s topic is exceptionally difficult to write about. ''This'' impedes collaborative authoring. c)&nbsp;The book does not really explain ''how'' to commit suicide (like a step‐by‐step guide), neither is it the book’s learning objective. d)&nbsp;Even if ''you construed'' the chapter summarizing various suicide methods ''as instructions'', instructional material on how to commit suicide ''is'' an educational topic. In most ''present‐day societies'' it is not ''ethical'' to teach students how to commit suicide, though. e)&nbsp;Therefore the correct path is to first alter the [[WB:WIW#Wikibooks includes instructional texts|project scope]] to censor books on ethical grounds ''and then'' nominate the book for censorship. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 04:50, 28 July 2026 (UTC) ::Re. c: most of the explicit directions were edited out in 2020, as noted in my nomination, but are still visible in page history. For a couple of explicit examples, see e.g. [[Special:Permalink/3318613]] or [[Special:Permalink/3654645]]. Providing specific instructions was the original intent of this book, and it has never escaped that legacy. If someone were interested in writing a book ''about'' the phenomenon of suicide, they would be better off starting afresh. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:26, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *'''Delete all'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:17, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *:why? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:49, 19 September 2026 (UTC) * '''Delete all''' per the nomination above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:17, 30 July 2026 (UTC) * '''Keep''' with caution. Rename to "suicide prevention"?--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 04:03, 2 September 2026 (UTC) *:Re. the rename: absolutely not. There is no content in the book about suicide prevention. If you are interested in writing a book on that topic, please start a new one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - :1. "instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic" - I think it can be construed as one depending on the person (and does not have to imply that the person is at risk) :2. Not a reason. :3. Not a reason. It is up to the community to decide whether to accept a banned user's work. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 13:37, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6]] == {{closed|Deleted. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:32, 22 September 2026 (UTC)}} Nonsense position, one of the worst opening moves for White countered by a move hurting development for Black. [https://www.365chess.com/search_position.php Searching] on 365chess.com finds zero games with this position. See also a similar [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Na3]]. [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰]] ([[User talk:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠]]) 02:20, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} With some reservations, in that just being a bad move doesn't make it ''not'' a strategy. That said, the lack of actual game presence means it's unnecessary to keep around. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 16:16, 14 September 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[Art And AI]] == Suspected rampant LLM use; this also seems to violate [[WB:BLOG]] and [[WB:SOURCE]], since this seems largely like personal research/personal essays and opinions. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:25, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - as a book, this isn't even particularly coherent. For instance, chapters like [[Art And AI/Tools Of The Artist]] have no clear relationship to the intended topic. And the chapters which do address the topic, like [[Art And AI/Can AIs Go On Strike]], certainly seem more like an opinion piece (if not outright fantasy content) than serious material appropriate for an instructional text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:03, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}}, does not fit this project and appears to be LLM-generated. No useful content. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:13, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == [[A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027]] == This was proposed for speedy deletion by [[User:Omphalographer]] as 'not being a book'. However, I think this page's future requires further discussion from the community. Maybe some input would be appreciated?[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:51, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :As best I can tell, this is a page students are using to collaborate on solutions for a standardized test. There are a number of similar pages for other years linked from [[A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program]]. :This is not a good fit for Wikibooks. If these students are interested in this kind of collaboration, it should take place elsewhere. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:14, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::The project can be moved to Wikiversity, I think. If the students can contribute it and make sure it complies with Wikibooks' guidelines, it can stay here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] :::There's been a Wikibook on this every single year, as I mentioned in my comment on the deletion notice. That doesn't mean that this shouldn't be on Wikiversity, just that there is ample precedent of it being a Wikibook. Dunno if this matter to those kind of editorial decisions, though. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51010-27|talk]]) 13:39, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]]: How would the page comply with [[WB:What is Wikibooks?|Wikibooks' mission]]?. Could you provide an explanation of what the project is? If it's a collaborative project to work on solutions for a standardized test (like @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] said), it would be more suitable for Wikiversity. If it's a textbook about A-level computing, then it would be suitable here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 58xu02e0jo750lggfufqasurpnudh08 4671826 4671800 2026-09-23T01:41:38Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Wikijunior:Alphabet of Wikibooks */ new section 4671826 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Suicide]] == I realize this book has been nominated for deletion before ([[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide|1]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide (2)|2]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide/Suffocation|3]]), but it's been over ten years since the last nomination. The project's position on what material is in its educational scope has shifted, as have some of the facts on the ground. * The chartered purpose of Wikibooks is to produce "open-content textbooks" (cf. [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?]]) which are suitable for use in an instructional environment. Providing educational information about suicide in the context of psychiatry could certainly be in scope, as psychiatry is an educational topic; however, instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic, and should not be considered in scope. * This book is, and has always been, primarily intended as an instructional work guiding users on how to commit suicide. It provides effectively no meaningful analytical content ''about'' suicide as a topic. Most of the original content in the book was imported from an early-2000s wiki associated with the <code>alt.suicide.holiday</code> Usenet group, the "ASH wiki", which was specifically and unequivocally dedicated to describing and recommending methods by which readers could commit suicide, and this has carried through to the current version of the book. * Most of the content in the book was removed in 2020 (by redirecting it to the book's main page, e.g. [[Special:Diff/3660495]]) over concerns that it was created by a WMF-banned user ([[User:Leucosticte]]), and because it was likely in violation of the ASH wiki's (unclear) copyright. These changes removed most of the content of the book; much of what remains is image gallery pages like [[Suicide/Blades]] which have no educational value. Suicide is a sensitive topic; if it is covered by a textbook, it should be covered tastefully and with an aim to educate. This book is largely the opposite of that. Having it here is doing more harm than good. If this book is deleted, the following related pages should be deleted as well: * [[Template:Suicide methods]] * [[Template:Infobox suicide method]] (currently unused) * [[User:Leucosticte/About ASH]] - from the ASH wiki, as mentioned above * [[User:Leucosticte/Frequently Asked Questions]] - also from the ASH wiki [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:41, 21 July 2026 (UTC) : {{keep|weak keep}} a)&nbsp;Age is no argument. There are many stale underdeveloped books I would rather delete than keeping around. b)&nbsp;The book’s topic is exceptionally difficult to write about. ''This'' impedes collaborative authoring. c)&nbsp;The book does not really explain ''how'' to commit suicide (like a step‐by‐step guide), neither is it the book’s learning objective. d)&nbsp;Even if ''you construed'' the chapter summarizing various suicide methods ''as instructions'', instructional material on how to commit suicide ''is'' an educational topic. In most ''present‐day societies'' it is not ''ethical'' to teach students how to commit suicide, though. e)&nbsp;Therefore the correct path is to first alter the [[WB:WIW#Wikibooks includes instructional texts|project scope]] to censor books on ethical grounds ''and then'' nominate the book for censorship. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 04:50, 28 July 2026 (UTC) ::Re. c: most of the explicit directions were edited out in 2020, as noted in my nomination, but are still visible in page history. For a couple of explicit examples, see e.g. [[Special:Permalink/3318613]] or [[Special:Permalink/3654645]]. Providing specific instructions was the original intent of this book, and it has never escaped that legacy. If someone were interested in writing a book ''about'' the phenomenon of suicide, they would be better off starting afresh. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:26, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *'''Delete all'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:17, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *:why? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:49, 19 September 2026 (UTC) * '''Delete all''' per the nomination above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:17, 30 July 2026 (UTC) * '''Keep''' with caution. Rename to "suicide prevention"?--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 04:03, 2 September 2026 (UTC) *:Re. the rename: absolutely not. There is no content in the book about suicide prevention. If you are interested in writing a book on that topic, please start a new one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - :1. "instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic" - I think it can be construed as one depending on the person (and does not have to imply that the person is at risk) :2. Not a reason. :3. Not a reason. It is up to the community to decide whether to accept a banned user's work. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 13:37, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6]] == {{closed|Deleted. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:32, 22 September 2026 (UTC)}} Nonsense position, one of the worst opening moves for White countered by a move hurting development for Black. [https://www.365chess.com/search_position.php Searching] on 365chess.com finds zero games with this position. See also a similar [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Na3]]. [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰]] ([[User talk:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠]]) 02:20, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} With some reservations, in that just being a bad move doesn't make it ''not'' a strategy. That said, the lack of actual game presence means it's unnecessary to keep around. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 16:16, 14 September 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[Art And AI]] == Suspected rampant LLM use; this also seems to violate [[WB:BLOG]] and [[WB:SOURCE]], since this seems largely like personal research/personal essays and opinions. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:25, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - as a book, this isn't even particularly coherent. For instance, chapters like [[Art And AI/Tools Of The Artist]] have no clear relationship to the intended topic. And the chapters which do address the topic, like [[Art And AI/Can AIs Go On Strike]], certainly seem more like an opinion piece (if not outright fantasy content) than serious material appropriate for an instructional text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:03, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}}, does not fit this project and appears to be LLM-generated. No useful content. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:13, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == [[A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027]] == This was proposed for speedy deletion by [[User:Omphalographer]] as 'not being a book'. However, I think this page's future requires further discussion from the community. Maybe some input would be appreciated?[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:51, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :As best I can tell, this is a page students are using to collaborate on solutions for a standardized test. There are a number of similar pages for other years linked from [[A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program]]. :This is not a good fit for Wikibooks. If these students are interested in this kind of collaboration, it should take place elsewhere. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:14, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::The project can be moved to Wikiversity, I think. If the students can contribute it and make sure it complies with Wikibooks' guidelines, it can stay here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] :::There's been a Wikibook on this every single year, as I mentioned in my comment on the deletion notice. That doesn't mean that this shouldn't be on Wikiversity, just that there is ample precedent of it being a Wikibook. Dunno if this matter to those kind of editorial decisions, though. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51010-27|talk]]) 13:39, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]]: How would the page comply with [[WB:What is Wikibooks?|Wikibooks' mission]]?. Could you provide an explanation of what the project is? If it's a collaborative project to work on solutions for a standardized test (like @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] said), it would be more suitable for Wikiversity. If it's a textbook about A-level computing, then it would be suitable here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikijunior:Alphabet of Wikibooks]] == I do not know whether this page is useful or not, due to [[Wikijunior:Alphabet]] already existing. I would support the deletion of this given that it contains many red links as well. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 01:41, 23 September 2026 (UTC) a81fi0q9epq0lwq7wrrij3w51qe0dsm 4671827 4671826 2026-09-23T01:42:31Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Wikijunior:Alphabet of Wikibooks */ Reply 4671827 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Suicide]] == I realize this book has been nominated for deletion before ([[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide|1]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide (2)|2]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide/Suffocation|3]]), but it's been over ten years since the last nomination. The project's position on what material is in its educational scope has shifted, as have some of the facts on the ground. * The chartered purpose of Wikibooks is to produce "open-content textbooks" (cf. [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?]]) which are suitable for use in an instructional environment. Providing educational information about suicide in the context of psychiatry could certainly be in scope, as psychiatry is an educational topic; however, instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic, and should not be considered in scope. * This book is, and has always been, primarily intended as an instructional work guiding users on how to commit suicide. It provides effectively no meaningful analytical content ''about'' suicide as a topic. Most of the original content in the book was imported from an early-2000s wiki associated with the <code>alt.suicide.holiday</code> Usenet group, the "ASH wiki", which was specifically and unequivocally dedicated to describing and recommending methods by which readers could commit suicide, and this has carried through to the current version of the book. * Most of the content in the book was removed in 2020 (by redirecting it to the book's main page, e.g. [[Special:Diff/3660495]]) over concerns that it was created by a WMF-banned user ([[User:Leucosticte]]), and because it was likely in violation of the ASH wiki's (unclear) copyright. These changes removed most of the content of the book; much of what remains is image gallery pages like [[Suicide/Blades]] which have no educational value. Suicide is a sensitive topic; if it is covered by a textbook, it should be covered tastefully and with an aim to educate. This book is largely the opposite of that. Having it here is doing more harm than good. If this book is deleted, the following related pages should be deleted as well: * [[Template:Suicide methods]] * [[Template:Infobox suicide method]] (currently unused) * [[User:Leucosticte/About ASH]] - from the ASH wiki, as mentioned above * [[User:Leucosticte/Frequently Asked Questions]] - also from the ASH wiki [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:41, 21 July 2026 (UTC) : {{keep|weak keep}} a)&nbsp;Age is no argument. There are many stale underdeveloped books I would rather delete than keeping around. b)&nbsp;The book’s topic is exceptionally difficult to write about. ''This'' impedes collaborative authoring. c)&nbsp;The book does not really explain ''how'' to commit suicide (like a step‐by‐step guide), neither is it the book’s learning objective. d)&nbsp;Even if ''you construed'' the chapter summarizing various suicide methods ''as instructions'', instructional material on how to commit suicide ''is'' an educational topic. In most ''present‐day societies'' it is not ''ethical'' to teach students how to commit suicide, though. e)&nbsp;Therefore the correct path is to first alter the [[WB:WIW#Wikibooks includes instructional texts|project scope]] to censor books on ethical grounds ''and then'' nominate the book for censorship. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 04:50, 28 July 2026 (UTC) ::Re. c: most of the explicit directions were edited out in 2020, as noted in my nomination, but are still visible in page history. For a couple of explicit examples, see e.g. [[Special:Permalink/3318613]] or [[Special:Permalink/3654645]]. Providing specific instructions was the original intent of this book, and it has never escaped that legacy. If someone were interested in writing a book ''about'' the phenomenon of suicide, they would be better off starting afresh. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:26, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *'''Delete all'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:17, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *:why? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:49, 19 September 2026 (UTC) * '''Delete all''' per the nomination above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:17, 30 July 2026 (UTC) * '''Keep''' with caution. Rename to "suicide prevention"?--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 04:03, 2 September 2026 (UTC) *:Re. the rename: absolutely not. There is no content in the book about suicide prevention. If you are interested in writing a book on that topic, please start a new one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - :1. "instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic" - I think it can be construed as one depending on the person (and does not have to imply that the person is at risk) :2. Not a reason. :3. Not a reason. It is up to the community to decide whether to accept a banned user's work. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 13:37, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6]] == {{closed|Deleted. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:32, 22 September 2026 (UTC)}} Nonsense position, one of the worst opening moves for White countered by a move hurting development for Black. [https://www.365chess.com/search_position.php Searching] on 365chess.com finds zero games with this position. See also a similar [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Na3]]. [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰]] ([[User talk:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠]]) 02:20, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} With some reservations, in that just being a bad move doesn't make it ''not'' a strategy. That said, the lack of actual game presence means it's unnecessary to keep around. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 16:16, 14 September 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[Art And AI]] == Suspected rampant LLM use; this also seems to violate [[WB:BLOG]] and [[WB:SOURCE]], since this seems largely like personal research/personal essays and opinions. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:25, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - as a book, this isn't even particularly coherent. For instance, chapters like [[Art And AI/Tools Of The Artist]] have no clear relationship to the intended topic. And the chapters which do address the topic, like [[Art And AI/Can AIs Go On Strike]], certainly seem more like an opinion piece (if not outright fantasy content) than serious material appropriate for an instructional text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:03, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}}, does not fit this project and appears to be LLM-generated. No useful content. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:13, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == [[A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027]] == This was proposed for speedy deletion by [[User:Omphalographer]] as 'not being a book'. However, I think this page's future requires further discussion from the community. Maybe some input would be appreciated?[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:51, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :As best I can tell, this is a page students are using to collaborate on solutions for a standardized test. There are a number of similar pages for other years linked from [[A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program]]. :This is not a good fit for Wikibooks. If these students are interested in this kind of collaboration, it should take place elsewhere. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:14, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::The project can be moved to Wikiversity, I think. If the students can contribute it and make sure it complies with Wikibooks' guidelines, it can stay here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] :::There's been a Wikibook on this every single year, as I mentioned in my comment on the deletion notice. That doesn't mean that this shouldn't be on Wikiversity, just that there is ample precedent of it being a Wikibook. Dunno if this matter to those kind of editorial decisions, though. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51010-27|talk]]) 13:39, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]]: How would the page comply with [[WB:What is Wikibooks?|Wikibooks' mission]]?. Could you provide an explanation of what the project is? If it's a collaborative project to work on solutions for a standardized test (like @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] said), it would be more suitable for Wikiversity. If it's a textbook about A-level computing, then it would be suitable here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikijunior:Alphabet of Wikibooks]] == I do not know whether this page is useful or not, due to [[Wikijunior:Alphabet]] already existing. I would support the deletion of this given that it contains many red links as well. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 01:41, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - As proposer. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 01:42, 23 September 2026 (UTC) haqrl3354apvrpj1awv9362ldb2xzra 4671915 4671827 2026-09-23T07:55:27Z Omphalographer 3427146 /* Wikijunior:Alphabet of Wikibooks */ Reply 4671915 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Suicide]] == I realize this book has been nominated for deletion before ([[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide|1]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide (2)|2]], [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Suicide/Suffocation|3]]), but it's been over ten years since the last nomination. The project's position on what material is in its educational scope has shifted, as have some of the facts on the ground. * The chartered purpose of Wikibooks is to produce "open-content textbooks" (cf. [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?]]) which are suitable for use in an instructional environment. Providing educational information about suicide in the context of psychiatry could certainly be in scope, as psychiatry is an educational topic; however, instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic, and should not be considered in scope. * This book is, and has always been, primarily intended as an instructional work guiding users on how to commit suicide. It provides effectively no meaningful analytical content ''about'' suicide as a topic. Most of the original content in the book was imported from an early-2000s wiki associated with the <code>alt.suicide.holiday</code> Usenet group, the "ASH wiki", which was specifically and unequivocally dedicated to describing and recommending methods by which readers could commit suicide, and this has carried through to the current version of the book. * Most of the content in the book was removed in 2020 (by redirecting it to the book's main page, e.g. [[Special:Diff/3660495]]) over concerns that it was created by a WMF-banned user ([[User:Leucosticte]]), and because it was likely in violation of the ASH wiki's (unclear) copyright. These changes removed most of the content of the book; much of what remains is image gallery pages like [[Suicide/Blades]] which have no educational value. Suicide is a sensitive topic; if it is covered by a textbook, it should be covered tastefully and with an aim to educate. This book is largely the opposite of that. Having it here is doing more harm than good. If this book is deleted, the following related pages should be deleted as well: * [[Template:Suicide methods]] * [[Template:Infobox suicide method]] (currently unused) * [[User:Leucosticte/About ASH]] - from the ASH wiki, as mentioned above * [[User:Leucosticte/Frequently Asked Questions]] - also from the ASH wiki [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:41, 21 July 2026 (UTC) : {{keep|weak keep}} a)&nbsp;Age is no argument. There are many stale underdeveloped books I would rather delete than keeping around. b)&nbsp;The book’s topic is exceptionally difficult to write about. ''This'' impedes collaborative authoring. c)&nbsp;The book does not really explain ''how'' to commit suicide (like a step‐by‐step guide), neither is it the book’s learning objective. d)&nbsp;Even if ''you construed'' the chapter summarizing various suicide methods ''as instructions'', instructional material on how to commit suicide ''is'' an educational topic. In most ''present‐day societies'' it is not ''ethical'' to teach students how to commit suicide, though. e)&nbsp;Therefore the correct path is to first alter the [[WB:WIW#Wikibooks includes instructional texts|project scope]] to censor books on ethical grounds ''and then'' nominate the book for censorship. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 04:50, 28 July 2026 (UTC) ::Re. c: most of the explicit directions were edited out in 2020, as noted in my nomination, but are still visible in page history. For a couple of explicit examples, see e.g. [[Special:Permalink/3318613]] or [[Special:Permalink/3654645]]. Providing specific instructions was the original intent of this book, and it has never escaped that legacy. If someone were interested in writing a book ''about'' the phenomenon of suicide, they would be better off starting afresh. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:26, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *'''Delete all'''. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:17, 28 July 2026 (UTC) *:why? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:49, 19 September 2026 (UTC) * '''Delete all''' per the nomination above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:17, 30 July 2026 (UTC) * '''Keep''' with caution. Rename to "suicide prevention"?--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 04:03, 2 September 2026 (UTC) *:Re. the rename: absolutely not. There is no content in the book about suicide prevention. If you are interested in writing a book on that topic, please start a new one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 5 September 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - :1. "instructional material on how to commit suicide is not an educational topic" - I think it can be construed as one depending on the person (and does not have to imply that the person is at risk) :2. Not a reason. :3. Not a reason. It is up to the community to decide whether to accept a banned user's work. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 13:37, 6 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Chess Opening Theory/1. g4/1...Na6]] == {{closed|Deleted. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:32, 22 September 2026 (UTC)}} Nonsense position, one of the worst opening moves for White countered by a move hurting development for Black. [https://www.365chess.com/search_position.php Searching] on 365chess.com finds zero games with this position. See also a similar [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Na3]]. [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰]] ([[User talk:1234qwer1234qwer4|𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠]]) 02:20, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} With some reservations, in that just being a bad move doesn't make it ''not'' a strategy. That said, the lack of actual game presence means it's unnecessary to keep around. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 16:16, 14 September 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[Art And AI]] == Suspected rampant LLM use; this also seems to violate [[WB:BLOG]] and [[WB:SOURCE]], since this seems largely like personal research/personal essays and opinions. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:25, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - as a book, this isn't even particularly coherent. For instance, chapters like [[Art And AI/Tools Of The Artist]] have no clear relationship to the intended topic. And the chapters which do address the topic, like [[Art And AI/Can AIs Go On Strike]], certainly seem more like an opinion piece (if not outright fantasy content) than serious material appropriate for an instructional text. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:03, 18 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}}, does not fit this project and appears to be LLM-generated. No useful content. [[User:Ternera|Ternera]] ([[User talk:Ternera|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ternera|contribs]]) 15:13, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == [[A-level Computing AQA Paper 1 Skeleton program 2027]] == This was proposed for speedy deletion by [[User:Omphalographer]] as 'not being a book'. However, I think this page's future requires further discussion from the community. Maybe some input would be appreciated?[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:51, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :As best I can tell, this is a page students are using to collaborate on solutions for a standardized test. There are a number of similar pages for other years linked from [[A-level Computing/AQA/Paper 1/Skeleton program]]. :This is not a good fit for Wikibooks. If these students are interested in this kind of collaboration, it should take place elsewhere. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:14, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::The project can be moved to Wikiversity, I think. If the students can contribute it and make sure it complies with Wikibooks' guidelines, it can stay here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] :::There's been a Wikibook on this every single year, as I mentioned in my comment on the deletion notice. That doesn't mean that this shouldn't be on Wikiversity, just that there is ample precedent of it being a Wikibook. Dunno if this matter to those kind of editorial decisions, though. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51010-27|talk]]) 13:39, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:~2026-51010-27|~2026-51010-27]]: How would the page comply with [[WB:What is Wikibooks?|Wikibooks' mission]]?. Could you provide an explanation of what the project is? If it's a collaborative project to work on solutions for a standardized test (like @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] said), it would be more suitable for Wikiversity. If it's a textbook about A-level computing, then it would be suitable here. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikijunior:Alphabet of Wikibooks]] == I do not know whether this page is useful or not, due to [[Wikijunior:Alphabet]] already existing. I would support the deletion of this given that it contains many red links as well. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 01:41, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - As proposer. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 01:42, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - we already have a book on this topic. And no, "Afghanistan" and "Quagga" are not good example words for children. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 07:55, 23 September 2026 (UTC) ohhsn872sskz38wvp38816iwxk1k2ew 4 840 4671902 4670895 2026-09-23T07:13:26Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Requests for permissions */ +autoreview perms 4671902 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Requests for permissions/Archives}} {{shortcut|WB:RFP|WB:PERM}} [[Category:Wikibooks administration|{{PAGENAME}}]] All [[Wikibooks:User rights|rights]] available on Wikibooks are handled here, including [[Wikibooks:Autoreviewed users|autoreview]], [[Wikibooks:Reviewers|reviewer]], [[Wikibooks:Importers|importer]], [[Wikibooks:Import uploaders|import uploader]], [[Wikibooks:Uploaders|uploader]], [[Wikibooks:Temporary account IP viewer|temporary account IP viewer]], [[Wikibooks:Administrators|administrator]], [[Wikibooks:Interface administrators|interface administrator]], [[Wikibooks:Administrators|bureaucrat]], [[m:CheckUser|CheckUser]], [[Wikibooks:Pseudo-bots|pseudo-bot]], and [[Wikibooks:Bots|bot]] flags. A nomination must demonstrate how the project will benefit from granting the rights. ;Nominations :To nominate a user (including yourself), add their username to the appropriate section below. Please explain why you feel the nominated user would be a good choice. All registered Wikibookians may comment, and provide arguments in support or opposition. For the bot flag, technical information about the bot may be requested. See the specific requirements for each type of access on their respective pages. Please do not nominate other users unless they have already agreed to be nominated. ;Outcome :Consensus does not need to be demonstrated &mdash;though discussion is welcome&mdash; in granting autoreview, reviewer, importer, and uploader flags. Administrators may use their best judgement in granting those. Interface admin was historically part of the administrator tool set and is granted on request to administrators. All other tools require community consensus and can only be granted by bureaucrats. Access to CheckUser is governed by [[meta:CheckUser policy|CheckUser policy]]. After about one week, if there is consensus to grant access, then a [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat]] (or steward if there are no bureaucrats) will make it so and record the fact here. If not, the bureaucrat or steward may refuse to grant the rights and the request will remain until a consensus is reached. The importer and import uploader permissions require a 5-day discussion before the right(s) can be granted. ;Note(s) :This project allows [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy#Global bots|global bots]], but otherwise does ''not'' allow automatic approval, nor does it utilize the [[:m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]]. = Removal of permissions= {{mbox | image = [[File:Symbol comment vote.svg|40px]] | text = '''Note:''' You may request removal of ''your own'' rights at [[meta:Steward requests/Permissions]]. Requests to remove others' rights should be placed here, whether due to inactivity, or abuse. Proposals for the removal of advanced permissions (included admin and bureaucrat rights) are governed by the [[WB:ADMIN]] policy. A minimum discussion of two weeks is required to remove an admin or bureaucrat for inactivity. }} = Requests for permissions = {{mbox | image = [[File:Symbol comment vote.svg|40px]] | text = '''Note:''' When adding nominations, please use the format <code>=={{tlx|usercheck|Username}} (Right requested)==</code> followed by the nomination. }} == {{usercheck|DavidCota64}} (Reviewer) == I am requesting reviewer permission because automatic promotion appears not to have occurred, although my account meets the published criteria. The account was registered in July 2025, has a confirmed email address, more than 100 edits, sufficient non-talk edits and edit summaries, edits across more than ten pages, the required temporal distribution, and current activity in Recent Changes. I have never been blocked or previously had reviewer permission removed. The permission would support the maintenance and stabilisation of the 46-page active edition of Foundations of the Ontology of Emergent Complexity, whose current revisions are largely awaiting review. [[User:DavidCota64|DavidCota64]] ([[User talk:DavidCota64|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidCota64|contribs]]) 11:21, 18 September 2026 (UTC) =={{usercheck|TechVindicator}} (Autoreview)== I am requesting autoreview permissions because I believe I have largely met the criteria, and published high quality pages onto Wikibooks, that, I believe, do not require reviewing. An example is [[Wikijunior:Africa/Central African Republic]]. I have also made more than 100 edits to Wikibooks and helped with moderation, as well as welcoming new users. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:13, 23 September 2026 (UTC) du6bv4aqflpa3l0f90rvf1hpqbkyql8 0 1234 4671793 3285672 2026-09-22T14:08:36Z R. Henrik Nilsson 3395618 alway > always 4671793 wikitext text/x-wiki The pronunciation of Church Latin might be easier, for an average European, than Classical Latin. The way introduced here reflect the medieval way. C is pronounced as [ts] or [tS] before e, i, y, ae, or oe G is always hard, except before e, i, or y, then soft (like j in jut) H is not pronounced. QU might become [k] rather than [kv] or [kw]. {{BookCat}} nh8ga00yci7rkgvplsp9lbhx6kcdp38 4 1764 4671783 4535078 2026-09-22T13:15:28Z MathXplore 3097823 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/2600:1004:B1AB:89C7:80C6:A6FF:FEB6:360E|2600:1004:B1AB:89C7:80C6:A6FF:FEB6:360E]] ([[User talk:2600:1004:B1AB:89C7:80C6:A6FF:FEB6:360E|talk]]) to last version by Adrignola 1991190 wikitext text/x-wiki {{obsolete|WB:NC|superseded=Wikibooks:Naming policy}} Because Wikibooks encompasses many books, pages such as "Table of Contents" may often result where it is unclear which book it may belong to. Thus, to help distinguish a page belonging to one book from a page belonging to another book, a series of naming conventions must be used. Existing wikibooks that do not follow these conventions are highly recommended to move their pages appropriately so that they conform to these conventions. == Naming conventions for new books == By convention, each module is associated with a book. The associated book forms the first part of the module's title (for example, [[Cookbook:Rice]] is part of [[Cookbook]]). The books are thus arranged in a hierarchical manner. Currently, only two sets of conventions are permitted for new books, and it is suggested that a book be conformant solely to one of the two. It is permissible, but not recommended, for a book to mix the two conventions. === General guidelines === * '''Do not abbreviate the name of the book in the title''' - For example, modules that are part of [[How To Build A Computer]] should always begin with "How To Build A Computer", and never in an abbreviated form therein, such as "HTBAC". * '''Use descriptive titles throughout''' - Just because a page is solely within the scope of a book does not mean that titles can be generic beyond the first level. It is recommended that titles at all levels should give a good hint to the content of the module. === The subpage convention === '''The subpage convention is recommended for new books.''' The subpage convention, where titles are given as <code><nowiki>[[Name/Section]]</nowiki></code>, takes advantage of the subpage feature of MediaWiki to automatically create a hierarchical structure. Thus, a page in a book's hierarchy will automatically be linked back to the book's main page (using tags like <nowiki>"__NOTOC__"</nowiki>). This is handy for any book that has a linear or tree-like structure with a narrow, well-defined scope. Examples of books using the subpage convention: * [[Wikijunior Big Cats]] * [[Wikijunior South America]] === The namespace convention === The namespace convention, where titles are given as <code><nowiki>[[Name:Section]]</nowiki></code>, has its titles made in the similar of the namespaces found in MediaWiki, with parts of titles being delimited by a colon. This is best suited for books with a more general graph-like structure, or if the book covers a wider and less well-defined scope (for example, [[Cookbook]]). However, back-links to the book's main page is not provided by default, and must be written manually to each page. This, of course, allows for flexibility as to how these back-links are created and written. Note that Wikibooks reserves the use of "WB" for its [[Wikibooks:Shortcuts|shortcuts]], "Transwiki" for Wikimedia's transwiki conventions, and the use of any module titled "bookshelf" for general book organization. Examples of books using the namespace convention: * [[Cookbook]] * [[Programming]] * [[Wikiversity]] == Naming conventions for existing books == In general, the naming conventions of a book should be enforced over the entire book, and new additions to a book must follow existing book conventions. If a book does not strictly conform to either of the two conventions above, it is advised that they should be made conformant to one of the two above. Naming conventions that have been previously considered acceptable but have fallen in disuse include: * The hyphen convention: <code><nowiki>[[Name - Section]]</nowiki></code> * The disambiguation convention: <code><nowiki>[[Section (Name)]]</nowiki></code>, named for the convention used in Wikipedia for its [[w:Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages|disambiguation pages]] *<code><nowiki>[[Name: Section]]</nowiki></code> *<code><nowiki>[[Name / Section]]</nowiki></code> *<code><nowiki>[[Section]]</nowiki></code>, where there is no mention of the book name == Naming conventions for templates, categories, images, and other media == For each book with the title ''Book Title'', the template subspace ''Template:Book Title'' and category subspace ''Category:Book Title'' is reserved for internal use by a book (for example, [[:Category:Wikibooks Pokédex:Normal Pokémon]] is an category internal to [[Wikibooks Pokédex]]). All other templates and categories are reserved for either the Wikibooks proper, usage across multiple books, or future books. It is recommended, but not a requirement, that images, and other media be named as per the module naming conventions. As such, these pages should follow the conventions of their associated book. The requirement for these pages to conform to naming conventions is less strict compared to modules as they often reside in the background. In many cases these pages may span multiple books, in which case these conventions need not be followed. Pages relating to the Wikibooks proper (such as policy pages) are also similarly exempt. [[da:Wikibooks:Navngivning]] [[es:Wikibooks:Convenciones nombrando artículos]] [[fr:Wikilivres:Règles de nommage]] [[pt:Wikibooks:Nomenclaturas]] c0axvk353g3h0lakdqldnk7hzt3c0p2 102 4130 4671801 4640802 2026-09-22T17:37:57Z ~2026-51141-73 3626582 /* Sandwich recipes */ 4671801 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Poboy.jpg|thumb|right|Po'Boy sandwich]] {{cookdp}} '''Sandwiches''' are a food item consisting of bread filled or topped with other components. According to legend, they are attributed to John Montagu, the Earl of Sandwich, and they are designed to be eaten with the hands. There are various slang terms for a sandwich, such as butty and sarnie. Note that sandwiches are distinct from wraps, which consist of a thin flatbread rolled around the filling. == Characteristics == === Bread === A wide variety of [[Cookbook:Bread|breads]] can be used to make a sandwich, including soft pullman loaves, crusty breads, pumpernickel, rye bread, [[Cookbook:Flatbread|flatbreads]], rolls, and more. The choice of bread will depend on the filling and the presentation. In general, the bread has to be thick enough to support the entire sandwich and its filling, but not so thick that it makes the sandwich overly-dry and hard to eat. Delicate sandwiches tend to require finer, thinner bread that holds together well. Robust sandwiches can handle thicker, crusty bread. The bread may or may not be toasted, depending on the sandwich and the cook's preferences. If toasting the bread, it should be done as close to serving as possible. === Filling === Sandwiches may be filled with almost anything, but some options are more common. Some of these include [[Cookbook:Bacon|bacon]], [[Cookbook:Turkey|turkey]], [[Cookbook:Alfalfa|alfalfa sprouts]], [[Cookbook:Spinach|spinach]], shawarma, [[Cookbook:Pastrami|pastrami]], [[Cookbook:Corned Beef|corned beef]], [[Cookbook:Pickle|pickles]], [[Cookbook:Tongue|tongue]], [[Cookbook:Clam|fried clams]], [[Cookbook:Fried Fish|fried fish]], [[Cookbook:Ham|ham]], [[Cookbook:Olive|olives]], [[Cookbook:Cheese|cheese]], [[Cookbook:Tuna|tuna]], [[Cookbook:Deli Meat|deli meats]], [[Cookbook:Lettuce|lettuce]], [[Cookbook:Tomato|tomatoes]], and [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]]. In addition to the primary filling(s), sandwiches often have some variety of spread that contributes flavor, moisture, and cohesion. These include butter, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, and more. Some sandwiches consist entirely of spreads, such as [[Cookbook:Peanut Butter|peanut butter]], [[Cookbook:Honey|honey]], or [[Cookbook:Jam|jam]]. === Serving === Sandwiches can take a variety of shapes and be served in different ways. Closed sandwiches, which are the most common variety, have bread on the top and bottom—the filling is "sandwiched" between the two pieces. Open-faced sandwiches are less common and have only one slice of bread on the bottom, with the filling sitting on top. Some varieties of sandwich have the crust trimmed off to make them more delicate, and larger sandwiches are usually halved or quartered for ease of consumption. Finger sandwiches take this even further—they are cut into small pieces, meant to be eaten in one or two bites as snacks or appetizers. At a sandwich buffet, cocktail sticks are often stuck through the sandwiches, making them easier to lift by partygoers. == Common varieties == * '''Reuben:''' Hearty, hot sandwich containing corned beef, cheese, and sauerkraut on pumpernickel bread * '''Club sandwich:''' Contains chicken, mayonnaise, lettuce, tomato, and bacon * '''Sub/hoagie/grinder/Hero:''' Long, thin sandwich containing a range of savory fillings * '''Tea sandwich:''' Small sandwich made with fine, delicate bread; fillings commonly include salmon, cucumber, and other light ingredients * '''Croque monsieur:''' Hot, grilled sandwich containing ham, cheese, and mustard * '''Croque madame:''' Similar to a croque monsieur, but with an egg added * '''Panini:''' Hot, grilled sandwich of Italian origin, made in a panini press * '''Banh mi:''' Vietnamese sandwich consisting of French bread and various savory fillings * '''Peanut butter and jelly (PB&J):''' Simple sandwich filled with peanut butter and jelly or jam == As a verb == The term sandwich has recently evolved to become a verb—'sandwiching' something means to insert/place that thing between two outer things. See, for example, [[Cookbook:Sandwich Cookie|sandwich cookies]]. == Gallery == <gallery mode="packed"> File:Ruben sandwich.jpg|Reuben sandwich File:Submarine sandwich sub subway.jpg|Sub(marine) sandwich File:Bánh mì thịt nướng.png|Banh mi File:Peanut-Butter-Jelly-Sandwich.jpg|Peanut butter and jelly sandwich File:Panini (14240273775).jpg|Panini sandwich File:Canapes and finger sandwiches. High Tea at the Savoy Hotel.jpg|Finger sandwiches File:Grilled Cheese Sandwich (16938984390).jpg|Grilled cheese sandwich </gallery> ==Sandwich recipes== {{div col|3}} <categorytree mode="all"; hideprefix="true"; hideroot="on">Sandwich recipes</categorytree> {{div col end}}Grilled Cheese Sandwich Step 1: Butter your pan on a stovetop. Step 2: Butter two pieces of bread, on one side only. Step 3: Place a piece of cheese on the unbuttered side of bread, and place the other bread, butter side up, into the pan. Step 4: Flip it after a few minutes. Step 5: Let it cook. Step 6: Enjoy your sandwich. [[ko:샌드위치]] ihppzw37z70zspoe41x34lxlq08zb22 4671806 4671801 2026-09-22T20:13:28Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 Rejected the last text change (by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51141-73|~2026-51141-73]]) and restored revision 4640802 by WereSpielChequers; text for a sandwich recipe does not go here—please make a separate recipe page 4671806 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Poboy.jpg|thumb|right|Po'Boy sandwich]] {{cookdp}} '''Sandwiches''' are a food item consisting of bread filled or topped with other components. According to legend, they are attributed to John Montagu, the Earl of Sandwich, and they are designed to be eaten with the hands. There are various slang terms for a sandwich, such as butty and sarnie. Note that sandwiches are distinct from wraps, which consist of a thin flatbread rolled around the filling. == Characteristics == === Bread === A wide variety of [[Cookbook:Bread|breads]] can be used to make a sandwich, including soft pullman loaves, crusty breads, pumpernickel, rye bread, [[Cookbook:Flatbread|flatbreads]], rolls, and more. The choice of bread will depend on the filling and the presentation. In general, the bread has to be thick enough to support the entire sandwich and its filling, but not so thick that it makes the sandwich overly-dry and hard to eat. Delicate sandwiches tend to require finer, thinner bread that holds together well. Robust sandwiches can handle thicker, crusty bread. The bread may or may not be toasted, depending on the sandwich and the cook's preferences. If toasting the bread, it should be done as close to serving as possible. === Filling === Sandwiches may be filled with almost anything, but some options are more common. Some of these include [[Cookbook:Bacon|bacon]], [[Cookbook:Turkey|turkey]], [[Cookbook:Alfalfa|alfalfa sprouts]], [[Cookbook:Spinach|spinach]], shawarma, [[Cookbook:Pastrami|pastrami]], [[Cookbook:Corned Beef|corned beef]], [[Cookbook:Pickle|pickles]], [[Cookbook:Tongue|tongue]], [[Cookbook:Clam|fried clams]], [[Cookbook:Fried Fish|fried fish]], [[Cookbook:Ham|ham]], [[Cookbook:Olive|olives]], [[Cookbook:Cheese|cheese]], [[Cookbook:Tuna|tuna]], [[Cookbook:Deli Meat|deli meats]], [[Cookbook:Lettuce|lettuce]], [[Cookbook:Tomato|tomatoes]], and [[Cookbook:Onion|onions]]. In addition to the primary filling(s), sandwiches often have some variety of spread that contributes flavor, moisture, and cohesion. These include butter, mayonnaise, mustard, relish, and more. Some sandwiches consist entirely of spreads, such as [[Cookbook:Peanut Butter|peanut butter]], [[Cookbook:Honey|honey]], or [[Cookbook:Jam|jam]]. === Serving === Sandwiches can take a variety of shapes and be served in different ways. Closed sandwiches, which are the most common variety, have bread on the top and bottom—the filling is "sandwiched" between the two pieces. Open-faced sandwiches are less common and have only one slice of bread on the bottom, with the filling sitting on top. Some varieties of sandwich have the crust trimmed off to make them more delicate, and larger sandwiches are usually halved or quartered for ease of consumption. Finger sandwiches take this even further—they are cut into small pieces, meant to be eaten in one or two bites as snacks or appetizers. At a sandwich buffet, cocktail sticks are often stuck through the sandwiches, making them easier to lift by partygoers. == Common varieties == * '''Reuben:''' Hearty, hot sandwich containing corned beef, cheese, and sauerkraut on pumpernickel bread * '''Club sandwich:''' Contains chicken, mayonnaise, lettuce, tomato, and bacon * '''Sub/hoagie/grinder/Hero:''' Long, thin sandwich containing a range of savory fillings * '''Tea sandwich:''' Small sandwich made with fine, delicate bread; fillings commonly include salmon, cucumber, and other light ingredients * '''Croque monsieur:''' Hot, grilled sandwich containing ham, cheese, and mustard * '''Croque madame:''' Similar to a croque monsieur, but with an egg added * '''Panini:''' Hot, grilled sandwich of Italian origin, made in a panini press * '''Banh mi:''' Vietnamese sandwich consisting of French bread and various savory fillings * '''Peanut butter and jelly (PB&J):''' Simple sandwich filled with peanut butter and jelly or jam == As a verb == The term sandwich has recently evolved to become a verb—'sandwiching' something means to insert/place that thing between two outer things. See, for example, [[Cookbook:Sandwich Cookie|sandwich cookies]]. == Gallery == <gallery mode="packed"> File:Ruben sandwich.jpg|Reuben sandwich File:Submarine sandwich sub subway.jpg|Sub(marine) sandwich File:Bánh mì thịt nướng.png|Banh mi File:Peanut-Butter-Jelly-Sandwich.jpg|Peanut butter and jelly sandwich File:Panini (14240273775).jpg|Panini sandwich File:Canapes and finger sandwiches. High Tea at the Savoy Hotel.jpg|Finger sandwiches File:Grilled Cheese Sandwich (16938984390).jpg|Grilled cheese sandwich </gallery> ==Sandwich recipes== {{div col|3}} <categorytree mode="all"; hideprefix="true"; hideroot="on">Sandwich recipes</categorytree> {{div col end}} [[ko:샌드위치]] s7abi5o7rp4oocrwefhdo2nz02gercq 102 11372 4671838 4520744 2026-09-23T03:04:49Z Theki 3082299 /* Substitution */ improve un-encyclopedic language 4671838 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{Ingredient summary | Image = [[File:Maple Syrup Grade.jpg|300px]] | Category = Sweeteners }}{{ingredient}} | [[Cookbook:Basic foodstuffs|Basic foodstuffs]] | [[Cookbook:Sweeteners|Sweeteners]] '''Maple syrup''' and '''sugar''' are sweet products made from the sap of maple (especially sugar maple) trees.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Darra |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199313396.001.0001/acref-9780199313396 |title=The Oxford Companion to Sugar and Sweets |date=2015-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-931339-6 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199313396.001.0001}}</ref><ref name=":63">{{Cite book |last=Labensky |first=Sarah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k87uoQEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=On Baking: A Textbook of Baking and Pastry Fundamentals, Updated Edition |last2=Martel |first2=Priscilla |last3=Damme |first3=Eddy Van |date=2015-01-06 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=978-0-13-388675-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Research Chefs Association |first= |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Culinology/GPClCgAAQBAJ?hl=en |title=Culinology: The Intersection of Culinary Art and Food Science |date=2016-02-29 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-48134-9 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Rinsky |first=Glenn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mZhyDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=The Pastry Chef's Companion: A Comprehensive Resource Guide for the Baking and Pastry Professional |last2=Rinsky |first2=Laura Halpin |date=2008-02-28 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-00955-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Greweling |first=Peter P. |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Chocolates_and_Confections/SCazlcUk2-gC?hl=en |title=Chocolates and Confections: Formula, Theory, and Technique for the Artisan Confectioner |last2=America (CIA) |first2=The Culinary Institute of |date=2012-11-06 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-42441-4 |language=en}}</ref> They originate from the Canadian southeast and United States northeast,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Friberg |first=Bo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gmpkzgAACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=The Professional Pastry Chef: Fundamentals of Baking and Pastry |date=2016-09-13 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-46629-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Figoni |first=Paula |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZpUDwAAQBAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science |date=2010-11-09 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-39267-6 |language=en}}</ref> where these maples grow and where the seasonal conditions are appropriate.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Amendola |first=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQcxoepvxOwC&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Understanding Baking: The Art and Science of Baking |last2=Rees |first2=Nicole |date=2003-01-03 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-44418-3 |language=en}}</ref> == Production == In the late winter and early spring, the sap of maple trees begins to "run" or flow within the trees.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=The Chefs of Le Cordon Bleu |first= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xni7wAEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=Le Cordon Bleu Patisserie and Baking Foundations |date=2011-12-02 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4390-5713-1 |language=en}}</ref> During this time, sufficiently large trees are "tapped" by drilling holes in the trunk and inserting spigots to collect the sap.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Katie Letcher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H7ytjwEACAAJ&newbks=0&hl=en |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: Finding, Identifying, and Cooking |date=2016-09-15 |publisher=Falcon Guides |isbn=978-1-4930-1864-2 |language=en}}</ref> As it comes from the tree, the sap is mostly water containing only about 2–3% sugar,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /> though the exact sugar content varies from tree to tree and year to year.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Chesman |first=Andrea |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Backyard_Homestead_Book_of_Kitchen_K/H9KOCgAAQBAJ?hl=en |title=The Backyard Homestead Book of Kitchen Know-How: Field-to-Table Cooking Skills |date=2015-09-19 |publisher=Storey Publishing, LLC |isbn=978-1-61212-205-2 |language=en}}</ref> As such, the sap must be concentrated to be shelf stable and useful as a sweetener.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":2" /> The most common way to concentrate the sap is by boiling to evaporate the bulk of the water.<ref name=":63" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /> The simplest way to do this is in a large pot or kettle,''<ref name=":1" />'' but wide pans have more surface area and therefore encourage greater evaporation. More dedicated producers use specialized evaporator setups, which can include channels, valves, temperature probes, and more to increase efficiency and standardization. It is particularly important to prevent burning of the syrup as it boils. As the sap boils, it may get foamy, which can be resolved by adding a small drop of oil.<ref name=":10" /> The syrup is typically ready when it reaches 66–67% sugar content,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":8" /> which occurs at about 7°F (4°C) above the boiling point of water.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":10" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/On_Food_and_Cooking/bKVCtH4AjwgC?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen |date=2007-03-20 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4165-5637-4 |language=en}}</ref> At this sugar concentration, the syrup is sufficiently concentrated but will not crystallize.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":10" /> Once the syrup is finished, it is filtered and packaged.[[Image:Maple syrup taps.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sap collection]] == Characteristics == Finished maple syrup has a solids content of about 68%, consisting primarily of sucrose (~62%), with traces of glucose and fructose (~3%) as well as amino and other acids.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":4" /> The flavor is complex,<ref name=":5" /> due in part to Maillard browning and specific flavor compounds such as vanillin,<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":4" /> and the color is golden amber to brown.<ref name=":63" /> However, different grades of maple syrup do exist as determined by the syrup's color and flavor.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":63" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":0" /> As the color darkens, the flavor becomes stronger;<ref name=":7" /> at the lightest end of the scale in both color and flavor is "golden with delicate taste", followed by "amber with rich taste", "dark with robust taste", and "very dark with strong taste".<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":10" /> The grade is associated with the point in the season at which the sap is collected, so lighter syrups are produced earlier, and they trend darker from there.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> Harold McGee also notes that longer and hotter boiling leads to darker color and stronger flavor, and late-season sap tends to need longer boiling due to a lower initial sugar content.<ref name=":4" /> Other factors that influence maple syrup flavor include climate and soil type.<ref name=":8" /> === Varieties and products === While maple syrup is the starting point, it is not the only maple product used in cooking. To make '''maple sugar''', the syrup is simply concentrated even further (25–40°F / 14–25°C above boiling water),<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":4" /> which causes the sugar to crystallize out upon cooling.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":4" /> '''Maple cream''' (sometimes called '''maple butter''') is also produced by inducing crystallization of the syrup. It is made by heating the syrup to about 235°F (113°C) before cooling it rapidly and stirring to induce the formation of tiny crystals<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":4" />—this results in a smooth, spreadable paste.<ref name=":1" /> == Selection and storage == Maple syrup and cream are fairly shelf-stable at room temperature. However, osmotolerant molds can eventually grow on them after opening, so storing in the fridge will extend the shelf life. Maple sugar is very stable at room temperature when kept in a sealed container away from moisture. == Use == Maple syrup and its derived products are mainly consumed in Canada and the United States, where they feature in a range of sweet products. Maple syrup—especially of lighter grades—is commonly served with breakfast items like pancakes,<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> and darker syrups are used in cooking for their strong flavor.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":4" /> The syrup can also be turned into confections, incorporated into custards, and more.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":1" /> Note that because of its low invert sugar content, maple syrup will not contribute much additional moistness beyond the water content—in this way, it is like using table sugar with additional water.<ref name=":0" /> == Substitution == Because the primary appeal of maple syrup is its flavor, there are no true substitutes<ref name=":7" />. Imitation maple syrups or pancake syrups are made from glucose/corn syrup containing added color and either some real maple flavoring or maple-adjacent flavoring from fenugreek;<ref name=":63" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":0" /> however, these are not ideal substitutes.<ref name=":1" /> ==Recipes== <div style="column-count:3"> <categorytree mode="all"; hideprefix="always">Recipes using maple</categorytree> </div> == References == [[Category:Basic foodstuffs|Maple Syrup]] [[Category:Sweeteners|Maple Syrup]] [[Category:Featured ingredients|{{PAGENAME}}]] hz0vgmo2rca9qt26s8jlopy3ws9paf6 0 18423 4671938 4635628 2026-09-23T10:26:34Z ~2026-51285-94 3626668 4671938 wikitext text/x-wiki {{featured book|PDF=BlenderDocumentation4}}{{Book Search}} == About This Book == ''Blender 3D: Noob to Pro'' is a product of shared effort by numerous [[/Team|team members]] and anonymous editors. Its purpose is to teach people how to create three dimensional computer graphics using [http://www.blender.org Blender], a [[w:free software|free software]] application. This book is intended to be used in conjunction with other on-line resources that complement it: *[[Subject:Blender 3D|Other Blender-related Wikibooks]] on topics such as scripting and creating games; *The [http://wiki.blender.org/ Blender Wiki] for technical documentation; *User forums, such as the [http://blenderartists.org/forum/ Blender Artists Forum]. While you can learn simply by reading the book, you'll get more out of the tutorials if you follow along. In order to do this, you'll need access to a computer with Blender installed. You can [http://www.blender.org/download download Blender] from the [http://www.blender.org/ Blender Foundation]'s website; more detailed instructions are in the [[/Unit 1: Knowing Before Making|first module]]. {{B3D:N2P/Note|'''Version compatibility:''' Blender is under continuous development, and most of the following tutorials '''do not apply to the current version of Blender.''' While you might find some individual tutorials still useful, this book should no longer be used as a general guide for learning Blender.}} Version-specific content should be tagged with a [[Template:B3D:N2P/ForVersion|note]] that looks like this: {{B3D:N2P/ForVersion|2.75}} == Overview == {{collection}} The core of this book is a series of tutorials that increase in complexity, with later tutorials building on the preceding ones. While experienced users can skip ahead, ''beginners are urged to proceed through the tutorials in sequence.'' The tutorials in the core series are grouped into four '''units''': # [[#Unit 1: Background|''Background'']] — A basic orientation regarding: #* Computer graphics #* The Blender user interface (UI) # [[#Unit 2: Basic Modeling and Shading|''Basic Modeling and Shading'']] — Basic techniques for building and rendering 3D models # [[#Unit 3: Broadening Horizons|''Broadening Horizons'']] #* Alternative modeling and rendering techniques #* Introductions to lighting, animation, and game creation # [[#Unit 4: Taking Off with Advanced Tutorials|''Taking Off'']] #* Scripting #* Advanced techniques for modeling, animation and game creation (Note: the Blender Game Engine is not available as of 2.8x onwards) Each unit is subdivided into '''sections''', which are made up of '''modules'''. Three appendices are also provided:meow * ''Reference Material'' — including: ** [[/FAQ|Frequently-Asked Questions]] ** [[/Glossary|Glossary]] * ''General Advice'' — Tips to help you get the most out of Blender * ''Miscellaneous Tutorials'' — Tutorials that aren't part of the core series {{clear}} {{B3D:N2P/noprint|1=== You Can Help! == {{B3D:N2P/Hidden begin|title=Click "show" for details.}} You are strongly encouraged (read as ''begged'') to contribute to this book! There are many things you can do to help: *edit existing modules (to correct errors, improve the writing, or make additions) *add new modules (tutorials or reference material) *upload new images (screen shots or sample renders) *join the team responsible for this WikiBook === How to Edit a Module === To edit any wiki page (including this one): # Click on the '''Edit''' tab at the top of the page. # Make your change in the large text box. # Type an explanation of your change in the '''Edit summary''' text box below. # Click on the '''Show preview''' button below the edit summary to preview your change. # If you're satisfied with the result, click on the '''Save page''' button. Your contribution will be [[Help:Revision_review|reviewed]] before it is officially published. Things you shouldn't add to modules: * external links that are not directly related to the module * comments or questions regarding the text To ask questions and make comments about any module: #Click on the '''Discussion''' tab at the top of the page. This will take you to the corresponding talk page. Note that the talk page name begins with the "Talk:" prefix. #If the topic of your question or comment is under discussion, edit the relevant section. #If it's a new topic, click on the '''Add topic''' tab at the top of the talk page to start a new discussion. #Sign your message by typing <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> at the end. (This will expand to your username and the date.) #Remember to save your edit when you're done! #To return to the WikiBook, click on the '''Book''' tab at the top of the talk page. === How to Add a Module === To add a module (such as a tutorial or reference page) to this book: #Edit the [[#Table of Contents|Table of Contents]] section (below) and add a list item with a descriptive wikilink. (If you're creating a tutorial and are unsure where it belongs, put it in the [[#Miscellaneous Tutorials|Miscellaneous Tutorials section]].) #After saving your edit, follow the redlink to create the module and begin adding content to it. #To make it easy to read the book in sequence, each module should have '''navigation links''' to the previous module and the next module. Provide these links by transcluding the [[Template:B3D:N2P/NAV|NAV template]] at the top and bottom of the page, as shown on the [[/Nav Demo Page 2|demo page]]. (If you expect the module to be moved elsewhere in the sequence, you can skip this step.) #Preview your work. When you're satisfied with it, use the '''Save page''' button to add your new module to the wiki. #If you provided navigation links, update the NAV templates on the previous and next modules, if they exist. #If you didn't provide navigation links, please ask someone to insert your new module in an appropriate place. One way to do this would be to create a talk page for your new module and type your request there. === Images === Images are a vital part of Blender tutorials. They clarify instructions, provide a point of reference, and improve the teaching process. However, '''if the image's copyright is not attributed correctly, we must remove it.''' This can make a once-great tutorial useless. Even if you believe you know what copyright to use, please check the '''[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Using proper copyright RE:Blender|proper Blender images copyright]]''' page to see how and where you should add copyright information. Please make sure every image you use is not copyrighted or that you have permission to use it. Before uploading an image: * Search [[commons:Main Page|Wikimedia Commons]] or look in [[:Commons:Category:Blender 3D screenshots|the appropriate Commons category]] to see if the image you want to use already exists. (Uploading duplicate images is wasteful.) * Before uploading a general image (such as an icon or button) or if you want an image to use as an example, look in our [[/Image Portfolio|image portfolio]]. Remember to attribute the work of others. If you use a Commons image in this WikiBook, please use one of the categories shown in the templates on '''[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Using proper copyright RE:Blender|proper Blender images copyright]]''' to make it visible from the category links in the [[/Image Portfolio|image portfolio]]. === How to Join the Team === If you want to join our WikiBook team, go to the [[/Team|team page]] for information and advice. {{Hidden end}} }} <br> == Table of Contents == === Unit 1: Background === * [[/Unit 1: Knowing Before Making|Knowing before Making]] &nbsp;'''{{Green|⇐ START HERE}}''' * [[/What Blender Can Do/]] * Section 1A: 3D Concepts ** [[/3D Geometry/]] ** [[/Coordinate Transformations/]] *** [[/Orthographic Views/]] *** [[/Perspective Views/]] ** [[/Coordinate Spaces in Blender/]] * Section 1B: User Interface (UI.) ** [[/User Interface Overview|Overview]] ** [[/Keystroke, Button, and Menu Notation/]] ** [[/Non-standard equipment|Non-standard Input Devices]] ** [[/Operating System specific notes|Operating System-specific Issues]] ** [[/Blender Interface|Blender User Interface]] ** [[/Blender Windowing System/]] ** [[/User Preferences Windows/]] ** [[/Properties Window/]] ** [[/3D View Windows/]] ** [[/Object Mode/]] === Unit 2: Basic Modeling and Shading === * Section 2A: Your First Mesh Models ** [[/Mesh Edit Mode/|Meshes and Edit Mode]] ** [[/Normals and Shading/]] ** [[/More Mesh Editing Techniques/]] ** [[/Quickie Lighting/]] ** [[/Quickie Model/]] ** [[/Quickie Render/]] ** [[/World Settings/|Enter the World]] ** [[/Understanding the Camera/]] ** [[/Improving Your House/]] * Section 2B: Smooth Meshes (Simple Person with a Hat) ** [[/Modeling a Simple Person|Extruding a Simple Person]] ** [[/Detailing Your Simple Person 1|Smoothing Your Simple Person]] ** [[/Detailing Your Simple Person 2|Improving Your Simple Person]] ** [[/Creating a Simple Hat|Spinning a Simple Hat]] ** [[/Putting Hat on Person|Putting the Hat on the Person]] * Section 2C: Materials and Textures ** [[/Materials and Textures/|Overview]] ** [[/Quickie Material/]] ** [[/Multiple Materials Per Object|Multiple Materials per Object]] ** [[/Metal Versus Plastic|Metal Versus Plastic]] ** [[/Texture Settings/]] ** [[/Image Textures/]] ** [[/Procedural Textures/]] ** [[/Quickie Texture/]] ** [[/Halo Materials/]] * Beyond Basics ** [[/Blender Memory Management/]] ** [[/Bones/|Using Bones]] ** [[/Mountains Out Of Molehills|Mountains out of Molehills]] ** [[/Modeling a volcano|Modeling a Volcano]] ** [[/Penguins from spheres/|Penguins from Spheres]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Dicing With Depth/|Dicing With Depth (Dice Modeling)]] **[[/Model a Goblet/]] *** [[/Model a Silver Goblet/]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} *** [[/Model a Silver Goblet cylinder|Model a Silver Goblet Another Way]] *** [[/Spin a goblet/]] *** [[/Light a Silver Goblet/|Light a Silver Goblet (Early look at lighting)]] ** [[/Simple Vehicle/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Wheel tutorial 1/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Wheel tutorial 2/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Seat/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Rocket Launcher/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Another Shooting Machine/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Body/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Some Assembly Required/]] ** [[/Modeling a 3D Parachute in Blender/]] ** [[/Model a Low Poly Head/]] ** [[/Building a House/]] ** [[/Pipe joints/]] ** [[/Lighting Suzanne: Introductory one lamp lighting/]] * Curve and Path Modeling ** [[/Curve and Path Modeling/|Overview]] ** [[/Intro to Bezier Curves/|Intro to Bézier Curves]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Bevelling a Curve/|Bevelling a Curve]] ** [[/NURBS Patches/|NURBS Patches]] ** [[/Deforming Meshes using the Curve Modifier/]] * [[/The Empty Object/]] * Using Reference Photos ** [[/Background Images/]] ** [[/Aligning Vertices with a Guide Image/]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Modeling a Wolf from Guide Images/]] ** [[/2D Image (logo) to a 3D Model|Using Bézier Curve to Model a 3D logo from a 2D logo]] {{stage short|75%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} * Further Materials and Textures ** [[/Subsurface scattering|Subsurface Scattering]] ** [[/Ray Tracing|Ray Tracing]] ** [[/Using Textures|Using Textures]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Using a texture to make a material partially transparent/]] {{stage short|50%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Creating Basic Seawater/]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Mountains Out Of Molehills 2/]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Basic Carpet Texture/]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/The Rusty Ball/]] ** [[/Creating Pixar-looking eyes in Blender|Creating Pixar-looking eyes]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Procedural Eyeball/]] ** [[/Putting It All Together: A Dragon!/]] === Unit 3: Broadening Horizons === * [[/Image Editor/|The UV/Image Editor]] * UV Maps - Pasting photos to 3D surfaces ** [[/UV Map Basics/]] ** [[/Realistic Eyes In Blender/]] {{stage short|75%|9:00, 20 sept 2015 (UTC)}} * Lighting ** [[/Beginning Lighting/]] ** [[/Understanding Real Lights/]] ** [[/Understanding Blender Lights/]] ** [[/Basic Lighting Rigs/]] ** [[/Faked Gi with Blender internal/|Faked Global Illumination with Blender internal]] {{stage short|50%|9:00, 4 dec 2015 (UTC)}} * [[/Parenting/|Practicing Good Parenting]] * Basic Animation ** [[/Basic Animation/|Overview]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Keyframing_Introduction/|Introduction to Keyframing]] ** [[/The Ways of the Animator/]] ** [[/Animation Editors/]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Introducing the Graph Editor/|Introducing the Graph Editor]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Rendering/|Animation Rendering]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Lattice|Lattice Modifier]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 2 Feb 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Basic Animation/Bounce|Bouncing Ball with Lattice]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Creating Basic Water animation/|Creating Basic Water Animation]] ** [[/Flying Through A Canyon/|Flying Through a Canyon]] ** [[/Using the sequencer to compile frames into an animation/|Using the Sequencer to Compile Frames into an Animation]] * [[/Further Rendering Options/]] * Particle Systems ** [[/Particle Systems/|Overview]] ** [[/Making Fire/|Fire]] {{stage short|50%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Furry/|Fur]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Fireworks/]] {{stage short|25%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Particles forming Shapes/]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Billboard Animation/]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} * Soft Bodies ** [[/Soft Body Animation/]] {{stage short|75%|11:15, 8 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Simple Cloth Animation/]] ** [[/Soft Body with wind/|Soft Body with Wind]] {{stage short|75%|11:15, 8 March 2016 (UTC)}} * Blender Game Engine ** [[/Your First Test/|Blender Game Engine Basics- Rolling Ball]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Platformer: Creation and Controls|Platformer: Controls and Movement]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/An aMAZEing game engine tutorial|Maze: Force and Multiple Levels]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Platformer: Physics Fixes|Platformer: Improving the Physics]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Making exe|How to Make an Executable]] {{stage short|50%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Build a skybox/|Build a Skybox]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Basic mouse pointer/|Basic Mouse Pointer]] {{stage short|25%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Text in BGE/]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Python Platformer: Creation|Platformer: Creating the Engine with Python]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} === Unit 4: Taking Off with Advanced Tutorials === * Python Scripting ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Introduction|Introduction]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Addon Anatomy|Anatomy Of An Addon]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Addon User Interface|A User Interface For Your Addon]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Addon Custom Property|Adding A Custom Property]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Separately Installable Addon|A Separately Installable Addon]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Object, Action, Settings|Object, Action, Settings]] * Advanced Modeling **[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Modeling|Overview]] ** [[/HDRi|High Dynamic Range imaging (HDRi)]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Creating a Light Probe/]] {{stage short|50%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Making Landscapes with heightmaps|Landscape Modeling with Heightmaps]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/How to Do Procedural Landscape Modeling/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Landscape Modeling I: Basic Terrain/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Landscape Modeling II: Texture Stenciling/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Landscape Modeling III: Exporting as a Heightmap/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} * Advanced Materials and Textures ** [[/Bump Mapping|Bump Mapping]] {{stage short|75%|17 may 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Normal Mapping|Normal Mapping]] *** [[/Texture Normal Mapping|Texture Normals]] {{stage short|75%|17 may 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Color Map Normal Mapping|Color Map Normals]] {{stage short|75%|17 may 2016 (UTC)}} * Nodes ** [[/Nodes|Introduction]] ** [[/Texture Nodes|Texture Nodes]] ** [[/Material Nodes|Material Nodes]] {{stage short|75%|24 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Compositing|Compositing]] ** [[/Compositing/Portal Effect|Further Compositing: A Portal Effect]] * [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Rendering|Advanced Rendering]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Introduction to Cycles|Introduction to Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Cycles Glass|A Glass Material in Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Cycles Fireflies|Dealing with Fireflies in Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Cycles Fireflies 2|Fireflies in Cycles, Continued]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Procedural Eyeball in Cycles|Procedural Eyeball in Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Introduction to Freestyle|Introduction to Freestyle]] * Advanced Animation **[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation|Overview]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Introduction|Introduction]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/index|Guided Tour:]] *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/index|Armature Object]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/object|Armature Object in Object Mode]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/edit|Armature Object in Edit Mode]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/pose|Armature Object in Pose mode]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/index|Mesh Object]] **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Amodif|Connection between Armature and Mesh]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/env|Envelope]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/vg|Vertex Groups & Weight Paint]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Shape|Shape Keys]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ***** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Shape/Sync|Lip-Sync with Shape Keys]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/index|Constraints]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/cl|Copy Location]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/cr|Copy Rotation]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/tt|Track-To]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/fl|Floor]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/lt|Locked Track]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/fp|Follow Path]] **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/st|Stretch-To]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/ik|IK Solver]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/timeline|Timeline Window]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/ipo/index|Graph Editor]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/ipo/type|Dope Sheet]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/NLA/index|NLA Editor]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/NLA/intro|Introduction To NLA Editor]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/index|Working Example: Bob]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/Build rig|Building the Rig]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/connect2mesh|Deform the Mesh]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/walk|Create a Walk Cycle]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/ Piston, Rod and Crank|Working example: Piston, Rod and Crank]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/ Cutting Through Steel|Working example: Cutting Through Steel]]{{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} * Advanced Game Engine ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine|Overview]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)|Advanced Game Engine Techniques (GUI)]] *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/Creating Pop-Up Menus|Creating Pop-Up Menus]] {{stage short|75%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/Creating Moving Menus|Creating Dropping Menus]] {{stage short|75%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/The "5-Layer" Button|The "5-Layer" Button]]{{stage short|25%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/Creating Object Outlines|Creating Object Outlines]]{{stage short|25%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(Python)|Advanced Game Engine Techniques (Python)]] ** [[Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)|Creating A "HUD"]] * [[/Hacking Blender/]] **[[/Intro-GE-Source|Introduction to Game Engine Source]] {{stage short|75%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} === Appendices === ==== Reference Material ==== * [[/Glossary/]] * [[/FAQ/|Frequently Asked Questions]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Tutorial Links List/]] * [[/Hotkeys/]] * [[/Output Formats/]] * [[/Image Portfolio/]] * [[/Blender Glossary/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Every Material Known to Man/|Materials Directory: Every Material Known To Man]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Sources of free 3D models/]] - Sources of free 3D models for additional study * [[/Blueprint Links List|All Blueprints Links]] &ndash; blueprints from all over the Web * [[/Materials, Textures, Photos/]] - Sources of free materials, textures and photos ==== Advice ==== General advice: * [[/Asking for Help/]] * [[/Know What You're Doing|Tips for a Successful Project]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Modeling Realistically|Modeling Realistically]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Modeling tips/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} Performance tips (for making Blender run faster): * [[/Cheat the 3D/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Performance vs. Quality/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} ==== Miscellaneous Tutorials ==== ''This is our attic, mostly tutorials that could be useful to some extent if they would be revamped completely, but are of little use at the moment. If you can contribute to some of them, go ahead and rewrite them to your liking!'' * [[/Modeling a Gingerbread Man/]] {{stage short|75%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Modeling a simple space-ship/]] * [[/Create an animated GIF wallpaper (Blender/GIMP)/]] ** [[/Part 1 - Preparing the Scene/]] * [[/Creating Weapons based on 2D Images/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Making Your Creation Smoother/|Modeling with Meta Balls]] {{stage short|75%|19:16, 07 May 2010 (UTC)}} * [[/Match Moving/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Motion Tracking with Icarus/|Match Moving/Motion Tracking with Icarus and Blender]] {{stage short|75%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Create a Clayman/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Organic Modeling/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Understanding the Fluid Simulator/]] {{stage short|50%|17:06, 4 January 2010 (UTC)}} * [[/Creating a jewel in Blender/]] * [[/Modeling a picture/]] [[image: 00%.svg]] * [[/Modeling with the Spin Tool/]] ** [[/Spin Tool Introduction/]] ** [[/Illustrative Example: Model a Wine Glass/]] * [[/Creating Ogg-Theora movies using Blender/]] * [[/Creating animated GIFs using Blender and Gimp/]] * [[/3D Tiling Backgrounds For The Web/]] {{stage short|100%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Cool Things|Cool Things That Aren't That Obvious in Blender]] * [[/Troubleshooting/]] Common Technical Issues and What to do About Them * [[/Creating Blender Libraries/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Add some depth with stereo/]] * [[/Fluffy Material|Ways to create a "fluffy" effect (materials and lights)]] * [[/Human Body/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Rendering Information/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Using Blender Libraries/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Beginning Modeling Final Project/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Using Inkscape to make advanced Bezier curves/]]{{stage short|25%|1:18, 28 July 2010 (UTC)}} * [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Modeling/Light Mapping|Light Mapping]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Platonic Solids/]] **[[/Polygonal Modeling/]] *** [[/Box Modeling/]] **** [[/Illustrative example: Model a Chair (Swan Chair)/]] ***** [[/Model a Chair-Preparations/]] ***** [[/Model a Chair-The Seat/]] ***** [[/Model a Chair-The Feet/]] **** [[/Illustrative Example: Modeling a Simple Human Character/]] ***** [[/Modeling a Human Character - Preparations/]] ***** [[/Modeling a Human Character - Modeling/]] *** [[/Polygon by Polygon modeling/]] * [[/Animation Notes and FAQ/]] * [[/Customization|Customization]] * [[/Mist - Make Objects Opaque/]] {{Stages}} === Additional Resources === * [https://docs.blender.org/manual/en/latest/ The Blender Reference Manual for the latest release] {{mergefrom|Blender 3D: MemoBook}} {{Shelves|Blender 3D|Open source software}} {{alphabetical|B}} {{status|75%}} [[ca:Blender 3D: novell a professional]] [[de:Blender Dokumentation]] [[es:Blender 3D: novato a profesional]] [[fr:Blender 3D]] [[gl:Blender 3D: de novato a profesional]] [[he:Blender 3D ממתחיל למתקדם]] [[ko:블렌더_3D_배우기]] [[pt:Tornando-se profissional em Blender 3D]] [[ru:Blender 3D/Шаг за шагом]] [[tr:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro]] [[zh:Blender 3D：从入门到精通]] hfegit5nntl4p3bvhyx7xr3ms55e2uq 4671939 4671938 2026-09-23T10:28:55Z ~2026-51285-94 3626668 4671939 wikitext text/x-wiki {{featured book|PDF=BlenderDocumentation4}}{{Book Search}} == About This Book == ''Blender 3D: Noob to Pro'' is a product of shared effort by numerous [[/Team|team members]] and anonymous editors. Its purpose is to teach people how to create three dimensional computer graphics using [http://www.blender.org Blender], a [[w:free software|free software]] application. This book is intended to be used in conjunctions with other on-line resources that complement it: *[[Subject:Blender 3D|Other Blender-related Wikibooks]] on topics such as scripting and creating games; *The [http://wiki.blender.org/ Blender Wiki] for technical documentation; *User forums, such as the [http://blenderartists.org/forum/ Blender Artists Forum]. While you can learn simply by reading the book, you'll get more out of the tutorials if you follow along. In order to do this, you'll need access to a computer with Blender installed. You can [http://www.blender.org/download download Blender] from the [http://www.blender.org/ Blender Foundation]'s website; more detailed instructions are in the [[/Unit 1: Knowing Before Making|first module]]. {{B3D:N2P/Note|'''Version compatibility:''' Blender is under continuous development, and most of the following tutorials '''do not apply to the current version of Blender.''' While you might find some individual tutorials still useful, this book should no longer be used as a general guide for learning Blender.}} Version-specific content should be tagged with a [[Template:B3D:N2P/ForVersion|note]] that looks like this: {{B3D:N2P/ForVersion|2.75}} == Overview == {{collection}} The cores of this book is a series of tutorials that increase in complexity, with later tutorials building on the preceding ones. While experienced users can skip ahead, ''beginners are urged to proceed through the tutorials in sequence.'' The tutorials in the core series are grouped into four '''units''': # [[#Unit 1: Background|''Background'']] — A basic orientation regarding: #* Computer graphics #* The Blender user interface (UI) # [[#Unit 2: Basic Modeling and Shading|''Basic Modeling and Shading'']] — Basic techniques for building and rendering 3D models # [[#Unit 3: Broadening Horizons|''Broadening Horizons'']] #* Alternative modeling and rendering techniques #* Introductions to lighting, animation, and game creation # [[#Unit 4: Taking Off with Advanced Tutorials|''Taking Off'']] #* Scripting #* Advanced techniques for modeling, animation and game creation (Note: the Blender Game Engine is not available as of 2.8x onwards) Each unit is subdivided into '''sections''', which are made up of '''module'''. Three appendices are also provided:meow * ''Reference Material'' — including: ** [[/FAQ|Frequently-Asked Questions]] ** [[/Glossary|Glossary]] * ''General Advice'' — Tips to help you get the most out of Blender * ''Miscellaneous Tutorials'' — Tutorials that aren't part of the core series {{clear}} {{B3D:N2P/noprint|1=== You Can Help! == {{B3D:N2P/Hidden begin|title=Click "show" for details.}} You are strongly encouraged (read as ''begged'') to contribute to this book! There are many things you can do to help: *edit existing modules (to correct errors, improve the writing, or make additions) *add new modules (tutorials or reference material) *upload new images (screen shots or sample renders) *join the team responsible for this WikiBook === How to Edit a Module === To edit any wiki page (including this one): # Click on the '''Edit''' tab at the top of the page. # Make your change in the large text box. # Type an explanation of your change in the '''Edit summary''' text box below. # Click on the '''Show preview''' button below the edit summary to preview your change. # If you're satisfied with the result, click on the '''Save page''' button. Your contribution will be [[Help:Revision_review|reviewed]] before it is officially published. Things you shouldn't add to modules: * external links that are not directly related to the module * comments or questions regarding the text To ask questions and make comments about any module: #Click on the '''Discussion''' tab at the top of the page. This will take you to the corresponding talk page. Note that the talk page name begins with the "Talk:" prefix. #If the topic of your question or comment is under discussion, edit the relevant section. #If it's a new topic, click on the '''Add topic''' tab at the top of the talk page to start a new discussion. #Sign your message by typing <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki> at the end. (This will expand to your username and the date.) #Remember to save your edit when you're done! #To return to the WikiBook, click on the '''Book''' tab at the top of the talk page. === How to Add a Module === To add a module (such as a tutorial or reference page) to this book: #Edit the [[#Table of Contents|Table of Contents]] section (below) and add a list item with a descriptive wikilink. (If you're creating a tutorial and are unsure where it belongs, put it in the [[#Miscellaneous Tutorials|Miscellaneous Tutorials section]].) #After saving your edit, follow the redlink to create the module and begin adding content to it. #To make it easy to read the book in sequence, each module should have '''navigation links''' to the previous module and the next module. Provide these links by transcluding the [[Template:B3D:N2P/NAV|NAV template]] at the top and bottom of the page, as shown on the [[/Nav Demo Page 2|demo page]]. (If you expect the module to be moved elsewhere in the sequence, you can skip this step.) #Preview your work. When you're satisfied with it, use the '''Save page''' button to add your new module to the wiki. #If you provided navigation links, update the NAV templates on the previous and next modules, if they exist. #If you didn't provide navigation links, please ask someone to insert your new module in an appropriate place. One way to do this would be to create a talk page for your new module and type your request there. === Images === Images are a vital part of Blender tutorials. They clarify instructions, provide a point of reference, and improve the teaching process. However, '''if the image's copyright is not attributed correctly, we must remove it.''' This can make a once-great tutorial useless. Even if you believe you know what copyright to use, please check the '''[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Using proper copyright RE:Blender|proper Blender images copyright]]''' page to see how and where you should add copyright information. Please make sure every image you use is not copyrighted or that you have permission to use it. Before uploading an image: * Search [[commons:Main Page|Wikimedia Commons]] or look in [[:Commons:Category:Blender 3D screenshots|the appropriate Commons category]] to see if the image you want to use already exists. (Uploading duplicate images is wasteful.) * Before uploading a general image (such as an icon or button) or if you want an image to use as an example, look in our [[/Image Portfolio|image portfolio]]. Remember to attribute the work of others. If you use a Commons image in this WikiBook, please use one of the categories shown in the templates on '''[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Using proper copyright RE:Blender|proper Blender images copyright]]''' to make it visible from the category links in the [[/Image Portfolio|image portfolio]]. === How to Join the Team === If you want to join our WikiBook team, go to the [[/Team|team page]] for information and advice. {{Hidden end}} }} <br> == Table of Contents == === Unit 1: Background === * [[/Unit 1: Knowing Before Making|Knowing before Making]] &nbsp;'''{{Green|⇐ START HERE}}''' * [[/What Blender Can Do/]] * Section 1A: 3D Concepts ** [[/3D Geometry/]] ** [[/Coordinate Transformations/]] *** [[/Orthographic Views/]] *** [[/Perspective Views/]] ** [[/Coordinate Spaces in Blender/]] * Section 1B: User Interface (UI.) ** [[/User Interface Overview|Overview]] ** [[/Keystroke, Button, and Menu Notation/]] ** [[/Non-standard equipment|Non-standard Input Devices]] ** [[/Operating System specific notes|Operating System-specific Issues]] ** [[/Blender Interface|Blender User Interface]] ** [[/Blender Windowing System/]] ** [[/User Preferences Windows/]] ** [[/Properties Window/]] ** [[/3D View Windows/]] ** [[/Object Mode/]] === Unit 2: Basic Modeling and Shading === * Section 2A: Your First Mesh Models ** [[/Mesh Edit Mode/|Meshes and Edit Mode]] ** [[/Normals and Shading/]] ** [[/More Mesh Editing Techniques/]] ** [[/Quickie Lighting/]] ** [[/Quickie Model/]] ** [[/Quickie Render/]] ** [[/World Settings/|Enter the World]] ** [[/Understanding the Camera/]] ** [[/Improving Your House/]] * Section 2B: Smooth Meshes (Simple Person with a Hat) ** [[/Modeling a Simple Person|Extruding a Simple Person]] ** [[/Detailing Your Simple Person 1|Smoothing Your Simple Person]] ** [[/Detailing Your Simple Person 2|Improving Your Simple Person]] ** [[/Creating a Simple Hat|Spinning a Simple Hat]] ** [[/Putting Hat on Person|Putting the Hat on the Person]] * Section 2C: Materials and Textures ** [[/Materials and Textures/|Overview]] ** [[/Quickie Material/]] ** [[/Multiple Materials Per Object|Multiple Materials per Object]] ** [[/Metal Versus Plastic|Metal Versus Plastic]] ** [[/Texture Settings/]] ** [[/Image Textures/]] ** [[/Procedural Textures/]] ** [[/Quickie Texture/]] ** [[/Halo Materials/]] * Beyond Basics ** [[/Blender Memory Management/]] ** [[/Bones/|Using Bones]] ** [[/Mountains Out Of Molehills|Mountains out of Molehills]] ** [[/Modeling a volcano|Modeling a Volcano]] ** [[/Penguins from spheres/|Penguins from Spheres]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Dicing With Depth/|Dicing With Depth (Dice Modeling)]] **[[/Model a Goblet/]] *** [[/Model a Silver Goblet/]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} *** [[/Model a Silver Goblet cylinder|Model a Silver Goblet Another Way]] *** [[/Spin a goblet/]] *** [[/Light a Silver Goblet/|Light a Silver Goblet (Early look at lighting)]] ** [[/Simple Vehicle/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Wheel tutorial 1/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Wheel tutorial 2/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Seat/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Rocket Launcher/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Another Shooting Machine/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Body/]] *** [[/Simple Vehicle: Some Assembly Required/]] ** [[/Modeling a 3D Parachute in Blender/]] ** [[/Model a Low Poly Head/]] ** [[/Building a House/]] ** [[/Pipe joints/]] ** [[/Lighting Suzanne: Introductory one lamp lighting/]] * Curve and Path Modeling ** [[/Curve and Path Modeling/|Overview]] ** [[/Intro to Bezier Curves/|Intro to Bézier Curves]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Bevelling a Curve/|Bevelling a Curve]] ** [[/NURBS Patches/|NURBS Patches]] ** [[/Deforming Meshes using the Curve Modifier/]] * [[/The Empty Object/]] * Using Reference Photos ** [[/Background Images/]] ** [[/Aligning Vertices with a Guide Image/]] {{stage short|75%|00:00, 13 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Modeling a Wolf from Guide Images/]] ** [[/2D Image (logo) to a 3D Model|Using Bézier Curve to Model a 3D logo from a 2D logo]] {{stage short|75%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} * Further Materials and Textures ** [[/Subsurface scattering|Subsurface Scattering]] ** [[/Ray Tracing|Ray Tracing]] ** [[/Using Textures|Using Textures]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Using a texture to make a material partially transparent/]] {{stage short|50%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Creating Basic Seawater/]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Mountains Out Of Molehills 2/]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Basic Carpet Texture/]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/The Rusty Ball/]] ** [[/Creating Pixar-looking eyes in Blender|Creating Pixar-looking eyes]] {{stage short|25%|20:00, 11 sept 2015 (UTC)}} ** [[/Procedural Eyeball/]] ** [[/Putting It All Together: A Dragon!/]] === Unit 3: Broadening Horizons === * [[/Image Editor/|The UV/Image Editor]] * UV Maps - Pasting photos to 3D surfaces ** [[/UV Map Basics/]] ** [[/Realistic Eyes In Blender/]] {{stage short|75%|9:00, 20 sept 2015 (UTC)}} * Lighting ** [[/Beginning Lighting/]] ** [[/Understanding Real Lights/]] ** [[/Understanding Blender Lights/]] ** [[/Basic Lighting Rigs/]] ** [[/Faked Gi with Blender internal/|Faked Global Illumination with Blender internal]] {{stage short|50%|9:00, 4 dec 2015 (UTC)}} * [[/Parenting/|Practicing Good Parenting]] * Basic Animation ** [[/Basic Animation/|Overview]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Keyframing_Introduction/|Introduction to Keyframing]] ** [[/The Ways of the Animator/]] ** [[/Animation Editors/]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Introducing the Graph Editor/|Introducing the Graph Editor]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Rendering/|Animation Rendering]] ** [[/Basic Animation/Lattice|Lattice Modifier]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 2 Feb 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Basic Animation/Bounce|Bouncing Ball with Lattice]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Creating Basic Water animation/|Creating Basic Water Animation]] ** [[/Flying Through A Canyon/|Flying Through a Canyon]] ** [[/Using the sequencer to compile frames into an animation/|Using the Sequencer to Compile Frames into an Animation]] * [[/Further Rendering Options/]] * Particle Systems ** [[/Particle Systems/|Overview]] ** [[/Making Fire/|Fire]] {{stage short|50%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Furry/|Fur]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Fireworks/]] {{stage short|25%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Particles forming Shapes/]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Billboard Animation/]] {{stage short|75%|17:26, 6 March 2016 (UTC)}} * Soft Bodies ** [[/Soft Body Animation/]] {{stage short|75%|11:15, 8 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Simple Cloth Animation/]] ** [[/Soft Body with wind/|Soft Body with Wind]] {{stage short|75%|11:15, 8 March 2016 (UTC)}} * Blender Game Engine ** [[/Your First Test/|Blender Game Engine Basics- Rolling Ball]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Platformer: Creation and Controls|Platformer: Controls and Movement]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/An aMAZEing game engine tutorial|Maze: Force and Multiple Levels]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Platformer: Physics Fixes|Platformer: Improving the Physics]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Making exe|How to Make an Executable]] {{stage short|50%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Build a skybox/|Build a Skybox]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Basic mouse pointer/|Basic Mouse Pointer]] {{stage short|25%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Text in BGE/]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Python Platformer: Creation|Platformer: Creating the Engine with Python]] {{stage short|75%|22:05, 13 March 2016 (UTC)}} === Unit 4: Taking Off with Advanced Tutorials === * Python Scripting ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Introduction|Introduction]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Addon Anatomy|Anatomy Of An Addon]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Addon User Interface|A User Interface For Your Addon]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Addon Custom Property|Adding A Custom Property]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Separately Installable Addon|A Separately Installable Addon]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Python Scripting/Object, Action, Settings|Object, Action, Settings]] * Advanced Modeling **[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Modeling|Overview]] ** [[/HDRi|High Dynamic Range imaging (HDRi)]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Creating a Light Probe/]] {{stage short|50%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Making Landscapes with heightmaps|Landscape Modeling with Heightmaps]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/How to Do Procedural Landscape Modeling/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Landscape Modeling I: Basic Terrain/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Landscape Modeling II: Texture Stenciling/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Landscape Modeling III: Exporting as a Heightmap/]] {{stage short|75%|17:13, 23 April 2016 (UTC)}} * Advanced Materials and Textures ** [[/Bump Mapping|Bump Mapping]] {{stage short|75%|17 may 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Normal Mapping|Normal Mapping]] *** [[/Texture Normal Mapping|Texture Normals]] {{stage short|75%|17 may 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Color Map Normal Mapping|Color Map Normals]] {{stage short|75%|17 may 2016 (UTC)}} * Nodes ** [[/Nodes|Introduction]] ** [[/Texture Nodes|Texture Nodes]] ** [[/Material Nodes|Material Nodes]] {{stage short|75%|24 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Compositing|Compositing]] ** [[/Compositing/Portal Effect|Further Compositing: A Portal Effect]] * [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Rendering|Advanced Rendering]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Introduction to Cycles|Introduction to Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Cycles Glass|A Glass Material in Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Cycles Fireflies|Dealing with Fireflies in Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Cycles Fireflies 2|Fireflies in Cycles, Continued]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Procedural Eyeball in Cycles|Procedural Eyeball in Cycles]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Introduction to Freestyle|Introduction to Freestyle]] * Advanced Animation **[[Blender 3D: Noob to Pro/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation|Overview]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Introduction|Introduction]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/index|Guided Tour:]] *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/index|Armature Object]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/object|Armature Object in Object Mode]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/edit|Armature Object in Edit Mode]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Armature/pose|Armature Object in Pose mode]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/index|Mesh Object]] **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Amodif|Connection between Armature and Mesh]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/env|Envelope]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/vg|Vertex Groups & Weight Paint]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Shape|Shape Keys]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ***** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Mesh/Shape/Sync|Lip-Sync with Shape Keys]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/index|Constraints]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/cl|Copy Location]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/cr|Copy Rotation]]{{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/tt|Track-To]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/fl|Floor]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/lt|Locked Track]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/fp|Follow Path]] **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/st|Stretch-To]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/Const/ik|IK Solver]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/timeline|Timeline Window]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/ipo/index|Graph Editor]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/ipo/type|Dope Sheet]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/NLA/index|NLA Editor]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} **** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/Guided tour/NLA/intro|Introduction To NLA Editor]] {{stage short|75%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/index|Working Example: Bob]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/Build rig|Building the Rig]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/connect2mesh|Deform the Mesh]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/bob/walk|Create a Walk Cycle]] {{stage short|25%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/ Piston, Rod and Crank|Working example: Piston, Rod and Crank]] {{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Animation/example/ Cutting Through Steel|Working example: Cutting Through Steel]]{{stage short|50%|28 July 2016 (UTC)}} * Advanced Game Engine ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine|Overview]] ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)|Advanced Game Engine Techniques (GUI)]] *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/Creating Pop-Up Menus|Creating Pop-Up Menus]] {{stage short|75%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/Creating Moving Menus|Creating Dropping Menus]] {{stage short|75%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/The "5-Layer" Button|The "5-Layer" Button]]{{stage short|25%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} *** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)/Creating Object Outlines|Creating Object Outlines]]{{stage short|25%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} ** [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(Python)|Advanced Game Engine Techniques (Python)]] ** [[Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Game Engine/Game Creating Techniques(GUI)|Creating A "HUD"]] * [[/Hacking Blender/]] **[[/Intro-GE-Source|Introduction to Game Engine Source]] {{stage short|75%|29 July 2016 (UTC)}} === Appendices === ==== Reference Material ==== * [[/Glossary/]] * [[/FAQ/|Frequently Asked Questions]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Tutorial Links List/]] * [[/Hotkeys/]] * [[/Output Formats/]] * [[/Image Portfolio/]] * [[/Blender Glossary/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Every Material Known to Man/|Materials Directory: Every Material Known To Man]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Sources of free 3D models/]] - Sources of free 3D models for additional study * [[/Blueprint Links List|All Blueprints Links]] &ndash; blueprints from all over the Web * [[/Materials, Textures, Photos/]] - Sources of free materials, textures and photos ==== Advice ==== General advice: * [[/Asking for Help/]] * [[/Know What You're Doing|Tips for a Successful Project]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Modeling Realistically|Modeling Realistically]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Modeling tips/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} Performance tips (for making Blender run faster): * [[/Cheat the 3D/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Performance vs. Quality/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} ==== Miscellaneous Tutorials ==== ''This is our attic, mostly tutorials that could be useful to some extent if they would be revamped completely, but are of little use at the moment. If you can contribute to some of them, go ahead and rewrite them to your liking!'' * [[/Modeling a Gingerbread Man/]] {{stage short|75%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Modeling a simple space-ship/]] * [[/Create an animated GIF wallpaper (Blender/GIMP)/]] ** [[/Part 1 - Preparing the Scene/]] * [[/Creating Weapons based on 2D Images/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Making Your Creation Smoother/|Modeling with Meta Balls]] {{stage short|75%|19:16, 07 May 2010 (UTC)}} * [[/Match Moving/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Motion Tracking with Icarus/|Match Moving/Motion Tracking with Icarus and Blender]] {{stage short|75%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Create a Clayman/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Organic Modeling/]] {{stage short|25%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Understanding the Fluid Simulator/]] {{stage short|50%|17:06, 4 January 2010 (UTC)}} * [[/Creating a jewel in Blender/]] * [[/Modeling a picture/]] [[image: 00%.svg]] * [[/Modeling with the Spin Tool/]] ** [[/Spin Tool Introduction/]] ** [[/Illustrative Example: Model a Wine Glass/]] * [[/Creating Ogg-Theora movies using Blender/]] * [[/Creating animated GIFs using Blender and Gimp/]] * [[/3D Tiling Backgrounds For The Web/]] {{stage short|100%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Cool Things|Cool Things That Aren't That Obvious in Blender]] * [[/Troubleshooting/]] Common Technical Issues and What to do About Them * [[/Creating Blender Libraries/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Add some depth with stereo/]] * [[/Fluffy Material|Ways to create a "fluffy" effect (materials and lights)]] * [[/Human Body/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Rendering Information/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Using Blender Libraries/]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Beginning Modeling Final Project/]] {{stage short|50%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Using Inkscape to make advanced Bezier curves/]]{{stage short|25%|1:18, 28 July 2010 (UTC)}} * [[/Advanced Tutorials/Advanced Modeling/Light Mapping|Light Mapping]] {{stage short|00%|19:16, 12 May 2009 (UTC)}} * [[/Platonic Solids/]] **[[/Polygonal Modeling/]] *** [[/Box Modeling/]] **** [[/Illustrative example: Model a Chair (Swan Chair)/]] ***** [[/Model a Chair-Preparations/]] ***** [[/Model a Chair-The Seat/]] ***** [[/Model a Chair-The Feet/]] **** [[/Illustrative Example: Modeling a Simple Human Character/]] ***** [[/Modeling a Human Character - Preparations/]] ***** [[/Modeling a Human Character - Modeling/]] *** [[/Polygon by Polygon modeling/]] * [[/Animation Notes and FAQ/]] * [[/Customization|Customization]] * [[/Mist - Make Objects Opaque/]] {{Stages}} === Additional Resources === * [https://docs.blender.org/manual/en/latest/ The Blender Reference Manual for the latest release] {{mergefrom|Blender 3D: MemoBook}} {{Shelves|Blender 3D|Open source software}} {{alphabetical|B}} {{status|75%}} [[ca:Blender 3D: novell a professional]] [[de:Blender Dokumentation]] [[es:Blender 3D: novato a profesional]] [[fr:Blender 3D]] [[gl:Blender 3D: de novato a profesional]] [[he:Blender 3D ממתחיל למתקדם]] [[ko:블렌더_3D_배우기]] [[pt:Tornando-se profissional em Blender 3D]] [[ru:Blender 3D/Шаг за шагом]] [[tr:Blender 3D: Noob to Pro]] [[zh:Blender 3D：从入门到精通]] 6df9c82v1tajjyai4fy5w9s5eg9u5zg 0 19851 4671880 4391942 2026-09-23T05:37:01Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4671880 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Expand}} {{Attention}} {{book title|Ukrainian Language Handbook}} {{Category 3}} You are welcome to study one of the most beautiful languages in the world, the descendant of the language of ancient sacred Slavic texts, the Principality of Rus, the language of Cossacks—free people by the will of God known all over the world—and the modern Ukrainian (Ukrainian Cossack) nation, state, and society. Please remember the main secrets in quickly learning every language—freedom of mind, constant training, using and speaking it. If you want to learn our language—read, write, listen, and make friends with us—and soon you will become the real Cossack, a free-minded man of the world—one of us. :) Don't worry about pronouncing or saying it in your own way or using mixed language—we, Ukrainians, often also use it, and we like to talk and make friends with people from all parts of our world despite their language skills, because we believe that all humanity is one big community of friends, or in our language—real Cossacks. :) Such sites as [[:w:uk:|Wikipedia in Ukrainian]] and [https://translate.google.com/ Google Translate] (one of the best translators in the modern world) will be a great help for you, especially during first time. {{Multiple image |image1=Flag of Ukraine.svg |image2=Найкращі миті життя.jpg |image3=2017 - Київ - Світанок над Дніпром.jpg |image4=Scene along Vorskla River - Poltava - Ukraine - 02 (42920318075).jpg}} ==Table of Contents== ===Chapter I: Introduction to Ukrainian=== * [[/Introduction/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Alphabet and Pronunciation/]] ===Chapter II: Nouns=== * [[/Words/]] * [[/Simple Sentences/]] * [[/Complex Sentences/]] * [[/Common Phrases/]] * [[Ukrainian/Texts|Parallel English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English Texts]] ===Chapter III: Verbs=== * [[/The Present Tense/]] ===Ukrainian Culture=== * [[/Ukrainian Culture/Naming|Naming]] * [[/Religion/]] ===Appendices=== * [[/Glossary of Grammatical Terms/]] ===Authors & Contributors=== * [[/Authors & Contributors/]] {{Shelves|Ukrainian language}} {{alphabetical|U}} {{status|25%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[be:Українська мова]] [[he:אוקראינית]] c2jqwllr4kk67fjlyfknu6mqsabnip2 4671881 4671880 2026-09-23T05:38:37Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 Visual formatting was fixed. 4671881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Expand}} {{Attention}} {{book title|Ukrainian Language Handbook}} {{Category 3}} You are welcome to study one of the most beautiful languages in the world, the descendant of the language of ancient sacred Slavic texts, the Principality of Rus, the language of Cossacks—free people by the will of God known all over the world—and the modern Ukrainian (Ukrainian Cossack) nation, state, and society. Please remember the main secrets in quickly learning every language—freedom of mind, constant training, using and speaking it. If you want to learn our language—read, write, listen, and make friends with us—and soon you will become the real Cossack, a free-minded man of the world—one of us. :) Don't worry about pronouncing or saying it in your own way or using mixed language—we, Ukrainians, often also use it, and we like to talk and make friends with people from all parts of our world despite their language skills, because we believe that all humanity is one big community of friends, or in our language—real Cossacks. :) Such sites as [[:w:uk:|Wikipedia in Ukrainian]] and [https://translate.google.com/ Google Translate] (one of the best translators in the modern world) will be a great help for you, especially during first time. {{Multiple image |image1=Flag of Ukraine.svg |image2=Найкращі миті життя.jpg |image3=2017 - Київ - Світанок над Дніпром.jpg |image4=Scene along Vorskla River - Poltava - Ukraine - 02 (42920318075).jpg}} ==Table of Contents== ===Chapter I: Introduction to Ukrainian=== * [[/Introduction/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Alphabet and Pronunciation/]] ===Chapter II: Nouns=== * [[/Words/]] * [[/Simple Sentences/]] * [[/Complex Sentences/]] * [[/Common Phrases/]] * [[Ukrainian/Texts|Parallel English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English Texts]] ===Chapter III: Verbs=== * [[/The Present Tense/]] ===Ukrainian Culture=== * [[/Ukrainian Culture/Naming|Naming]] * [[/Religion/]] ===Appendices=== * [[/Glossary of Grammatical Terms/]] ===Authors & Contributors=== * [[/Authors & Contributors/]] {{Shelves|Ukrainian language}} {{alphabetical|U}} {{status|25%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[be:Українська мова]] [[he:אוקראינית]] s6f83uvifvxe9psi90mn76yw4vm5uls 4671882 4671881 2026-09-23T05:39:17Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 Now the visual formatting is fixed. 4671882 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Expand}} {{Attention}} {{book title|Ukrainian Language Handbook}} {{Category 3}} You are welcome to study one of the most beautiful languages in the world, the descendant of the language of ancient sacred Slavic texts, the Principality of Rus, the language of Cossacks—free people by the will of God known all over the world—and the modern Ukrainian (Ukrainian Cossack) nation, state, and society. Please remember the main secrets in quickly learning every language—freedom of mind, constant training, using and speaking it. If you want to learn our language—read, write, listen, and make friends with us—and soon you will become the real Cossack, a free-minded man of the world—one of us. :) Don't worry about pronouncing or saying it in your own way or using mixed language—we, Ukrainians, often also use it, and we like to talk and make friends with people from all parts of our world despite their language skills, because we believe that all humanity is one big community of friends, or in our language—real Cossacks. :) Such sites as [[:w:uk:|Wikipedia in Ukrainian]] and [https://translate.google.com/ Google Translate] (one of the best translators in the modern world) will be a great help for you, especially during first time. {{Multiple image |image1=Flag of Ukraine.svg |image2=Найкращі миті життя.jpg |image3=2017 - Київ - Світанок над Дніпром.jpg |image4=Scene along Vorskla River - Poltava - Ukraine - 02 (42920318075).jpg}}<br clear="all"> ==Table of Contents== ===Chapter I: Introduction to Ukrainian=== * [[/Introduction/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Alphabet and Pronunciation/]] ===Chapter II: Nouns=== * [[/Words/]] * [[/Simple Sentences/]] * [[/Complex Sentences/]] * [[/Common Phrases/]] * [[Ukrainian/Texts|Parallel English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English Texts]] ===Chapter III: Verbs=== * [[/The Present Tense/]] ===Ukrainian Culture=== * [[/Ukrainian Culture/Naming|Naming]] * [[/Religion/]] ===Appendices=== * [[/Glossary of Grammatical Terms/]] ===Authors & Contributors=== * [[/Authors & Contributors/]] {{Shelves|Ukrainian language}} {{alphabetical|U}} {{status|25%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[be:Українська мова]] [[he:אוקראינית]] cn0zmmnf6aqygmfbf8j7twz0zqi2ute 4671883 4671882 2026-09-23T05:45:27Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4671883 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Expand}} {{Attention}} {{book title|Ukrainian Language Handbook}} {{Category 3}} You are welcome to study one of the most beautiful languages in the world, the descendant of the language of ancient sacred Slavic texts, the Principality of Rus, the language of Cossacks—free people by the will of God known all over the world—and the modern Ukrainian (Ukrainian Cossack) nation, state, and society. Please remember the main secrets in quickly learning every language—freedom of mind, constant training, using and speaking it. If you want to learn our language—read, write, listen, and make friends with us—and soon you will become the real Cossack, a free-minded man of the world—one of us. :) Don't worry about pronouncing or saying it in your own way or using mixed language—we, Ukrainians, often also use it, and we like to talk and make friends with people from all parts of our world despite their language skills, because we believe that all humanity is one big community of friends, or in our language—real Cossacks. :) Such sites as [[:w:uk:|Wikipedia in Ukrainian]] and [https://translate.google.com/ Google Translate] (one of the best translators in the modern world) will be a great help for you, especially during first time. {{Multiple image |image1=Flag of Ukraine.svg |image2=Найкращі миті життя.jpg |image3=2017 - Київ - Світанок над Дніпром.jpg |image4=Scene along Vorskla River - Poltava - Ukraine - 02 (42920318075).jpg}}<br clear="all"> ==Table of Contents== {{Book search}} {{Print version}} ===Chapter I: Introduction to Ukrainian=== * [[/Introduction/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Alphabet and Pronunciation/]] ===Chapter II: Nouns=== * [[/Words/]] * [[/Simple Sentences/]] * [[/Complex Sentences/]] * [[/Common Phrases/]] * [[Ukrainian/Texts|Parallel English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English Texts]] ===Chapter III: Verbs=== * [[/The Present Tense/]] ===Ukrainian Culture=== * [[/Ukrainian Culture/Naming|Naming]] * [[/Religion/]] ===Appendices=== * [[/Glossary of Grammatical Terms/]] ===Authors & Contributors=== * [[/Authors & Contributors/]] ==External Links== *[[wikiversity:Ukrainian language|Ukrainian studies in Wikiversity]] {{Shelves|Ukrainian language}} {{alphabetical|U}} {{status|25%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[be:Українська мова]] [[he:אוקראינית]] 03rl2jgwm3f16ldamf08swcrz46lano 4671903 4671883 2026-09-23T07:15:35Z TechVindicator 3626296 grammar 4671903 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Expand}} {{Attention}} {{book title|Ukrainian Language Handbook}} {{Category 3}} You are welcome to study one of the most beautiful languages in the world, the descendant of the language of ancient sacred Slavic texts, the Principality of Rus, the language of Cossacks—free people by the will of God known all over the world—and the modern Ukrainian (Ukrainian Cossack) nation, state, and society. Please remember, the main secrets of quickly learning every language are freedom of mind, constant training, using and speaking it. If you want to learn our language—read, write, listen, and make friends with us—and soon you will become the real Cossack, a free-minded man of the world—one of us. :) Don't worry about pronouncing or saying it in your own way or using mixed language—we, Ukrainians, often also use it, and we like to talk and make friends with people from all parts of our world despite their language skills, because we believe that all humanity is one big community of friends, or in our language—real Cossacks. :) Such sites as [[:w:uk:|Wikipedia in Ukrainian]] and [https://translate.google.com/ Google Translate] (one of the best translators in the modern world) will be a great help for you, especially during first time. {{Multiple image |image1=Flag of Ukraine.svg |image2=Найкращі миті життя.jpg |image3=2017 - Київ - Світанок над Дніпром.jpg |image4=Scene along Vorskla River - Poltava - Ukraine - 02 (42920318075).jpg}} ==Table of Contents== ===Chapter I: Introduction to Ukrainian=== * [[/Introduction/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Alphabet and Pronunciation/]] ===Chapter II: Nouns=== * [[/Words/]] * [[/Simple Sentences/]] * [[/Complex Sentences/]] * [[/Common Phrases/]] * [[Ukrainian/Texts|Parallel English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English Texts]] ===Chapter III: Verbs=== * [[/The Present Tense/]] ===Ukrainian Culture=== * [[/Ukrainian Culture/Naming|Naming]] * [[/Religion/]] ===Appendices=== * [[/Glossary of Grammatical Terms/]] ===Authors & Contributors=== * [[/Authors & Contributors/]] {{Shelves|Ukrainian language}} {{alphabetical|U}} {{status|25%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[be:Українська мова]] [[he:אוקראינית]] 4w8nqixjkibrjxjqulklt85f7xro308 0 35925 4671799 4530409 2026-09-22T14:57:06Z ~2026-51214-61 3626569 /* Chamber of Secrets */ 4671799 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Character| name=Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore| gender=Male| hair=Silver (formerly auburn)| eyes=Blue| family=[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Percival Dumbledore|Percival Dumbledore]] (father) <br />[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kendra Dumbledore|Kendra Dumbledore]] (mother) <br />[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Aberforth Dumbledore|Aberforth Dumbledore]] (brother) <br />[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ariana Dumbledore|Ariana Dumbledore]] (sister)| loyalty=[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Order of the Phoenix|Order of the Phoenix]]}} == Overview == '''''Albus Percival Wulfric Brian Dumbledore''''' was the Headmaster of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry|Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry]], a Grand Sorcerer decorated with the Order of Merlin, First Class; also Supreme Mugwump of the International Confederation of Wizards and Chief Warlock of the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Wizengamot|Wizengamot]]. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ron Weasley|Ron]] describes him [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 17|at one point]] as "barking." Non-British readers should be aware that this adjective is commonly used in England to modify the word "mad", but without the negative connotations of the word "raving" that is similarly used in the US. Someone who is "barking mad" in the UK is fully functional, but exhibits a very high degree of harmless eccentricity. According to the author, Dumbledore was born in 1881, and appears to be around 115 years old. <!-- Note to prospective editors: Recent revelations of Dumbledore's sexual orientation are not germane to most of the story. They only affect Dumbledore's interaction with Grindelwald and will be in the Greater Picture section only. Attempts to sensationalize his sexual orientation will be reverted. --> Dumbledore's wand is Elder, a wood representing banishing, prosperity, protection, renewal, and healing. Elder is also believed to intermingle both good and evil, and its flowers produce a strong odor suggesting death. The wand's inner core contains a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Thestral|thestral]] tail hair that [http://www.jkrowling.com/textonly/en/extrastuff_view.cfm?id=25 the author has stated is], "a powerful and tricky substance that can be mastered only by a witch or wizard capable of facing death." === Etymology === The etymology of the character's name is: * '''Albus''': From the Latin meaning ''white'' or ''bright''. * '''Percival''': From the Old Welsh "peredur" meaning ''warrior of the cauldron''. * '''Wulfric''': From the Old English "wulf" ''wolf'', and "ric" ''mighty, powerful, rich, wealthy''. * '''Brian''': From the old Celtic "bre" meaning ''hill'', ''high'', or ''noble''. * '''Dumbledore''': A compound of "dumble" (similar to ''bumble'') and Middle English "dore" meaning a ''buzzing flying insect'' (such as a ''bee''). == Role in the Books == {{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Beginner Spoiler}} === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone|Philosopher's Stone]] === At [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Privet Drive|Privet Drive]], two wizards, Dumbledore and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Minerva McGonagall|Professor McGonagall]] arrive to leave Harry, an orphaned infant, with his only remaining family, the Dursleys. Dumbledore places him on the Dursleys' doorstep, along with a letter for [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Petunia Dursley|the baby's aunt]]. When [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry Potter]] is re-introduced to the Wizarding world ten years later, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Rubeus Hagrid|Hagrid]] tells him that Dumbledore is a powerful wizard and probably the only one the Dark wizard, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lord Voldemort|Lord Voldemort]], ever feared. At the Hogwarts Welcome Feast, Dumbledore rises to say a few words. "And here they are: Nitwit! Blubber! Oddment! Tweak!" Harry wonders aloud if the Headmaster is a bit mad, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Percy Weasley|Percy Weasley]] admits he probably is, but also a genius. Dumbledore also issues a warning that, "the third-floor corridor on the right-hand side is out of bounds to everyone who does not wish to die a very painful death." When Harry asks if Dumbledore is serious, Percy responds he must be. Dumbledore remains a remote figure until Christmas when he discovers Harry gazing endlessly at his dead family's reflections in the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Mirror of Erised|Mirror of Erised]]. Dumbledore explains that the mirror shows only people's desires, not what they truly are. The mirror is moved and Dumbledore requests Harry not look for it again. Dumbledore, apparently able to see through Harry's [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Invisibility Cloak|Invisibility Cloak]], suggests there are other ways to be invisible. At the Gryffindor vs Hufflepuff Quidditch match, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fred Weasley|Fred Weasley]] seems surprised that Professor Dumbledore is attending. Harry, mistrusting [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Severus Snape|Professor Snape]] as the referee, catches the Snitch quickly, ending the match. Afterwards, Dumbledore tells Harry he is pleased that the Mirror of Erised no longer dominates Harry's thoughts. Believing Snape is stealing the Philosopher's Stone, Harry, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ron Weasley|Ron Weasley]], and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hermione Granger|Hermione]] (also known as the Trio) rush to warn Dumbledore, only to learn he was suddenly called to London. Harry decides to protect the Stone himself, overcoming the final obstacles to reach it and face Voldemort. In the Hospital Wing, Dumbledore explains he was summoned to London as a ruse, but returned in time to save Harry. Dumbledore is particularly proud of the last protective barrier in the chamber, it involving the Mirror of Erised. He partially explains why events have occurred, though he refuses to say why Voldemort intended to kill Harry. At the Leaving Feast, Dumbledore awards last-minute House points: fifty points each to Ron and Hermione, and sixty to Harry, for saving the Philosopher's Stone. When [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Neville Longbottom|Neville Longbottom]] is awarded ten points for bravery, Gryffindor is catapulted from last place into the lead, winning them the House trophy. === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets|Chamber of Secrets]] === Dumbledore disciplines [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Harry Potter|Harry Potter]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ron Weasley|Ron Weasley]] after they crash into the Whomping Willow with Mr. Weasley's flying car, sternly warning them that they if they violate any more rules, they will be punished with expulsion. Mrs. Norris ([[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Argus Filch|Filch]]'s cat) is found Petrified and suspicion falls upon Harry. When [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Severus Snape|Professor Snape]] suggests Harry knows more than he admits, Dumbledore ignores the accusations and dismisses Harry, Ron, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hermione Granger|Hermione]] without any punishment. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Colin Creevey|Colin Creevey]] is also found Petrified, and Dumbledore concludes that the Chamber of Secrets has been re-opened and Hogwarts is unsafe. Soon after, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Justin Finch-Fletchley|Justin Finch-Fletchley]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Nearly Headless Nick|Nearly Headless Nick]] are also Petrified. Circumstantial evidence begins mounting against Harry, but Dumbledore believes he is innocent. He asks Harry if anything is troubling him. Harry, who has been hearing strange voices, responds negatively. When the diary of T. Riddle shows Harry the events of fifty years previous, Harry sees a much younger Albus Dumbledore in the halls. It is then that we learn that Dumbledore's hair had been auburn fifty years earlier. Dumbledore accompanies [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Cornelius Fudge|Cornelius Fudge]] to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Rubeus Hagrid|Hagrid's]] hut when the Minister arrests him on suspicion of releasing a monster from the Chamber of Secrets. Dumbledore's attempt to dissuade Fudge fails. The twelve school governors, here represented by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lucius Malfoy|Lucius Malfoy]], have also temporarily relieved Dumbledore as [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry|Hogwarts']] Headmaster, citing a failure of confidence. When Harry enters the Chamber of Secrets to rescue [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ginny Weasley|Ginny Weasley]], he meets [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Tom Marvolo Riddle|Tom Riddle]], a memory stored in a 50-year-old diary who boasts that he caused Hagrid's expulsion. Harry's loyalty to Dumbledore summons [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fawkes|Fawkes]], a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Phoenix|Phoenix]] and Dumbledore's animal familiar. Fawkes brings the Sorting Hat that produces Godric Gryffindor's sword. Harry slays the monster and destroys the diary and Tom Riddle's memory. Upon hearing Ginny was taken into the Chamber of Secrets, the governors recall Dumbledore. Several imply that Lucius Malfoy threatened to curse their families had they not supported Dumbledore's removal. Dumbledore, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|Mr. Weasley]], and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Molly Weasley|Mrs. Weasley]] await in McGonnagall's office as Harry, Ginny, Ron, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Gilderoy Lockhart|Gilderoy Lockhart]] are led from the Chamber by Fawkes. Dumbledore helps explain Ginny's unwitting involvement, saying Tom Riddle and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lord Voldemort|Lord Voldemort]] are the same person, and Voldemort has hoodwinked wizards more powerful than she is. There are also no consequences for Harry breaking school rules. Dumbledore awards both Harry and Ron 200 house points each and says that they will also receive special awards to the services to the school awards. Then, Dumbledore assures Harry that, despite similarities to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lord Voldemort|Lord Voldemort]], he truly belongs in Gryffindor House, not Slytherin, before telling him: "It is our choices, Harry, that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities." Dumbledore then warns Lucius Malfoy that there will be serious legal consequences for anyone caught aiding or attempting to aid the Dark Lord. Dumbledore also gives Harry the encouragement he needs to free [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dobby|Dobby]], Malfoy's House-elf who helped Harry. === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Prisoner of Azkaban|Prisoner of Azkaban]] === At the Welcoming Feast, Dumbledore announces that [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Dementor|Dementors]] are patrolling Hogwarts, hunting the escaped fugitive, Sirius Black. Students are warned that no subterfuge will allow them to bypass the dangerous creatures. He also introduces two new teachers: Rubeus Hagrid (Care of Magical Creatures), and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Remus Lupin|Remus Lupin]] (Defence Against the Dark Arts). [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Draco Malfoy|Draco Malfoy]] is slightly injured in Hagrid's class. Hagrid is certain Dumbledore will dismiss him. The Trio assure him Dumbledore would never do that. The fugitive [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Sirius Black|Sirius Black]] slashes [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/The Fat Lady|The Fat Lady]] portrait, apparently an attempt to enter Gryffindor Tower and attack Harry. Dumbledore orders students to the Great Hall for the night, while teachers search the castle and grounds. Snape questions a recent appointment Dumbledore made, though Dumbledore feels certain that no one at Hogwarts would have assisted Black. During the Quidditch match against Hufflepuff, Harry blacks out when Dementors stream onto the Quidditch pitch. Dumbledore slows his fifty-foot fall before casting a spell that scatters the Dementors away and is livid at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Cornelius Fudge|Fudge]] for allowing the Dementors to get onto the grounds of Hogwarts. Over the Christmas holiday, Dumbledore is among a handful staying at the school. While students and staff are having dinner, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Sybill Trelawney|Professor Trelawney]] suddenly predicts Lupin's imminent departure, prompting Dumbledore to mildly reply that Remus is probably not in any immediate danger. At another Quidditch match, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Marcus Flint|Marcus Flint]], Draco, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Vincent Crabbe|Crabbe]], and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Gregory Goyle|Goyle]], disguised as Dementors to scare Harry, are bowled over by Harry's [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Expecto Patronum|Patronus]] charm. Professor McGonagall disciplines them, then says Professor Dumbledore is approaching. The Quidditch final is Gryffindor against Slytherin. Gryffindor wins the match, and Dumbledore presents the Cup to the team. After Buckbeak is condemned, Dumbledore, Minister for Magic Cornelius Fudge, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Walden Macnair|the executioner]] head to Hagrid's hut for [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Buckbeak|Buckbeak's]] scheduled execution. Hagrid told the Trio that Dumbledore volunteered to be present. Following the events in the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Shrieking Shack|Shrieking Shack]], Dumbledore speaks privately to Harry and Hermione in the Hospital Wing. Although Dumbledore now knows Sirius Black is innocent, he says no one will believe two under-aged wizards. Even Remus Lupin, being that a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Werewolf|Werewolf]] will have little credibility with authorities. Dumbledore hints that Hermione and Harry should use the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Time-Turner|Time Turner]], saying that two innocent lives may be spared, then locks them into the hospital wing. Harry understands that Dumbledore intends for them to save Sirius and Buckbeak. Returning several hours in time, Harry and Hermione, hidden, watch as the execution party enters Hagrid's hut. Dumbledore stalls the proceedings, giving Harry and Hermione enough time to escape with Buckbeak, then rescue Sirius. After Black and Buckbeak are safely away, Harry and Hermione meet Dumbledore outside the infirmary, where he has just locked in the "other" Harry and Hermione, who have vanished as the timeline rights itself. Shortly after, Snape bursts in, claiming Harry and Hermione aided Black's escapes, though Dumbledore insists they were in the Hospital Wing. Snape reveals that Lupin is a Werewolf, forcing him to resign. While packing, Lupin tells Harry that [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/James Potter|Harry's father]]'s Animagus form was a stag, the same shape as Harry's Patronus. After Lupin's departure, Dumbledore tells Harry that Sirius admitted that he and James Potter were unregistered [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Animagus|Animagi]]. Harry believed it was his father's Patronus, not his own, that scattered the Dementors. Dumbledore says that as long as they are remembered, those who have died never truly leave. "Make no mistake — Prongs (James Potter) rode again last night." === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Goblet of Fire|Goblet of Fire]] === At the Hogwarts' Welcome Feast, Dumbledore introduces [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Alastor Moody|Professor Alastor Moody]], the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. Harry notices Moody only drinks from a hip flask. Dumbledore also announces Hogwarts is hosting the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Triwizard Tournament|Triwizard Tournament]], an inter-school competition that also includes [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Beauxbatons Academy of Magic|the Beauxbatons Academy]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Durmstrang Institute|Durmstrang Institute]]. Students under 17 are excluded from the tournament. During Defense Against the Dark Arts class, Professor Moody overrules Hermione's objections to him demonstrating the three Unforgivable Curses, saying Dumbledore wants students to recognize them. Though disapproving, Hermione remains for the demonstration, despite Moody's offer that any student can be excused. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Olympe Maxime|Madam Maxime]], the Beauxbatons Headmistress, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Igor Karkaroff|Igor Karkaroff]], Durmstrang's Headmaster arrive with their students for the Tournament. Following a feast, Dumbledore introduces [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ludovic Bagman|Ludo Bagman]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bartemius Crouch Sr.|Bartemius Crouch]], who are Triwizard Tournament judges, along with the three Headmasters. Dumbledore explains that eligible students can enter the tournament by placing their name into the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Goblet of Fire|Goblet of Fire]], but once a contestant enters, they are unable to withdraw. The Goblet will select one Champion from each school. At the Hallowe'en Feast, Dumbledore announces the Champions as the Goblet selects them: for Durmstrang, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Viktor Krum|Viktor Krum]]. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fleur Delacour|Fleur Delacour]] is chosen for Beauxbatons. The Hogwarts Champion is [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Cedric Diggory|Cedric Diggory]]. But Dumbledore is stunned when the Goblet also chooses Harry Potter. Although Harry insists he never entered, Crouch rules that he is magically bound to compete. Dumbledore suspects there is a plot against Harry, while the other school Heads believe he cheated. Noticing Crouch's ill appearance, Dumbledore invites him to stay at the castle, but Crouch declines. At the Weighing of the Wands ceremony, Dumbledore rescues Harry from Daily Prophet reporter, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Rita Skeeter|Rita Skeeter]] after she traps Harry for an interview. Dumbledore pointedly remarks about Skeeter's latest unflattering story about him. Dumbledore stays for a photo session following the ceremony. For the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/First Task|First Task]]. Harry captures a golden dragon egg in the shortest time. Dumbledore scores him a nine out of ten points. During the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Yule Ball|Yule Ball]], Dumbledore mentions to Karkaroff that he once discovered [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Room of Requirement|a room filled with chamber pots]], illustrating how no one can know every Hogwarts secret. Dumbledore also dances, rather awkwardly but without embarrassment, with the exceedingly tall Madame Maxime. Rita Skeeter publishes a scurrilous story revealing Hagrid's half-[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Giant|Giant]] ancestry. Hagrid, mortified, retreats into seclusion. When Hermione, Harry, and Ron go to Hagrid's hut to console him, they find Dumbledore there. Dumbledore advises Hagrid that he must ignore the press, and relates how his own [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Aberforth Dumbledore|brother]] was once pilloried in the press, then simply went on as before. Dumbledore orders Hagrid to return to work on Monday. After Moody prevents [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Argus Filch|Argus Filch]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Severus Snape|Professor Snape]] from catching Harry out after hours, Moody tells him that Dumbledore believes in second chances, whereas he and Mr. Crouch do not. Harry wonders what Snape, a suspected former Death Eater, had done to deserve a second chance. At the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Second Task|Second Task]], Dumbledore is present when Harry surfaces from the lake with his rescued "hostages." Dumbledore determines that Harry had arrived at the hostage site first, but remained to ensure all were rescued, putting him over the time limit. Harry is awarded extra points for noble behaviour. After surveying the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Third Task|Third Task's]] maze, Viktor Krum and Harry are talking when a disheveled Mr. Crouch suddenly appears, rambling incoherently, then demanding to see Dumbledore. Harry returns with Dumbledore, only to find Crouch missing and Krum [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Stupefy|unconscious]]. Dumbledore [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Enervate|revives]] Krum, then [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Expecto Patronum|summons]] Hagrid, telling him to find Karkaroff. Moody suddenly appears, and Dumbledore has him search for Crouch. Dumbledore orders Harry to remain in his dorm until morning; any messages can wait until then. Harry wonders how Dumbledore knew he was planning to write Sirius. After experiencing another vision, Harry heads to Dumbledore's office. Outside, he overhears Dumbledore, Cornelius Fudge, and Professor Moody discussing [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bertha Jorkins|Bertha Jorkins]] and Bartemius Crouch disappearing. Dumbledore discounts a suggestion that Madam Maxime was involved. Moody detects Harry's presence, and he is invited inside. Dumbledore tells him to remain there until he returns. While waiting, Harry peers into a stone basin containing a shimmering substance. Suddenly he finds himself seated alongside Dumbledore in a courtroom, and realizes he is inside a memory. It is Igor Karkaroff's hearing where he agrees to name Death Eaters in exchange for leniency. The image shifts to Ludo Bagman's trial for passing [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Ministry of Magic|Ministry]] secrets to a Death Eater. Finally, four people stand accused of torturing [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Frank Longbottom|Frank]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Alice Longbottom|Alice Longbottom]] into insanity. Bartemius Crouch, the prosecutor, sentences his own son, Barty Jr. to Azkaban prison. A second Dumbledore appears and returns Harry to the office. Dumbledore identifies the stone basin as a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Pensieve|Pensieve]], a useful place to store memories and study thought patterns. Dumbledore concludes Harry's summer dream was no ordinary one, and believes Harry's scar hurts whenever Voldemort is nearby or feels intense emotions. Dumbledore also reveals that Neville's parents, Frank and Alice Longbottom, never regained their sanity and permanently reside at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/St. Mungo's Hospital for Magical Maladies and Injuries|St. Mungo's Hospital]]. Dumbledore requests Harry keep this confidential, it is for Neville to tell others. Also, neither Snape or Ludo Bagman has been connected with anything Dark since the trials; Finally, Dumbledore wishes Harry luck in the Third Task. Sirius writes Harry that he should be safe under Dumbledore's protection. At the Third Task, Dumbledore watches as the four Champions enter the maze and is waiting as Harry returns, bearing Cedric Diggory's body. Amid the confusion, he orders Harry to remain where he is; but Harry, distraught and confused, is led away by Moody. Shortly, Dumbledore, McGonagall, and Snape burst into Moody's office, stunning Moody, an imposter. Dumbledore has Snape fetch Veritaserum, a truth potion, then frees the real Moody trapped in a trunk. The imposter is [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Barty Crouch Jr.|Barty Crouch, Jr.]], disguised by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Polyjuice Potion|Polyjuice Potion]]. Dumbledore knew the real Moody would never have moved Harry after Dumbledore told him to stay put. Barty confesses the Triwizard Cup was a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Portkey|Portkey]] that transported Harry (and also Cedric Diggory) to Lord Voldemort to be murdered. Sirius is waiting as Harry and Dumbledore arrive in the Headmaster's office. Harry is tired and weak, but Dumbledore wants him to relate what happened after touching the Triwizard Cup. Dumbledore seems particularly interested that Voldemort used Harry's blood to resurrect his body. Dumbledore also explains that when two wands sharing a common core are forced to duel, the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Priori Incantatem|Priori Incantatem]] effect forces one wand to disgorge its most recent spells; that is why Harry saw his parents' images. Dumbledore and Sirius escort Harry to the Hospital Wing, where Mrs. Weasley, Bill Weasley, Ron, and Hermione are waiting. When Dumbledore returns to the infirmary, an angry McGonagall reports that a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Dementor|Dementor]] has sucked out Barty's soul on Fudge's order. Fudge defends his actions, claiming Barty believed he was acting on Voldemort's behalf, therefore his testimony would be suspect. Dumbledore maintains Barty ''was'' following Voldemort's direct orders, though Fudge disputes Harry's account that Voldemort has returned. Fudge storms out, the two men's differences permanently dividing them. Dumbledore orders Bill Weasley to report everything that has happened to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|his father]] and asks McGonagall to bring Hagrid and Madame Maxime to his office. He requests that Sirius and Snape call a truce and work together, then sends Sirius to gather "the old crowd": Remus Lupin, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Mundungus Fletcher|Mundungus Fletcher]], and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arabella Figg|Arabella Figg]]. Snape is sent on the mission he and Dumbledore previously discussed. Hagrid and Madam Maxime also have a secret mission. When Harry is discharged from the Hospital Wing, Ron and Hermione tell him that Dumbledore addressed the school about what happened. Mrs. Weasley asked Dumbledore if Harry could spend the summer at the Burrow, but Harry must first stay at Privet Drive. At the Leaving Feast, Dumbledore gives a tribute to Cedric Diggory, explaining that Lord Voldemort murdered him. The Ministry would object to him revealing this, but truth is better than lies. He also toasts Harry for risking his life to return Cedric's body. Finally, addressing Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, he says they will always be welcome at Hogwarts, as all must stand together against dark forces. === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Order of the Phoenix|Order of the Phoenix]] === During the summer, Harry and Dudley are attacked by Dementors that Harry repels with a Patronus. Dumbledore rushes to the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Ministry of Magic|Ministry of Magic]] to intercede in any hasty punitive action against Harry for using underage magic. A [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Howler|Howler]] message to Petunia Dursley, likely from Dumbledore, admonishes her after she attempts to eject Harry from the Dursley house. Shaken, she tells Vernon that Harry must stay so as not to arouse any suspicion from the neighbours. Harry is quickly moved to the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Order of the Phoenix|Order of the Phoenix]] [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Grimmauld Place|Headquarters]] at Number 12, Grimmauld Place where he is re-united with Sirius Black. Ron and Hermione are also there, but Harry is vexed they never responded to his queries about Voldemort, though Dumbledore ordered them to reveal nothing; they actually know little more than Harry. Harry is also perturbed after Dumbledore selects Ron (and also Hermione) as a Gryffindor prefect, but not him. Harry learns that the Order is a secret group fighting Voldemort; they remain undercover because the Ministry of Magic officially claims Voldemort never returned. Dumbledore, who has publicly stated that Voldemort was resurrected, has been openly ridiculed and removed from many important Wizarding posts. Harry is later allowed to ask questions about Voldemort and the Order. Voldemort, he is told, remains unseen as he regains strength and gathers more followers. Harry foiled Voldemort's plan by escaping the cemetery and informing the one person Voldemort least wanted to know he had returned: Dumbledore. The Order's Headquarters is protected by the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Fidelius|Fidelius charm]], and Dumbledore is the Secret-keeper. Shortly before Harry's hearing at the Ministry, Dumbledore visits Headquarters without speaking to Harry, upsetting him. At the hearing, Dumbledore appears as a surprise witness, defending Harry brilliantly, citing that underage wizards are allowed to use magic in self defence. He introduces [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arabella Figg|Mrs. Figg]], a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Squib|Squib]], who has been secretly guarding Harry at Privet Drive. She testifies that Dementors attacked Harry. After defusing Fudge's accusations, Dumbledore suggests that someone within the Ministry must have sent the Dementors. When Harry is exonerated, Dumbledore immediately departs without a word to Harry, leaving Harry further frustrated. At the Hogwarts Welcome Feast, Dumbledore gives his customary speech, then introduces [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dolores Umbridge|Dolores Umbridge]], a Ministry official and spy, as the new Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor. She inappropriately rises to give her own speech, though only Hermione seems able to follow her deadly dull words. Harry learns later that some wizard families were concerned about their children returning to Hogwarts, including [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Seamus Finnigan|Seamus Finnigan's]] parents, who feel Dumbledore may be "losing it" by insisting Voldemort has been resurrected. Harry remains upset that Dumbledore continually avoids him. Hermione suggests that Dumbledore has probably not mentioned Hagrid's absence to avoid calling attention to it, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Angelina Johnson|Angelina Johnson]] thinks Dumbledore's influence allowed the Gryffindor Quidditch team to reform after Umbridge's Educational Decree Number Twenty-Four banned it. Sirius tells Harry, Ron, and Hermione that Umbridge was foisted on the school because Cornelius Fudge suspects Dumbledore is training students to create a secret wizard army to overthrow the Ministry. That is why Umbridge's classes are deliberately ineffectual. In response, Harry secretly forms his own defensive arts group named, "[[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Dumbledore's Army|''Dumbledore's Army'']]". When [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dobby|Dobby]] suggests they use the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Room of Requirement|Room of Requirement]], Harry remembers Dumbledore mentioning it at the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Yule Ball|Yule Ball]]. When Hagrid returns, he tells Harry, Hermione, and Ron that Dumbledore sent him and Madame Maxime to secretly contact the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Giant|Giants]] and persuade them to join Dumbledore. Just before Christmas, Harry has a vision that [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Arthur Weasley|Arthur Weasley]] is being attacked by a snake. Without looking directly at Harry, Dumbledore questions him about the attack. Dumbledore sends two Headmaster portraits to investigate and has Professor McGonagall bring the other Weasley children to his office. Word is sent to Sirius at Headquarters that guests are arriving before Dumbledore transports Harry and the Weasley children to Grimmauld Place by a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Portkey|Portkey]] due to the Floo network being under surveillance. As Dumbledore and Harry briefly make eye contact, Harry feels the snake welling within, ready to strike the Headmaster. Dumbledore never appears at Headquarters during the holidays, and, fearing Voldemort is possessing him, Harry decides to leave to protect the Order. Phineas Nigellus' portrait delivers Dumbledore's urgent message stating, "Stay where you are." Harry complies. Soon after, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Severus Snape|Severus Snape]] arrives with unwelcome news: Dumbledore wants Snape to teach Harry [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Occlumency|Occlumency]]. No further explanation is given. Harry "sees" Voldemort discussing a plan with a Death Eater, who says [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Avery|Avery's]] idea would not work. Still resentful over Dumbledore ignoring him, Harry childishly refuses Ron's suggestion that he report his vision to Dumbledore Dumbledore countermands Umbridge's dismissing [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Sybill Trelawney|Professor Trelawney]] by allowing her to remain in the castle. He invokes his power to fill the vacancy himself, then introduces [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Firenze|Firenze]], a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Centaur|Centaur]], as the new Divination teacher, further infuriating an already livid Umbridge. Umbridge dispatches her Inquisitorial Squad (Slytherin students like Draco Malfoy) to capture Dumbledore's Army members. Only Dobby's timely tip-off allows all members, except Harry, to escape. Harry is ushered to the Headmaster's office where Dumbledore, along with Professor McGonagall, Umbridge, Cornelius Fudge, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Percy Weasley|Percy Weasley]] are waiting. Also present are two [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Auror|Aurors]]: [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Dawlish|Dawlish]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kingsley Shacklebolt|Kingsley Shacklebolt]], who is actually an Order of the Phoenix member. Dumbledore disputes Umbridge's claims that Harry held an illegal meeting at the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Hog's Head Inn|Hog's Head Inn]], noting it occurred before her Educational Decree took effect. Umbridge provides a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Marietta Edgecombe|witness]] to additional meetings, but a discreet [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Obliviate|Memory charm]] cast by Kingsley leaves the girl befuddled. Exasperated, Fudge then claims that a membership roster titled, "Dumbledore's Army" proves Dumbledore is creating a secret army, to which Dumbledore pleasantly concurs. As the Aurors attempt to arrest Dumbledore, they, Fudge, and Umbridge are knocked unconscious amid flashing Phoenix fire. Dumbledore escapes with Fawkes. Months pass without any word from Dumbledore, while the Headmaster's office remains magically sealed off, preventing anyone but a true Headmaster from entering. Harry suspects Dumbledore is secluded inside. When Umbridge catches Harry using the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Floo Network|Floo network]] in her office to call Sirius, Hermione claims they were contacting Dumbledore about a secret weapon he ordered them to build. They lead her to the non-existent weapon in the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Forbidden Forest|Forbidden Forest]], where angry Centaurs carry Umbridge away. Dumbledore reappears at the climactic [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Battle at the Department of Mysteries|battle at the Ministry of Magic]] and captures nearly all the Death Eaters, except [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bellatrix Lestrange|Bellatrix Lestrange]]. Voldemort arrives and he and Dumbledore fiercely duel; Voldemort possesses Harry, whose overwhelming feelings of love, friendship, and loyalty drive out Voldemort. Ministry wizards and Aurors, including Fudge, arrive, seeing Voldemort before he and Bellatrix escape. Dumbledore sends Harry to his office by Portkey, then grants Fudge a half-an-hour's explanation before he returns to Hogwarts. Reinstated as Headmaster, Dumbledore comforts Harry, who is distraught over Sirius' death. Dumbledore admits he made mistakes, such as never revealing a prophecy to Harry stating that either Harry or Voldemort must die at the hand of the other. He had avoided Harry to prevent Voldemort from probing Harry's mind about Dumbledore and the Order of the Phoenix. Dumbledore also explains he did not choose Harry to be a prefect because, "I felt... that you already had... enough responsibilities to be going on with." Dumbledore regains his posts in the Wizengamot and the International Confederation of Wizards. He also fetches Dolores Umbridge from the Centaurs; Umbridge, traumatized and unable speak, eventually flees the school's Hospital Wing. === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Half-Blood Prince|Half-Blood Prince]] === Dumbledore arrives at Privet Drive to collect Harry, who is delighted to be leaving his detested home after only a fortnight. Harry has inherited Sirius' property, including the house at Grimmauld Place, Kreacher, and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Buckbeak|Buckbeak]], but a charm may exist that magically leaves everything to Bellatrix Lestrange. Dumbledore summons Kreacher, who immediately obeys Harry's command, proving Harry is Sirius' heir. Kreacher is then sent to work in the Hogwarts kitchens. Dumbledore chastises the Dursleys for over-indulging Dudley while abusing Harry, saying he had requested they treat Harry as their own. After departing, Harry notices Dumbledore's blackened and dead-looking hand, but Dumbledore defers an explanation. Dumbledore must also recruit a new teacher, and he and Harry [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Apparition|Apparate]] to Budleigh Babberton, a tiny village. Inside a small house, Harry and Dumbledore discover destruction. Dumbledore pokes an overturned armchair which springs into the fat, bald wizard, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Horace Slughorn|Horace Slughorn]], who is hiding from Voldemort. Dumbledore surmised Slughorn staged the scene because there was no [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Dark Mark|Dark Mark]] over the house. When Slughorn declines Dumbledore's offer to resume his old teaching post, Dumbledore briefly leaves Harry alone with Slughorn, who is fascinated by the famous boy wizard. Upon returning, Dumbledore makes one final offer, but, seemingly defeated, he and Harry prepare to leave. Slughorn suddenly accepts the post. Apparating to The Burrow, Dumbledore draws Harry aside, suggesting he tell Ron and Hermione about the Prophecy. He also requests that Harry always carry his Invisibility Cloak with him during the coming year, and says they will be having private lessons. At the Arrival Feast, Dumbledore announces two new staff appointments: Horace Slughorn is the new Potions master, while Professor Snape becomes the new Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor. With Voldemort's reappearance, new protective spells have been placed around the school; Dumbledore asks for the students' patience and cooperation. Rather than studying magic, Harry and Dumbledore will instead review and extend Dumbledore's research into Voldemort. Peering into the Pensieve, they view memories belonging to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bob Ogden|Bob Ogden]], a Ministry representative arriving at the Gaunt home. Ogden is attacked by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Morfin Gaunt|Morfin Gaunt]], who speaks to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Marvolo Gaunt|his father]], and watches the byplay between them and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Merope Gaunt|Merope Gaunt]], as the Muggle Tom Riddle rides by. Dumbledore explains that Marvolo Gaunt may be Tom Riddle Jr.'s (Voldemort) grandfather. Merope is Voldemort's mother, and the handsome Muggle is his father, Tom Riddle. The homely Merope magically ensnared Riddle Sr., though, for reasons unknown, the enchantment lapsed, and he abandoned her. Merope died soon after Tom, Jr's birth. Dumbledore asks Harry that this information go no further than Ron and Hermione. Harry notices a broken ring on Dumbledore's desk is the same one in Ogden's memory. It is the signet of the Peverells, an old pure-blood Wizarding family. Dumbledore is absent until mid-October; when he returns, he tells Harry that Professor Snape, experienced with Dark magic, has done everything possible for [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Katie Bell|Katie Bell]], who was injured by a cursed necklace apparently intended for someone else. Harry suspects [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Draco Malfoy|Draco Malfoy]] was behind the attack, and Dumbledore assures him that Draco will be investigated. He also reassures Harry that Mundungus Fletcher will never steal another item from Grimmauld Place. Returning to their lesson, Dumbledore says Merope Gaunt, alone and pregnant, went to London and sold some valuables to survive, apparently unable or unwilling to use magic. In the Pensieve, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Caractacus Burke|Caractacus Burke]] of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Borgin and Burkes|Borgin & Burke's]] gloats over purchasing Slytherin's locket for ten Galleons. Harry is outraged by Burke's avarice. Next, the younger Dumbledore visits the orphanage where Tom Riddle, Jr. lives. The matron recounts Tom's unsavoury behaviour and says that two children, absent with Tom at a seaside outing, returned terrified. Tom is initially suspicious upon meeting Dumbledore, though the professor convinces the boy he is a wizard and can attend a school for magic. As proof, Dumbledore performs magic. Tom is offered financial support, but he insists on finding [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Diagon Alley|Diagon Alley]] by himself. Dumbledore, worried about Tom Riddle's cruelty, ambition, thieving, and his reaction to learning he was a wizard, resolved to closely watch him. Even then, Tom set himself apart, apparently friendless. Tom also liked collecting trophies. Dumbledore is flattered when Harry, having angrily rebuffed new Minister for Magic [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Rufus Scrimgeour|Rufus Scrimgeour's]] attempt to recruit him as a Ministry poster boy, considers Scrimgeour's slur that he is "Dumbledore's man", as a compliment. Harry also relates a conversation between Snape and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Draco Malfoy|Draco Malfoy]], in which Draco refused Snape's assistance, even though Snape is sworn to help him. Dumbledore assures Harry he trusts Snape. They proceed to memories about Riddle's Hogwarts days when Tom was gathering a core group, later loyal Death Eaters. The first memory shows Tom appearing in the Gaunt shack. After learning Tom's identity, Morfin tells him about his mother, Merope, and Muggle father, Tom Sr. Everything suddenly goes black. When Morfin awoke, the entire Riddle family was dead via a spell cast by Morfin's wand, and the Peverell ring was missing. The second memory shows the much younger Professor Slughorn and his "Slug Club" group, including Tom Riddle, now about fifteen and wearing the Peverell ring. When Tom asks about [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Horcrux|Horcruxes]], the memory becomes cloudy and only Slughorn's voice is heard. This memory has been altered, and Dumbledore tasks Harry with retrieving Slughorn's unedited version. Later, Hagrid tells Harry he overheard Dumbledore and Snape having a disagreement. Snape seemed reluctant about something he agreed to do. Dumbledore firmly reminded Snape he had given his word. Dumbledore also mentioned Snape's investigations into Slytherin, which Hagrid assumes is about the cursed necklace. At their next meeting, Dumbledore is disappointed by Harry's failure to obtain Slughorn's memory. Without it, there will be little point in proceeding. Harry makes it his top priority. The lesson continues as they now enter a realm of deep speculation. The first memory belongs to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hokey|Hokey]], a House-elf belonging to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Hepzibah Smith|Hepzibah Smith]]. Hepzibah claims to be [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Helga Hufflepuff|Helga Hufflepuff's]] descendent. Tom Riddle, now a buyer for Borgin & Burke's, makes Hepzibah an offer for Helga Hufflepuff's cup and Salazar Slytherin's locket. Tom has difficulty releasing the locket, particularly after hearing Burke paid some poor witch a pittance for it. Dumbledore says Hepzibah died two days later. Hokey, believing she had accidentally poisoned her mistress, was punished, but Hepzibah's treasures were never found. At about the same time, Riddle left Borgin & Burke's. The second memory is Dumbledore's, ten years later. Riddle is seeking the Defence Against the Dark Arts post. He was previously declined a teaching position by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Armando Dippet|then Headmaster, Armando Dippet]], citing his inexperience. Dumbledore, noting Tom's changed appearance, refuses to use his new name (Lord Voldemort), and knows about his Death Eaters and recent activities. Distrusting Tom's motives, Dumbledore rejects his application. Ever since any Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher has never lasted longer than one year. After sipping some [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Felix Felicis|good luck potion]], Harry obtains Slughorn's memory and takes it to Dumbledore. They revisit the Slug Club memory. Slughorn is describing to Tom Riddle how a soul can be split by committing murder; the torn fragment can then be encased in a physical object, tying it to the Earth, ensuring immortality. Slughorn is horrified when Riddle suggests splitting the soul multiple times. And is not seven the most magical number? Dumbledore speculates that Voldemort divided his soul into seven pieces, six Horcruxes in all, with the damaged portion left in Voldemort's body. As long as any Horcrux remains, Voldemort is immortal. Dumbledore believes the Horcruxes are unique objects. Two have been destroyed: Tom Riddle's diary and the Peverell ring. Dumbledore reveals he injured his hand while destroying the ring. Only his skill and Snape's timely action contained the damage. Dumbledore believes Hufflepuff's cup and Slytherin's locket are Horcruxes, and one will likely be a Gryffindor or Ravenclaw artifact. The last one may be Voldemort's snake, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Nagini|Nagini]]. Voldemort's soul may be too shredded for him to detect when a Horcrux is destroyed. If all his Horcruxes are eliminated, then Harry can kill Voldemort. It is Harry's capacity to love and make choices that gives him power Voldemort lacks. Dumbledore tells Harry he can accompany him when he locates another Horcrux. Harry becomes enraged when he learns it was Snape who revealed Trelawney's prophecy's second half to Voldemort, but Dumbledore reiterates that he trusts Snape. He then says he has found another Horcrux. Harry can accompany him but must promise absolute obedience. Harry reluctantly agrees. Dumbledore and Harry Apparate to the same seaside cliff young Tom Riddle took his two fellow orphans, terrifying them. Inside a cave, Dumbledore offers his blood to open a hidden doorway leading into another cavern containing a lake; a green glow is at the lake's center. Unable to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Accio|Summon]] the Horcrux, Dumbledore and Harry set off in a tiny boat. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Inferius|Dead bodies]] are floating in the water, which Dumbledore assures Harry are harmless as long as they are only floating. The green light is emanating from a basin on a tiny island. A potion inside covers the locket, which Dumbledore guesses can only be removed by drinking the liquid. He makes Harry promise to force him to drink everything. The potion's effect is horrific, causing intense pain, terrible memories, and intense raving as Dumbledore pleads with Harry to kill him. The locket is retrieved, and as Harry draws water from the lake for Dumbledore to drink, he is seized by Inferi. Dumbledore revives enough to conjure fire to repel the creatures, freeing Harry. Making it back to the cliff, Dumbledore Apparates them to Hogsmeade before collapsing. Before Harry can fetch Snape as Dumbledore requests, Madam Rosmerta appears, saying the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Morsmordre|Dark Mark]] is over the school. Summoning brooms from a pub, Harry and Dumbledore fly to the Astronomy Tower, Dumbledore muttering charms to allow them passage through the protective spells. Atop the Tower, Dumbledore, hearing someone approach, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Petrificus Totalus|Petrifies]] Harry under his Invisibility Cloak to protect him. Draco Malfoy appears and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Expelliarmus|disarms]] Dumbledore. But distraught and frightened, he is unable to complete his task - to kill Dumbledore. Draco has helped Death Eaters enter the school through a secret passage. Four Death Eaters, then Snape, suddenly appear. Fulfilling his Unbreakable Vow to Draco's mother, Snape blasts Dumbledore with a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Avada Kedavra|killing curse]], catapulting his body over the wall. The school remains open until after Dumbledore's funeral, allowing all students to pay their last respects. Many Wizarding denizens attend the funeral, then a white tomb magically appears, surrounding Dumbledore's body. Everyone, including Harry, believes Snape a traitor, though Dumbledore's trust in him never wavered. It is unclear whether Snape actually betrayed Dumbledore or was acting under unknown circumstances. Regardless, Harry vows to destroy both Voldemort and Snape. Harry also discovers that someone whose initials are R.A.B. replaced the real Horcrux with a fake locket. === [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows|Deathly Hallows]] === Although Dumbledore is dead, his influence lives on. His obituary in the ''Daily Prophet'', written by his old friend, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Elphias Doge|Elphias Doge]], states that Dumbledore's father, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Percival Dumbledore|Percival]], was sentenced to Azkaban for attacking three Muggle children. Albus overcame the notoriety by excelling at Hogwarts, while his brother, Aberforth, preferred settling arguments by dueling rather than debate. As Albus and Elphias were about to embark on a world tour, Dumbledore's mother, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Kendra Dumbledore|Kendra]] suddenly died, forcing Albus to support the family. Shortly after, Albus' younger sister, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ariana Dumbledore|Ariana]] also died. Following these tragedies, Albus went on to many notable achievements, including defeating the Dark wizard [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Gellert Grindelwald|Gellert Grindelwald]]. A teaser in the ''Daily Prophet'' about Rita Skeeter's new book suggests that Dumbledore dabbled in Dark magic, that Ariana was a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Squib|Squib]], and Aberforth and Albus were estranged. It also implies that Dumbledore and Grindelwald's epic duel was something other than it seemed, and hints that Dumbledore's relationship with Harry may have been less than savoury. Harry is stunned and outraged by these revelations, but realizes he hardly knew Dumbledore; their conversations were mostly about Harry. The Order has moved its Headquarters from [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Grimmauld Place|Grimmauld Place]] to The Burrow. As Dumbledore was the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Fidelius|Secret-Keeper]], his death enables any person, including Snape, who knew Grimmauld's location to divulge its location to anyone. As Harry, Ron, and Hermione prepare for Dumbledore's mission, Hermione comments on how easily she Summoned the Dark magic books from Dumbledore's study, almost as if Dumbledore intended for her to retrieve them. Harry relates Slughorn's memory regarding Tom Riddle and his Horcruxes, and they wonder how Dumbledore destroyed the ring Horcrux. Harry has packed a shard from the broken two-way mirror Sirius gave him. In it, Harry continually glimpses a blue flash, similar to Dumbledore's eye colour. While at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/The Burrow|the Burrow]], Harry "sees" Voldemort's thoughts. Hermione urges him to close the connection, but Dumbledore believed Voldemort found Harry's emotions to be so disturbing to him (at the end of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Order of the Phoenix/Chapter 36|''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix'']]), that he is unlikely to possess him again. Minister for Magic Rufus Scrimgeour arrives to present Harry, Ron, and Hermione their bequests from Dumbledore's will, but only after the Ministry closely examined them. Ron receives a [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Deluminator|Deluminator]], a magical device for extinguishing lights, (seen in chapter 1 of [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 1|''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'']]). For Hermione, an old edition of ''The Tales of Beedle the Bard''. And to Harry, the Golden Snitch from his first Quidditch match. Dumbledore also bequeathed Harry the Sword of Gryffindor, but Scrimgeour insists Dumbledore was never its owner; it remains at Hogwarts. Hermione later speculates that Scrimgeour probably wanted Harry to hold the Snitch because it has a "flesh memory", apparently expecting it to react when Harry touched it. Harry reminds her that he caught the Snitch in his mouth. Pressing the gold ball to his lips, Dumbledore's handwriting appears on it reading, "I open at the close." Its meaning leaves the Trio mystified. At [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bill Weasley|Bill]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fleur Delacour|Fleur]]'s wedding, Harry asks Elphias Doge about Skeeter's claims. Elphias insists Ariana Dumbledore was not a Squib, only ill, but the Weasleys' [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Auntie Muriel|Auntie Muriel]] claims she knows that Ariana was never a patient at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/St. Mungo's Hospital for Magical Maladies and Injuries|St. Mungo's]]. Muriel also mentions that the family moved to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Godric's Hollow|Godric's Hollow]] and that Aberforth and Albus got into a fist fight at Ariana's funeral. When Death Eaters attack The Burrow, the Trio escapes to [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Grimmauld Place|Number 12, Grimmauld Place]]. There they are greeted by Dumbledore's dusty simulacrum, one of the curses placed on the old Headquarters to prevent Severus Snape and Death Eaters from entering. Remus Lupin arrives and informs the Trio that the Ministry wants Harry for questioning related to Dumbledore's death, while the ''Daily Prophet'' reports that Severus Snape has been appointed Headmaster of Hogwarts. [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Alecto Carrow|Alecto Carrow]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Amycus Carrow|Amycus Carrow]] are the new Muggle Studies and Defence Against the Dark Arts teachers. The Carrows were among the Death Eaters present when Dumbledore died. Harry, Ron, and Hermione infiltrate the Ministry of Magic to retrieve Slytherin's Locket Horcrux from Dolores Umbridge. Once inside, Harry recognizes [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Yaxley|Yaxley]], a Death Eater who was present when Dumbledore was killed. While searching Umbridge's office, Harry spots Rita Skeeter's book. The Trio escapes with the Locket Horcrux, but are forced to abandon Grimmauld Place and go on the run. Ron maintains Dumbledore would have known if a Horcrux was hidden at Hogwarts, though Harry says Dumbledore never claimed to know all the school's secrets. The Trio learns from Phineas Nigellus' portrait that Dumbledore used Gryffindor's Sword to destroy the ring Horcrux, though the sword that is now at Hogwarts is fake and the real sword's location is unknown. Harry feels angry that Dumbledore left him so little information. A hand-drawn mark found inside ''The Tales of Beedle the Bard'' that Dumbledore left Hermione is the same symbol Xeno Lovegood was wearing. It is also Grindelwald's mark. Meanwhile, Harry and Hermione agree that the Sword of Gryffindor could be hidden in Godric's Hollow, possibly left with [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Bathilda Bagshot|Bathilda Bagshot]], a noted historian. They Apparate to Godric's Hollow. In a church cemetery, Hermione finds the same symbol on Ignotus Peverell's tombstone. In Skeeter's book, Harry and Hermione find a photo of the teen-aged Dumbledore and his friend, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Gellert Grindelwald|Gellert Grindelwald]]. In the chapter, "The Greater Good". Skeeter writes that Dumbledore returned to Godric's Hollow to head the family, though many residents saw little evidence of that. Aberforth ran wild, and Ariana stayed hidden. That same summer, Bathilda Bagshot took in her grand-nephew, Gellert Grindelwald, a brilliant student who was expelled from [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Durmstrang Institute|Durmstrang]]. He and Albus became close friends. In a letter to Gellert, Albus agrees Wizards should dominate Muggles, if it is for "the greater good," but wizards must rule responsibly. Skeeter claims Dumbledore planned to establish wizards' rule over Muggles, contradicting his later stance supporting Muggle-born wizards and protecting Muggles' rights. Soon after, Dumbledore and Grindelwald acrimoniously parted, possibly due to Ariana's sudden death. Aberforth blaming Albus for Ariana's demise also seemed connected to Albus and Gellert's relationship. Grindelwald went on to terrorize the European wizard world; for five years, Dumbledore ignored pleas for help before challenging and defeating Grindelwald. Unanswered questions remained: Had Dumbledore's prior relationship with Grindelwald delayed his taking action? If Ariana was a Squib, was her death accidental or a first attempt at implementing The Greater Good? These revelations cause Harry to suffer another loss: his faith in Dumbledore, who he once believed embodied only goodness and wisdom. Hermione discredits Rita Skeeter's account and doubts that Dumbledore would oppress Muggles, despite what he professed at age seventeen. Instead he chose to fight evil his entire life. Hermione surmises Harry is really angry because Dumbledore never shared this information, which Harry acknowledges that might be true, but he wonders how Dumbledore could leave him such a mess. He is also left doubting Dumbledore's love for him. Xenophilius Lovegood tells the Trio about the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Deathly Hallows|Deathly Hallows]] and the three Peverell brothers. Harry guesses that [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/James Potter|his father's]] Invisibility Cloak that Dumbledore once borrowed is a Hallow, and the Ring Horcrux was a Peverell artifact, which Harry suspects may be hidden inside the Golden Snitch. Hermione and Ron, worried Harry is becoming obsessed with the Hallows, urge him to remain focused on only destroying the Horcruxes. Harry ponders whether Dumbledore deliberately made everything so difficult to give Harry time to work things out. Meanwile, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Ollivander|Mr. Ollivander]] tells Harry that the Elder Wand, a Hallow, is apparently undefeatable, though its owner is not. While its history suggests it was passed from wizard to wizard through murder, Ollivander claims only disarming its master is necessary. Harry realizes that Voldemort seeks the Elder Wand. Grindelwald stole it from Gregorovitch, using it to conquer Europe until Dumbledore defeated him; Dumbledore possessed it ever since. Meanwhile, Harry watches through Voldemort's eyes as he removes the Elder Wand from Dumbledore's tomb. Harry wonders if only hunting for the Horcruxes, as Dumbledore wanted, is the correct course. Harry also "sees" Voldemort's violent reaction to learning that the Trio obtained another Horcrux. Voldemort believes Dumbledore, who never trusted him, must be involved. He is uncertain now if he can feel his Horcuxes being destroyed, and goes to check on another. Arriving in Hogsmeade, Harry, Hermione, and Ron are cornered by Death Eaters, but Aberforth Dumbledore pulls them safely into his pub. Harry spies the twin to Sirius' mirror&mdash;Aberforth has been watching them through it. Aberforth questions Albus' mission, asking if Albus had been completely honest or if Harry ever wondered why three young, unqualified wizards were entrusted with such a dangerous mission. Harry, wracked by doubt, is unable to answer; Aberforth scoffs that Albus learned secrecy at their mother's knee. Aberforth reveals the truth about his family's past. Young Ariana was injured by Muggle boys who saw her performing magic, leaving her unable to control her powers. Their father, Percival, attacked the boys in retaliation, and, refusing to defend himself, was sentenced to Azkaban, where he died. Their mother, Kendra, moved the family to Godric's Hollow and kept Ariana's condition hidden, spawling rumours she was a Squib. Ariana's care fell upon Kendra and Aberforth, while Albus immersed himself in his studies, confining himself to his room when at home. When Ariana accidentally killed Kendra with an uncontrolled magical outburst, Albus returned home to care for the family, just as Grindelwald turned up. Aberforth discovered their elaborate scheme to overthrow Muggles, and as a fight broke out, a stray curse killed Ariana. Aberforth claims Albus was glad to be rid of his encumbrance, but Harry says Dumbledore was never freed. After Albus drank the potion in the sea cave, Harry believes the raving Albus was pleading with Grindelwald not to hurt Aberforth and Ariana. Harry avers not to abandon Albus' mission. Surprisingly, Aberforth relents and shows the Trio a secret passage into Hogwarts. He later joins the battle inside the castle. Prior to the big battle, the Trio, hidden inside the Shrieking Shack, overhears Voldemort discussing the Elder Wand with Snape. Voldemort suspects it performs poorly for him because Snape actually commands it, he being the one who murdered Dumbledore. Voldemort orders Nagini to kill Snape, then leaves. Before Snape dies, Harry captures his memories in a flask that then he empties into the Pensieve. Harry first sees Snape pleading with Dumbledore to protect Harry's mother, Lily, from Voldemort. Next, Snape is anguished over Lily Potter's death. Dumbledore says if Snape truly loved Lily, then he will protect her son when Voldemort returns. Snape grudgingly agrees but demands Dumbledore never tell anyone. In another next memory, Snape is railing about Harry being a bad student, while Dumbledore asks Snape to watch over Professor Quirrell. The scene shifts to Dumbledore and Snape at the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Yule Ball|Yule Ball]]. Snape says his and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Igor Karkaroff|Igor Karkaroff]]'s Dark Marks are growing more distinct; Dumbledore muses that perhaps students are sorted into their Houses too soon, apparently implying Snape might have been better suited to a different House than Slytherin. While still in Snape's memories, Harry now sees a semi-conscious Dumbledore, his hand blackened after putting on Marvolo Gaunt's cursed ring. Snape treats him, but he can only slow the curse, not reverse it. Dumbledore has a year to live at most. The ring, now cracked, and the Sword of Gryffindor lie on Dumbledore's desk. Dumbledore says this makes things easier, and discusses Voldemort's plot to have Draco Malfoy murder him. Snape says Voldemort intends for Draco to fail, solely as a means to punish the Malfoys. Dumbledore guesses Voldemort intends that Snape will complete Draco's job, as Voldemort will no longer need a spy at Hogwarts once it falls under his control. Dumbledore demands Snape's promise to watch over the students, and asks that he kill him when the time comes, both to save Draco's soul, and allow Dumbledore to die with dignity. Snape, protesting, asks about his own soul, but Dumbledore responds that only Snape can determine if agreeing to his request will damage it. Snape, reluctantly, gives his word. In Snape's next memory, Dumbledore is explaining to Snape that he was denied information given to Harry because Snape's mission puts him at a greater risk of being detected. Snape, still angry, threatens to rescind his earlier promise. Later, Dumbledore warns Snape that if Voldemort suddenly becomes protective towards [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Nagini|Nagini]], then Harry must be told that he is a seventh, accidental Horcrux; Voldemort must kill Harry before Voldemort can be killed. Snape is deeply dismayed that Dumbledore has only been protecting Harry so Voldemort can kill him. Dumbledore asks if Snape is starting to care about the boy. Snape, denying this, produces his Patronus, a doe, the same as Lily Potter's, who he still loves. In Snape's next memory, he is talking to Dumbledore's portrait in the Headmaster's office. The portrait tells Snape he must give Voldemort the correct date for when Harry leaves [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Places/Privet Drive|Privet Drive]], if he is to retain Voldemort's trust. Snape is to plant an idea into Mundungus Fletcher's mind to use multiple Harry decoys, disguised by [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Polyjuice Potion|Polyjuice Potion]]. In Snape's final memory with Dumbledore, Phineas Nigellus Black's portrait has just reported that Harry and Hermione are in the Forest of Dean; Dumbledore's portrait tells Snape to plant the Sword of Gryffindor there for them to find. Harry knows Voldemort can only be defeated by allowing himself to be killed. After Harry enters Voldemort's camp in the Forbidden Forest, Voldemort fires the Killing Curse at him. Harry awakens to find himself in an otherworldly place resembling King's Cross Station. A hideously-flayed, infant-like creature is wailing on the floor. Dumbledore suddenly appears in full health, telling Harry that he (Harry) has not died. When Voldemort used Harry's blood to re-animate himself, he tethered his life to Harry's; Harry cannot die while Voldemort lives. Harry's willingly sacrificing himself now shields his allies from Voldemort. The killing curse Voldemort cast at Harry has destroyed Voldemort's own soul fragment that was clinging to Harry. Dumbledore also explains he believes that Harry and Voldemort's wands, already sharing a common core, merged even closer when wielded in a duel between two wizards who not only shared blood, but also some of the soul. Harry was the stronger wizard because Voldemort feared death, while Harry was prepared to die. Harry's wand thus imbibed some power from Voldemort's, making it more powerful than any other wand Voldemort used. Dumbledore asks Harry's forgiveness for withholding information about the Deathly Hallows. As a youth, he was obsessed with them - eager to escape death, and achieve fame and glory. His resentment at having to care for his family made it easy for Gellert Grindelwald to befriend him. They bonded over their search for the Hallows, but wanted them for different reasons. Dumbledore desired the Resurrection Stone to reunite his family, while Grindelwald would have used it to command an [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Inferius|Inferi]] army. Grindelwald sought the Elder Wand to defeat the Wizarding realm. Neither were interested in the Invisibility Cloak, both being proficient in Disillusionment charms, though Dumbledore had considered it for concealing Ariana. Their brief friendship ended when they quarreled over Dumbledore's family obligations. After Ariana was killed, Grindelwald fled to Europe, beginning his reign of terror. Dumbledore shamefully admits he delayed fighting Grindelwald. After defeating him, he won the Elder Wand, and Grindelwald was imprisoned in Nurmengard, where Voldemort eventually found him; Dumbledore says Grindelwald claimed he never possessed the Elder Wand, perhaps a remorseful last act to protect Dumbledore. Dumbledore identified the gem in the Peverell ring as the Resurrection Stone, another Hallow. He put the ring on, hoping to see his mother and sister again, but the curse protecting it destroyed his hand and shortened his life. Dumbledore says he withheld information about the Hallows so Harry would avoid the same trap Dumbledore fell into. He wanted Harry to gradually discover their true nature. Death's true master, says Dumbledore, is the one who does not seek to run from it. Finally, Dumbledore says Harry can choose to travel on to the "other side" or return to the living world and fight Voldemort. Harry chooses to return, but asks if their conversation has been real or only in his mind. Dumbledore responds that it is in his mind, but that does not make it less real. After defeating Voldemort, Harry addresses Dumbledore's portrait, saying the Resurrection Stone has been left in the Forbidden Forest, and the Elder Wand will be secretly returned to Dumbledore's tomb, in the hope that its power dies with Harry. The Invisibility Cloak will be passed on to his children. Dumbledore indicates his approval. In the epilogue, Harry has named his second son Albus Severus, after the two Hogwarts headmasters, Dumbledore and Snape. == Strengths == Albus Dumbledore is among the greatest wizards who ever lived, though his gentle, eccentric nature belies his prodigious magical talents and superior intellect. Although he confined himself to a quiet teaching career at Hogwarts, he has long been considered a major player in the wizard world, heading many prestigious organizations, and is often consulted by the Ministry of Magic on magical matters. He is also an innovative thinker who freely gives his opinion, and has acted as a rallying point during difficult times, showing great leadership against both implacable foe and arrant stupidity. He is widely believed to be the only wizard Lord Voldemort has ever feared, and is singularly dedicated to defeating the Dark Lord, knowing he would eventually return, despite the Wizarding world's adamant insistence he was long dead. Dumbledore is among the few in the magical realm who has always openly spoken Voldemort's name, believing it is unable to harm anyone. Though he does not fear Voldemort's name, when addressing Voldemort directly, Dumbledore calls him "Tom," his birth name. Perhaps unusually for a wizard, Dumbledore is also an inventor, specifically of mechanico-magical devices. His office contains many small, clockwork mechanisms performing unknown functions. We see two devices in action: a small object which, when queried, produces a smoke plume forming into the shape of the object or entity being asked about, and the Deluminator, which apart from storing light sources, also allows the owner to hear conversations about him, and can transport him to where that conversation is taking place. He bequeathed the latter object to Ron Weasley, who was later able to use it, though it appears the Ministry of Magic was unsuccessful in determining these devices' purposes when studying them. Dumbledore is also generous and fair with those disenfranchised from the wizarding world, believing they deserve equal status. He employs Remus Lupin (a werewolf), Argus Filch, and Mrs. Figg (both squibs), and also Dobby and Winky (free elves no one else would hire). He also employed Rubeus Hagrid as Hogwarts grounds and game keeper after his expulsion from Hogwarts, believing he was innocent, and eventually promoted him to professor (Care of Magical Creatures). Dumbledore tended to believe the best in most people. This is most evident when, after witnessing Severus Snape's deep remorse over his Death Eater past, permitted him to teach at Hogwarts, though this also allowed him to procure Snape's cooperation as a double agent in return. Many believe Dumbledore's bestowing so much trust in those with questionable pasts was misguided, though his nearly succumbing to Dark magic in his youth made him realize it is always possible to redeem oneself. Family is also important to Dumbledore, and he deeply loved his deceased parents and sister. Although he failed his mother and sister, he recognized and accepted responsibility for how his actions contributed to their premature deaths, a fact that haunted him the rest of his life. == Weaknesses == Albus Dumbledore's greatest weakness seems to have been a certain inevitability about his own failings. This is particularly marked in Book 6, but is foreshadowed throughout the series where he is always preparing Harry as the one who must vanquish Lord Voldemort. A brilliant student, Dumbledore often used his academic pursuits to shield himself from family obligations, letting the burden for his impaired sister's care fall upon his mother, Kendra, and his younger brother, Aberforth. Dumbledore did put aside his personal pursuits to head the family after his mother's untimely death, but he bitterly resented taking on this responsibility and apparently did a poor job. This sense of martyrdom contributed to his forming a close, albeit short-lived, relationship with Gellert Grindelwald, a young Dark wizard. Albus was affected by Grindelwald's influence, and was briefly seduced by Dark magic's powerful allure, though he never actively pursued it. Unfortunately, his poor judgment regarding Grindelwald was a significant factor in his sister's tragic death, and forever haunted him. Despite following a light path ever after, Dumbledore never trusted himself around power, and instead spent his entire career at Hogwarts, an isolated place away from temptation. Dumbledore was prone to being aloof and secretive, and while this undoubtedly helped him surprise his enemies, it may also have prevented him from gathering more trusted confidants who could have acted as advisers. Though Dumbledore often consulted with the former Headmasters' portraits, their opinions on current events were restricted to their confined vantage point and often seemed outdated. This proclivity for secrecy may have caused Dumbledore to withhold vital information from Harry when he probably should have been more forthcoming. His reticence particularly hampered Harry's mission to hunt Lord Voldemort's Horcruxes, a task that may have taken years and ultimately could fail. Dumbledore, who may have intended to share more with Harry before his death, knew he had only a short time left to live, so it is surprising that he gave Harry inadequate instruction for such a difficult and potentially fatal task. Though Dumbledore was rightly concerned that Harry's discovery about, and possible obsession with, the three Deathly Hallows could derail his pursuit for Horcruxes, it seems Harry's quest was made far more difficult and dangerous than necessary. It was also a gamble as to whether Harry would even discover the Hallows' existence or learn their significance. == Relationships with Other Characters == Even though considered one of the most powerful wizards that lived, Albus Dumbledore apparently led a rather secretive, solitary, and bookish life. And while readers may initially assume his most significant relationship was the one he shared with Harry Potter, it is actually a few other key people who have mostly shaped his character, as well as guided his destiny, though not necessarily intentionally. Dumbledore is among the most complex, mysterious, and perplexing figures in the entire series. === At Hogwarts === Dumbledore was surrounded by faithful Hogwarts staff and loyal Order of the Phoenix members. While he mostly assumes a leadership role, Dumbledore has strong relationships with several main characters other than Harry, including (but not limited to) [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Severus Snape|Severus Snape]] and [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Minerva McGonagall|Minerva McGonagall]]. Dumbledore is on friendly terms with all the staff of Hogwarts, and takes a personal interest in how they are getting along. He seems to be aware of nearly everything that is happening in the school, including developing issues which he acts to defray before they become critical &ndash; for instance, he seems to know about Umbridge's plan to dismiss Professor Trelawney, and has arranged for a replacement even as Umbridge is trying to expel Trelawney from the school. However, with possibly a few exceptions, Dumbledore reveals very little of himself to the staff of Hogwarts. Further discussion of Dumbledore's relationships with Hogwarts staff comprise something of a spoiler and so are in the Greater Picture section below. === The Dumbledore Family === Like many other Hogwarts faculty, Dumbledore never married or had children. His only remaining immediate family was his brother, Aberforth, who also was unmarried and childless. Little is known about Dumbledore's relationship with his family while he was growing up, though their history became marred with ongoing tragedy. His father died in Azkaban prison when Albus was still a boy. And though he loved his mother Kendra and sister Ariana, who was handicapped after she was attacked by Muggle boys, he distanced himself from Ariana's care whenever he was at home, leaving it to his mother and Aberforth. Albus was not only deeply affected by his mother's and sister's tragic premature deaths, but was forever guilt-ridden over how his actions contributed to their demises. This fueled his conflict with Aberforth, who had deeply resented Albus' shirking family responsibilities, then blamed him for Ariana's death, though his own hot temper was a factor in igniting the three-way duel between the two brothers and Gellert Grindelwald. This is likely the only thing that allowed them to maintain a respectful, though distant, truce later in life, both never wanting to know whose stray curse accidentally struck and killed their sister. Despite Aberforth's lingering resentment toward Albus following his death, he puts aside his personal feelings to help Harry Potter complete Dumbledore's mission to defeat Voldemort. And though Albus knew his own brilliance outshone that of his brother, he considered Aberforth's character stronger, wiser, and nobler than his own. === Harry Potter === Dumbledore is Harry's kindly, though rather eccentric mentor during his Hogwarts' school years. Although Dumbledore and Harry grew close, probably closer than with any student under his tutelage, Dumbledore never became, nor did he attempt to be, a surrogate father to Harry. They primarily remained as student and mentor. Knowing that only Harry could defeat Voldemort, Dumbledore spent much time grooming him for his fateful encounter with the Dark Lord, though Dumbledore withheld crucial information, including that the only way to destroy the soul shard Harry unknowingly carried within him was to have the Dark Lord murder him. Dumbledore had always seemed rather pragmatic regarding Harry's fated demise, completely accepting that Harry must be sacrificed in order to save the Wizarding world from the Dark Lord. Dumbledore realized later, however, that by utilizing Harry's blood to resurrect his body, Voldemort unwittingly provided Harry the protection he needed to survive his own death at Voldemort's hand. Though Harry is magically powerful and had once survived Voldemort's killing curse, causing him to be dubbed "The Chosen One," many were still critical that Dumbledore entrusted an important secret mission to an as-yet unqualified wizard. Dumbledore may have actually agreed with them, but for reasons he alone understood, Harry was the only wizard who possessed the ability to defeat Voldemort. Even so, Dumbledore recognized Harry's weaknesses and his need to "go it alone", and strongly urged him to always seek Ron and Hermione's advice and help. Harry is devastated when Dumbledore is killed in book 6, though he soon came to doubt Dumbledore's true intentions and his mission to hunt Voldemort's Horcruxes after dark secrets in Dumbledore's past emerged. Harry's bitter disappointment in the late headmaster's failings initially prevented him from seeing that, unlike Gellert Grindelwald, Dumbledore's youthful foray into Dark magic was little more than a brief, youthful flirtation filled with idle theories and never-applied beliefs that he ultimately rejected. If anything, Dumbledore's shame over his lapsed judgment probably made him even more passionate in protecting others from Dark influences. As Dumbledore himself had once taught him, Harry finally comes to realize that it was Dumbledore's deliberate choices in life that made him the great man he truly became. Harry names his second-born son, Albus Severus, to honour both Dumbledore and Professor Severus Snape. === Tom Marvolo Riddle === Dumbledore was closely tied to the Dark wizard [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Tom Marvolo Riddle|Tom Marvolo Riddle]] (later known as [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lord Voldemort|Lord Voldemort]]) throughout his life. When he first met the eleven-year-old Tom Riddle in an orphanage, Dumbledore sensed this wizard was different, though he never suspected the young boy would become the most powerful Dark wizard in history. At Hogwarts, Dumbledore always kept a close eye on Riddle without revealing his suspicions to the other faculty, hoping Tom had abandoned his thievery and cruel ways. Though he was a brilliant student, Tom changed little, and instead crafted a false facade, charming his teachers while he quietly began sowing his evil empire, recruiting fellow Slytherins to become Death Eaters. Only Dumbledore suspected Tom was engaging in Dark activities while at Hogwarts, though he was unable to prove anything. Riddle then returned after a decade away from Hogwarts to apply for a job; Dumbledore, now Headmaster, spoke with him. We see that Dumbledore mentioned how his former student had changed for the worse. Dumbledore received ongoing reports about Riddle's activities, so when Riddle applied for the Defence Against the Dark Arts teaching position at Hogwarts, Dumbledore knew about his new name, and mentioned his Death Eater associates. Dumbledore rightly suspected Riddle had an ulterior motive for wanting the job, and believed Riddle placed a curse on the position after being turned down. Ever since, every DA instructor lasted only one year. Voldemort's biggest hurdle to conquering the Wizarding realm was always Dumbledore, even though Voldemort was supposedly the most powerful wizard in history. Dumbledore was always aware of Riddle's sinister nature and was never taken in by his superficial charm. It was also clear that Dumbledore understood his true nature better than anyone, and this insider knowledge helped Dumbledore prepare Harry for his predestined encounter with Voldemort. Voldemort later devised a scheme for Draco Malfoy to murder Dumbledore, though his real intent was to kill Draco when he failed, solely as a means to punish his father, [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Lucius Malfoy|Lucius Malfoy]]. Unknown to Voldemort, Dumbledore uncovered the plot, and used it to aid his own plan to defeat the Dark Lord. We note that Voldemort, later, wanted to capture the Elder Wand, the most powerful wand in the world, once he learned of its existence; although this is not stated directly, it is likely that once he learned Dumbledore wielded that wand, Voldemort assumed that it was the wand alone that had given Dumbledore the power to defeat him. Although Voldemort physically possessed Dumbledore's wand following his death, he was never its true master. Even if he had captured it directly from Dumbledore, it is questionable if it would have performed well for him. The author has stated on her website that only those able to face death fearlessly can truly control a wand containing a Thestral hair, as the Elder Wand did. === Gellert Grindelwald === Though short-lived, Dumbledore's relationship with Gellert Grindelwald was probably his most significant in that it forever altered his adult life. Bitter over delaying his professional goals to instead care for his family after their mother's untimely death, Dumbledore became enthralled with Grindelwald, a young wizard who came to live in Godric's Hollow after being expelled from Durmstrang. Grindelwald was as brilliant as Dumbledore, but readily practiced Dark magic. Dumbledore, feeling he had found a soul mate, came to share Grindelwald's idea to conquer and rule Muggles, though they differed on how to execute this. Dumbledore favored a benevolent approach, convincing himself it was for "the greater good" of all, while Grindelwald espoused a more sinister method. It seems inconceivable that the Dumbledore we know could ever endorse such a wicked scheme. However, his tragic youth, misguided ambition, and blind attraction to Grindelwald apparently rendered him susceptible to Grindewald's charismatic, but evil allure. It was only after Aberforth, Dumbledore's younger brother, uncovered their plot, resulting in a three-way duel ending with their sister's accidental death and Grindelwald's abrupt departure, that Albus recognized his own serious failings. But even after Grindelwald began his rampage in Europe, Dumbledore waited over five years to respond to the Wizarding world's pleas for his help. Lingering feelings for Grindelwald may have prevented Dumbledore's confronting and defeating his former friend sooner than he did. Whether his delay caused more innocent deaths or if that affected him is unknown, but forever after, Dumbledore dedicated himself to fighting Dark forces and protecting Muggles' rights. <!-- Note to prospective editors: This is a children's book. Dumbledore's sexual orientation affects only his interaction with Grindelwald, and that only to a minor degree, so it will be covered in the Greater Picture section only. Attempts to sensationalize this matter will be reverted. --> <!--Just FYI: I am expanding this section and will be discussing Grindelwald and Dumbledore's relationship, but only as it relates to the book. However, I may be adding some comments on his orientation in the "Greater Picture" section, where it belongs, but not in great detail, as it has little impact on the overall story. Also, as far as I know, Rowling said she only "thought" of Dumbledore as being gay, not that he actually was. -PNW Raven--> == Analysis == Throughout the Harry Potter series, Dumbledore has acted as a trusted mentor to Harry, and, in this way, has contributed greatly in Harry's victories over Voldemort. During the series, Dumbledore's character changes considerably, and no single analysis can do him justice. It seems reasonable to analyze Dumbledore's character as more information is revealed about him in each successive book. === The First Five Books === Dumbledore's character in the series' first five books seems largely consistent. He appears as the slightly dotty, elder genius, whose occasional strange decisions are honoured because he is respected for his extreme intelligence and vast knowledge. His offbeat behavior is often considered utterly harmless, and his wisdom is sometimes interpreted as eccentricity. And his more controversial decisions – hiring Remus Lupin, trusting Severus Snape – are accepted purely because he has long been revered for his genius. His strength of character is particularly tested in ''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix'', when his reputation is publicly attacked because he repeatedly reports an unpopular fact, namely that Lord Voldemort has returned. Dumbledore cares about Harry, more so than any other student at the school. He gently, or sometimes not so gently, educates Harry as to his place in the Wizarding world, and attempts to train Harry for the role that a prophecy has fated him for: Harry is the Chosen One&ndash;he must stand against Voldemort. At the end of the fifth book, in Dumbledore's office, Harry's importance to Voldemort is revealed, and we learn why Dumbledore has been so keenly interested in and attentive to Harry. === Half-Blood Prince === On many fan sites, it was remarked after ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince's'' publication that Dumbledore was acting out of character. In retrospect, we can see that he has indeed changed; however, there is a legitimate reason. When he re-enters the story, his hand is already injured, indicating that he knows he has only one year, at most, left to live. As such, he can no longer wait; whatever he must accomplish now has a definite deadline. On several occasions, he comments on not fearing death, and this may seem a contradiction. However, his actions are motivated not out of a fear of death, but rather from an urgency to complete the necessary work, including imparting a certain amount of knowledge to Harry, before his time ends. Dumbledore, knowing only Harry must stand against Voldemort, directs much energy to teaching Harry what he knows about Voldemort to enable Harry to defeat the Dark Lord. He continues uncovering information about Voldemort's past that will assist Harry. Guessing that multiple Horcruxes exist, Dumbledore carries out research that leads him to the ring Horcrux and to the original Locket Horcrux's resting place. It is interesting to note that Dumbledore values Harry more highly than himself in the cavern where the locket Horcrux was hidden. Likely this is due to the prophecy, but Harry has yet to recognize this. Many people believed, by this book's end, that Dumbledore had erred badly in placing his faith in Snape. Whether or not that had been a mistake remains unknown until the final book. === Deathly Hallows === In the series' final book, we are finally granted glimpses into the true depth of Dumbledore's character. Elphias Doge's eulogy reminds Harry that he knew almost nothing about Dumbledore's past, having seen him only as the kindly Headmaster who was his protector and mentor. Harry never thought to ask Dumbledore about his earlier life, perhaps youthfully assuming that he sprang from the earth, fully grown with long silver hair and beard. It is only after Rita Skeeter's muck-raking biography about Dumbledore suggests there was something unsavoury about Dumbledore's background that Harry sees Dumbledore somewhat differently. But finally it is Aberforth Dumbledore, recounting the family story to Harry, that reveals Dumbledore as a schemer who mostly kept his own council, and brings us to the realization that Dumbledore had been manipulating Harry as a pawn to act directly against Voldemort. In King's Cross, Dumbledore tells Harry that as a youth, power proved too alluring for him to resist, causing him to carefully avoid it in his adult life. However, it seems he was less averse to being the power behind the throne, driving Fudge, Harry, and others in directions he felt they needed to go. Revelations in this book also show us how Dumbledore was preparing Snape over the length of the series for his role in supporting Harry and thwarting Voldemort. Snape's actions throughout the series only become fully clear with the revelations in this book about his interactions with Dumbledore. === Albus Dumbledore's Age === Dumbledore's age and accomplishments are frequently discussed on the various fan sites. Dumbledore is about 115-years-old when he dies, and the author has given his birth year as 1881. His Wizard card states that he is noted for his work in Alchemy with Nicolas Flamel. In passing, we should mention that there is a Nicolas Flamel in Muggle literature as well; he was a relatively famous alchemist in the 1300s. The fictional Nicolas Flamel and the real one apparently have similar, but not identical birth dates. The book in which Hermione uncovers information about Flamel is extremely old, and yet it gives ages for Nicolas and his wife Perenelle. Unless the book magically updates ages, the ages in the book must be outdated by several years. Therefore, Flamel in the Wizarding world is at least 665 years old (the age apparently given in the book), potentially as much as 750 years old if the book is only a hundred years old. If Dumbledore is a mere spring chicken of 115, and Flamel was at least 500-years old when Dumbledore was born, then how could Dumbledore have helped Flamel make the Philosopher's Stone upon which his ongoing life had depended? Careful reading reveals, however, that while Dumbledore worked with Flamel in alchemy, it is never stated he helped him create the Stone. There is insufficient information about wizards' typical lifespans, but Dumbledore, when he is around 110 years, is described as appearing old, and he appears more aged than most other characters in the books. Only Nicolas Flamel is explicitly described as being older at 665 years old, though Elphias Doge attended school with Dumbledore and should be the same approximate age. Also, Bathilda Bagshot saw Dumbledore's mother Kendra as a contemporary and thus was likely older than Dumbledore. In addition, Griselda Marchbanks said she "Examined him personally in Transfiguration and Charms when he did N.E.W.T.s...", which means she had at least graduated from Hogwarts at the time. Professor Tofty is mentioned to look like "the very oldest and baldest examiner", which means he could possibly be even older than Professor Marchbanks. Flamel ultimately died after surrendering the Philosophers Stone (also known as the Sorcerer's Stone), which preserved his life, to prevent it falling into Voldemort's possession. Flamel shared the Stone with Dumbledore, but it is unknown to what extent, if any, it may have been responsible for extending Dumbledore's life. == Questions == {{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Questions}} # At the end of Half-Blood Prince, was it known that Dumbledore [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Major Events/Dumbledore's Death|was truly dead]]? # How did Dumbledore's knowing he was going to die affect his actions in the next-to-last book? # Why did Tom Riddle, and later as Lord Voldemort, fear Dumbledore so much? # How will Dumbledore's apparent death affect Harry's life? # If Gellert Grindelwald had the Elder Wand, why was Dumbledore able to defeat him in their duel? # Over the course of the story, Harry has lost many father figures to death. Why is Dumbledore the only one who appears in the simulacrum of King's Cross Station after Harry's encounter with Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest? == Greater Picture == {{Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Intermediate Spoiler}} === Relationships at Hogwarts === As mentioned, Dumbledore has strong relationships with Severus Snape and Minerva McGonagall. To readers, in the first six books McGonagall appears to be Dumbledore's closest confidant and advisor, and headed Hogwarts whenever Dumbledore was absent. She was steadfastly loyal to him, and though she is strong-willed and opinionated, she always abided by his decisions. It is only in the last book that we learn Snape was closer to Dumbledore than anyone, though their relationship was not without occasional rancor and disagreements. Snape was under a huge obligation to Dumbledore, who granted him a safe sanctuary after his defection from Voldemort. Dumbledore, disdainful over Snape's past deeds as a Death Eater, demanded much in return, forcing Snape to act as a double agent against Voldemort and his minions. Snape also became one of Harry Potter's protectors and later secretly aided his mission after Dumbledore's death, despite Snape's intense dislike for the boy. Snape was obligated to Dumbledore for the remainder of his life, and despite Harry's doubts and misgivings, Snape's loyalty to Dumbledore never wavered and was always freely given. In return, Dumbledore entrusted Snape with knowledge no one else was privy to, not even McGonagall. He certainly never trusted McGonagall any less, and he valued her abilities, but he was able to exploit Snape's Death Eater past by having him infiltrate himself back into Voldemort's inner circle. And Snape, being highly skilled in Occlumency, could safeguard Dumbledore's secrets, particularly those regarding Harry Potter, far better than McGonagall. Dumbledore's own brief seduction by Dark magic in his youth may have made him more sympathetic and forgiving of Snape, creating a unique bond between two men with similarly tainted pasts. === The Ending of ''Half-Blood Prince'' === Dumbledore's murder by Snape created much speculation and controversy in the fan community. Perhaps it was wishful thinking, a belief that Dumbledore was too powerful, too clever, or that his part was not yet played out, or even the clues dropped either deliberately or accidentally by the author, but until the seventh book's release, many readers were convinced, or at least hopeful, that Dumbledore was not truly dead, and had instead arranged with Snape to fake his death, and that he would somehow return to support Harry through the seventh book. While there were many clues suggesting Dumbledore's demise was something else entirely, the author stated numerous times that Dumbledore definitely died in the sixth book. This did not mean that Dumbledore would have no further influence beyond his death. The author has admitted that she had trouble writing some of his scenes in ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows'' (The Observer, 6 February 2007). As his portrait immediately appeared in the Headmaster's office, it could be speculated that he would likely play a part in ''Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows''. An interesting point that has come up is linked to another statement Dumbledore made in [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Chamber of Secrets/Chapter 14|''Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets'']], where Dumbledore says, "I will only ''truly'' have left the school when none here are loyal to me." Harry echoes this statement at the end of ''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'', in a context which leads us to believe he is truly loyal to Dumbledore. We know that it was that loyalty that summoned [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Fawkes|Fawkes]] to Harry in the Chamber of Secrets. Will it perhaps have the same effect again in the final book? One interesting theory surfaced about Dumbledore's death at Snape's hands. Going back to Harry's first Potions class, back in [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 8|''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'']], Snape says: "I can teach you how to bottle fame, brew glory, even ''stopper death''..." (We note that in the Scholastic edition, Snape's speech ends "and even put a stopper to death...") This scene is apparently very important as readers are referred back to it time and time again. Now, let us look at the effect of the cursed necklace on [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Characters/Katie Bell|Katie Bell]] in [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Half-Blood Prince/Chapter 12|''Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince'']]. Quoting Professor Dumbledore: "She appears to have brushed the necklace with the smallest possible amount of skin: there was a tiny hole in her glove. ... Luckily, Professor Snape was able to do enough to prevent a rapid spread of the curse—" So we have the information that the type of curse that was on the necklace spreads from its contact point, and that Snape can stop its spread. From elsewhere in that book, there is information that it was Snape whom Dumbledore sought after injuring his hand. Was the ring, which contained the [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Horcrux|Horcrux]], or some part of its surroundings, similarly cursed? It is possible, given that Dumbledore would have felt duty-bound to destroy the Horcrux before seeking assistance, that the curse was irreversible by the time he reached Snape. The only thing that may be keeping Dumbledore alive at this point is the potion that "stoppers death" (or "puts a stopper to death"). This would explain Dumbledore's different behaviour in this book; he knows his time is limited, and he is in a great hurry to pass on all he knows before his inevitable departure. Snape knew that he was not murdering Dumbledore because Dumbledore was effectively already dead, kept alive only by a potion that Snape administered, and which would not be effective for much longer. There may have been other arrangements between them, and it may have been Dumbledore's plan for Snape to kill him to solidify Snape's position in Voldemort's hierarchy. It is important to note that Dumbledore did not fear death; we see this on several occasions, most notably at [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Philosopher's Stone/Chapter 17|the end of the first book]], where Dumbledore says, "after all, to the well-organized mind, death is but the next great adventure." This also tallies with Snape's expression of extreme distaste as he cast the Killing Curse at Dumbledore – was this an act he had to perform, rather than one he wanted to? It also dovetails with Snape's actions as he flees Hogwarts. Anticipating Harry's every move and blocking his curses, he could easily have injured, Stunned, or even killed him. Instead, he does nothing to harm Harry, and practically uses the confrontation to tutor him on defensive strategy. Also, it should be noted that when Dumbledore says, "Severus... Please..." (page 595 US/556 UK), he is actually pleading for Severus to end his life. It is revealed [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Books/Deathly Hallows/Chapter 33|in the final book]] that Dumbledore forced Severus to agree to doing this, and that Severus later expressed great reluctance to carry out this promise. === Gellert Grindelwald === Throughout the seventh book, it is gradually revealed that when Dumbledore was seventeen, he and the Dark wizard Gellert Grindelwald became close friends. We can see, though the young Dumbledore could not, that the evil Grindelwald was power-hungry, and his overall intent was to conquer. Dumbledore's ultimate aim was to make it safe for those like his sister Ariana to exist. Muggles would live under Wizard-kind's benevolent rule, making it possible for wizard offspring and Muggle children to co-exist harmoniously. One simple personality test is selecting a specific Hallow believed to be the most valuable, and why. Grindelwald clearly thought the Elder Wand, unbeatable in a duel, was the most desirable, with the Resurrection Stone running second. Albus felt the Resurrection Stone was more important. To Grindelwald, the Resurrection Stone meant commanding an [[Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter/Magic/Inferius|Inferi]] army; to Albus, it was his parents returned to him, thereby lifting his burden for his siblings' care. Why did Dumbledore fail to see that Grindelwald was choosing a path leading to corrupt power and domination? [http://www.the-leaky-cauldron.org/2007/10/20/j-k-rowling-at-carnegie-hall-reveals-dumbledore-is-gay-neville-marries-hannah-abbott-and-scores-more The author has said] that Dumbledore was infatuated with Grindelwald, and that being in love had blinded him. He overlooked Grindelwald's faults, and with youthful foolishness, perhaps thought he could change Grindelwald to his own, somewhat more gentle ends. According to Rowling, Dumbledore falling in love with a Dark and selfish person like Grindelwald, and the later consequences, is his biggest tragedy. As a result, Dumbledore never again trusted himself with power, causing him to decline the Minister for Magic post, among other prominent positions, and instead confine his career path to Hogwarts where he would be less tempted. {{BookCat}} c972i3ok9q7do2x9gcycc6hz7g2lb5y 0 40170 4671948 1720825 2026-09-23T11:46:36Z Jcb 90773 4671948 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Radiation Oncology:TOC}} ==Epidemiology== *3% of aerodigestive tract malignancies *Peak incidence in age 50-59 *M:F 3:1 *70-80% of tumors of the paranasal sinuses originate in maxillary sinus. ==Risk Factors== *Medical/occupational exposure (thorotrast, nickel, chromium,hydrocarbons, nitrogen mustard) *Woodworkers have 500 times greater risk than general population of having carcinoma of maxillary sinus ==Anatomy== *The paranasal sinuses include the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary sinuses. '''Borders of Maxillary Sinus''' *Medial border - nasal cavity *Superior border - orbit *Anterolateral border - facial bone *Posteromedial border - infratemporal fossa '''Ohngren's line''' is the oblique plane joining medial canthus of the eye with the angle of the mandible. It divides the maxilla into the infrastructure and superstructure. This line was originally described in the 1930's by Dr. Ohngren to delineate the limits of resectability of a tumor in the maxillary sinus. Tumors that extended into the superstructure (superoposterior to Ohngren's line) were more likely to involve the orbit, ethmoids, and pterygopalatine fossa. This line became the basis of original staging systems. '''Nodal drainage of Paranasal sinuses''' *Retropharyngeal nodes 1st echelon *Periparotid nodes *Submandibular nodes ''Clinically involved nodes occur in approximately 15% of pts overall, but has been reported as >20% for SCC histology.'' ==Staging== see [[Radiation_Oncology/Head_%26_Neck/Sinonasal/Staging| Staging]] ==Treatment== *Radiation therapy alone can be used as a primary modality for T1-T2 N0 patients, inoperable patients. *Indications for adjuvant radiation therapy include: T1N0 patients with positive margins, perineural invasion, T3 or T4; consider for T2N0. For any N+, radiation to the neck *Contraindications of surgery include intracranial invasion, carotid involvement, bilateral cavernous sinus involvement, and distant metastases '''NCCN Radiation Therapy Guidelines:''' *Definitive xrt for primary and gross adenopathy: >66 Gy *Treatment of undissected neck: 50 Gy *Adjuvant xrt for primary tumor bed: >60 Gy *Adjuvant xrt to dissected neck (high risk nodal stations): >60 Gy *Adjuvant xrt to dissected neck (low risk nodal stations): >50 Gy ===Surgical Management=== *'''Subtotal Maxillectomy''' - 2 walls of maxilla removed. Generally indicated only for early (T1-2 lesions) of infrastructure. *'''Radical Maxillectomy''' - The entire maxilla is removed. This is the standard operation for locally advanced carcinoma of maxilla. Resection includes the maxilla, nasal bone, ethmoid sinus, and sometimes the pterygoid plates. The surgery spares the zygoma, orbital periosteum, and palatal mucosa. *'''Craniofacial Resection''' This surgery is indicated when tumor involves the roof of the ethmoid sinus. The posterior line of resection is foramen ovale, foramen rotundum and internal carotid. The inferior line of resection is similar to craniofacial frontoethmoidectomy and radical maxillectomy. *'''Orbital Exenteration''' This surgery was practiced commonly in the 50's and 60's, but has fallen out of favor. It is generally indicated when orbital fat invasion is seen or orbital contents grossly involved. ===Adjuvant Radiation Therapy=== *'''UT Southwestern, 2002''' (1980-97) {{PMID|12439163}} -- "Paranasal sinus malignancies: an 18-year single institution experience." (Myers LL et al, Laryngoscope. 2002 Nov;112(11):1964-9.) **141 pts w/ paranasal sinus malignancy, 88% w/ locally advanced dz, 70% maxillary sinus, 26% ethmoid sinus **62% underwent surgery as part of multimodality tx approach. **5yr DSS 52%, 10yr DSS 35% **Local recurrence rate 56% *'''The Netherlands, 2000''' (1977-1996) {{PMID|10924968}} -- "Does the combination of radiotherapy and debulking surgery favor survival in paranasal sinus carcinoma?" (Jansen EP et al, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 Aug 1;48(1):27-35.) **73 pts w/ paranasal sinus carcinoma tx'd w/ either combination therapy (surg + RT) or monotherapy (surg, RT alone) **5yr local control 65% w/ combination surg + xrt, 47% w/ xrt alone **Orbital invasion associated w/ poor local control. *'''MDACC, 1991''' (1969-85) {{PMID|1924855}} -- "Maxillary sinus carcinomas: natural history and results of postoperative radiotherapy." (Jiang GL et al, Radiother Oncol 1991 Jul;21(3):193-200.) **73 pts w/ maxillary sinus CA tx'd w/ surgery and postop xrt (dose of 50-60 Gy via wedged pair or 3-field technique) **5yr local control was 78% **5yr relapse free survival was 51% **Overall nodal recurrence rate w/o elective nodal irradiation was 38% for SCC or undifferentiated, 5% for adenoid cystic. ===Elective Nodal Irradiation=== *'''Stanford, 2000''' (1959-96) {{PMID|10701732}} -- "Lymph node metastasis in maxillary sinus carcinoma." (Le QT, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000 Feb 1;46(3):541-9.) **97 pts w/ maxillary sinus carcinoma (61 receiving surgery + xrt, 36 pts xrt alone) **5yr actuarial survival 34%, 10 yr 31% **Most common sites of nodal recurrence were levels I and II; 12% nodal relapse at 5yrs; 5yr actuarial risk of nodal relapse was 20% w/o ENI, 0% w/ ENI. **5yr actuarial risk of distant relapse 29% w/ neck control, and 81% if neck failure. ===Combined Modality Approach=== *'''Tennessee, 2004''' {{PMID|15313865}} -- "Intra-arterial cisplatin and concomitant radiation therapy followed by surgery for advanced paranasal sinus cancer." (Samant S, Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2004 Aug;130(8):948-55.) **18 pts tx'd w/ preop high dose intra-arterial cisplatin + IV thiosulfate w/ concurrent xrt (50 Gy). 84% T4 lesions. Planned surgery 8 wks post xrt (organ sparing, if possible). **2 yr OS 68%, 5 yr OS 53% ==Radiation Techniques and Treatment Planning== *Also please see [[Radiation_Oncology/Head_%26_Neck/Protons|H&N proton therapy]] *'''Duke, 1999''' {{PMID|10435816}} -- "Conformal radiation therapy treatment planning reduces the dose to the optic structures for patients with tumors of the paranasal sinuses." (Brizel, Radiother Oncol. 1999 Jun;51(3):215-8.) **Comparison of 2D and 3D treatment plans, using Dmax, NTCP and V80 **Conformal plan better: ipsilateral optic nerve 13% NTCP reduction (SS), ipsilateral eye 3% (SS), optic chiasm 0.5% (SS) driven by decreased Dmax and V80 p60kb6la7gbslwdkvlrn61a4r3sjysr 0 47538 4671796 3556290 2026-09-22T14:10:30Z R. Henrik Nilsson 3395618 alway > always 4671796 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Communication Systems/Page}} Amplitude modulation is one of the earliest radio modulation techniques. The receivers used to listen to AM-DSB-C are perhaps the simplest receivers of any radio modulation technique; which may be why that version of amplitude modulation is still widely used today. By the end of this module, you will know the most popular versions of amplitude modulation, some popular AM modulation circuits, and some popular AM demodulation circuits. == Amplitude Modulation == {{Wikipedia|Amplitude_modulation}} Amplitude modulation (AM) occurs when the amplitude of a carrier wave is modulated, to correspond to a source signal. In AM, we have an equation that looks like this: ::::<math>A_{signal}(t) = A(t) \sin (\omega t)</math> We can also see that the phase of this wave is irrelevant, and does not change (so we don't even include it in the equation). {{Info|AM Radio uses AM modulation}} AM Double-Sideband (AM-DSB for short) can be broken into two different, distinct types: Carrier, and Suppressed Carrier varieties (AM-DSB-C and AM-DSB-SC, for short, respectively). This page will talk about both varieties, and will discuss the similarities and differences of each. ::[[Image:Amfm2.gif|left|thumb]] ===Characteristics=== ====Modulation Index==== Amplitude modulation requires a high frequency constant carrier and a low frequency modulation signal. :A wave carrier is of the form <math>e_c = E_c \cos \left( {\omega _c t} \right)</math> :A wave modulation signal is of the form <math> e_m = E_m \cos \left( {\omega _m t} \right)</math> Notice that the amplitude of the high frequency carrier takes on the shape of the lower frequency modulation signal, forming what is called a modulation envelope. ::[[Image:Am_envelope.jpg|left|thumb]] The modulation index is defined as the ratio of the modulation signal amplitude to the carrier amplitude. ::::<math> m_{am} = \frac{{E_m }}{{E_c }}</math> where <math> 0 \le m_{am} \le 1</math> The overall signal can be described by: ::::<math> e_{am} = \left( {E_c + E_m \cos \left( {\omega _m t} \right)} \right)\cos \left( {\omega _c t} \right)</math> More commonly, the carrier amplitude is normalized to one and the am equation is written as: ::::<math> e_{am} = \left( {1 + m_{am} \cos \left( {\omega _m t} \right)} \right)\cos \left( {\omega _c t} \right)</math> :In most experienced author books this expression is simply written as: ::::<math> e = \left( {1 + m\cos \omega _m t} \right)\cos \omega _c t</math> :If the modulation index is zero (<math> m_{am} = 0</math>) the signal is simply a constant amplitude carrier. :If the modulation index is 1 (<math> m_{am} = 1</math>), the resultant waveform has maximum or 100% amplitude modulation. ::[[Image:AM signals.svg|left|thumb]] ====Sidebands==== Expanding the normalized AM equation: ::::<math> e = \left( {1 + m\sin \omega _m t} \right)\sin \omega _c t</math> we obtain: ::::<math> e = \sin \omega _c t + \frac{m}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{m}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> <!-- See: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TrigonometricAdditionFormulas.html --> where: :::<math>\sin \omega _c t</math> represents the carrier :::<math>\frac{m}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t</math> represents the lower sideband :::<math>\frac{m}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> represents the upper sideband The sidebands occupies on the both sides of the center frequency. They are the sum and difference frequencies of the carrier and modulation signals. In the above example, they are just single frequencies, but normally the baseband modulation signal is a range of frequencies and hence two bands are formed. === AM Modulator === The standard amplitude modulation equation is: ::::<math>e_{am} = \left( {1 + m\sin \omega _m t} \right)\sin \omega _c t</math> From this we notice that AM involves a multiplication process. There are several ways to perform this function electronically. The simplest method uses a switch. ====Switching Modulators==== Switching modulators can be placed into two categories: unipolar and bipolar. =====Bipolar Switching Modulator===== The bipolar switch is the easiest to visualize. Note that an AM waveform appears to consist of a low frequency dc signal whose polarity is reversing at a carrier rate. ::[[Image:Bipolar_modulator_waveform.gif|left|thumb]] The AM signal can be created by multiplying a dc modulation signal by :This seems complicated but, if the square wave switching function has a 50% duty cycle, this simplifies to: ::::<math>F\left\{ {f\left( t \right)} \right\} = \frac{4}{\pi }\sum\limits_{n = 1,3,5...}^\infty {\frac{1}{n}} \cos \left( {\frac{{n2\pi t}}{T}} \right)</math> :This tells us that the square wave is actually composed of a series of cosines (phase shifted sines) at odd multiples of the fundamental switching frequency. Therefore, using this signal to multiply the baseband signal results in AM signals being generated at each of the odd harmonics of the switching (carrier) frequencies. Since the amplitude of the harmonics decreases rapidly, this technique is practical for only the first few harmonics, and produces an enormous amount of unwanted signals (noise). ::[[Image:Switching_mod_spectrum.gif|left|thumb]] :A band pass filter can be used to select any one of the AM signals. The number of different output frequencies can be significantly reduced if the multiplier accepts sinewaves at the carrier input. {{wikipediapar||Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission}} :Removing the DC component from the input eliminates the carrier signal and creates DSBSC modulation. Physically this is done by reversing the signal leads: ::[[Image:Switching_modulator.gif|left|thumb]] The process of reversing the polarity of a signal is easily accomplished by placing two switch pairs in the output of a differential amplifier. The [http://www.onsemi.com/pub_link/Collateral/MC1496-D.PDF Mc1496 Balanced Modulator] is an example of such a device. ::[[Image:Transistor_switching_modulator.gif|left|thumb]] =====Unipolar Switching Modulator===== As previously mentioned, an AM signal can be created by multiplying a dc modulation signal by 0 & 1. ::[[Image:Pulse.gif|left|thumb]] :The spectrum of this signal is defined by: ::::<math>F\left\{ {f\left( t \right)} \right\} = \frac{1}{2} + \sum\limits_{n = 1}^\infty {\frac{2}{{n\pi }}\sin \left( {\frac{{n\pi }}{2}} \right)} \cos \left( {\frac{{n2\pi t}}{T}} \right)</math> Physically this is done by turning the modulation signal on and off at the carrier rate: ::[[Image:Gated_carrier.gif|left|thumb]] A high amplitude carrier can be used to turn a diode on and off. A dc bias is placed on the modulation signal to make certain that only the carrier (not the modulation signal) can reverse bias the diode. ::[[Image:Gated_carrier_circuit.gif|left|thumb]] ::[[Image:Unipolar_mod_waveform.gif|left|thumb]] It may not seem obvious, but the output of this circuit contains a series of AM signals. A bandpass filter is needed to extract the desired one. Normally it is the 1st or 3rd harmonic of the fundamental. (The 1st harmonic is the fundamental.) =====Collector Modulator===== The diode switching modulator is incapable of producing high power signals since it is a passive device. A transistor can be used to overcome this limitation. A collector modulator is used for high level modulation. ::[[Image:Collector_modulator.gif|left|thumb]] =====Square Law Modulator===== The voltage-current relationship of a diode is nonlinear near the knee and is of the form: ::::<math>i\left( t \right) = av\left( t \right) + bv^2 \left( t \right)</math> :The coefficient ''a'' and ''b'' are constants associated with the particular diode. ::[[Image:Diode_curve.gif|left|thumb]] Amplitude modulation occurs if the diode is kept in the square law region when signals combine. ::[[Image:Square_law_modulator.gif|left|thumb]] :Let the injected signals be of the form: ::::<math>k = {\rm{ dc}}\;{\rm{bias}}</math> ::::<math>e_m = E_m \sin \omega _m t = {\rm{modulation}}\;{\rm{signal}}</math> ::::<math>e_c = E_c \sin \omega _c t = {\rm{carrier}}\;{\rm{signal}}</math> :The voltage applied across the diode and resistor is given by: ::::<math>v\left( t \right) = k + e_m + e_c </math> :The current in the diode and hence in the resistor is given by: ::::<math>i\left( t \right) = a\left( {k + e_m + e_c } \right) + b\left( {k + e_m + e_c } \right)^2 </math> : Which expands to: ::::<math>i\left( t \right) = \underbrace {k\left( {a + bk} \right)}_{{\rm{dc}}} + \underbrace {\left( {a + 2bk} \right)e_m }_{{\rm{original}}\;{\rm{modulating}}\;{\rm{signal}}} + \underbrace {\left( {a + 2bk} \right)e_c }_{{\rm{carrier}}} + \underbrace {2be_m e_c }_{{\rm{2}}\;{\rm{sidebands}}} + \underbrace {be_m^2 }_{{\rm{2}}\;{\rm{x}}\;{\rm{modulating}}\;{\rm{frequency}}} + \underbrace {be_c^2 }_{{\rm{2}}\;{\rm{x}}\;{\rm{carrier}}\;{\rm{frequency}}}</math> ====Modulation Index Measurement==== It is sometimes difficult to determine the modulation index, particularly for complex signals. However, it is relatively easy to determine it by critical observation.<br /> There are two practical methods to derive the modulation index: # By representing an AM wave as it is in time domain.(using maxima - minima terms.) # By Trapezoidal method. # ::[[Image:Am_modulation_setup.gif|left|thumb]] The trapezoidal oscilloscope display can be used to determine the modulation index. ::[[Image:Trapazoidal_display.gif|left|thumb]] ::AM modulation index: <math>m = \frac{{E_{\max } - E_{\min } }}{{E_{\max } + E_{\min } }}</math> The trapezoidal display makes it possible to quickly recognize certain types of problems, which would reduce the AM signal quality. ::[[Image:Trapezoidal_displays.gif|left|thumb]] The highest authorized carrier power for AM broadcast in the US is 50 kilowatts, although directional stations are permitted 52.65 kilowatts to compensate for losses in the phasing system. The ERP can be much higher ====C-QUAM==== The basic idea behind the C-Quam modulator is actually quite simple. The output stage is an ordinary AM modulator however; the carrier signal has been replaced by an amplitude limited vector modulator. Therefore, the limiter output is really a phase-modulated signal. ::[[Image:C-QUAM_modulator.gif|left|thumb]] A standard AM receiver will detect the amplitude variations as L+R. A stereo receiver will also detect the phase variations and to extract L-R. It will then process these signals to separate the left and right channels. To enable the stereo decoder, a 25&nbsp;Hz pilot tone is added to the L-R channel. ===AM Receivers=== The most common receivers in use today are the super heterodyne type. They consist of: ::*Antenna ::*RF amplifier ::*Local Oscillator and Mixer ::*IF Section ::*Detector and Amplifier The need for these subsystems can be seen when one considers the much simpler and inadequate TRF or tuned radio frequency amplifier. ====TRF Amplifier==== It is possible to design an RF amplifier to accept only a narrow range of frequencies, such as one radio station on the AM band. ::[[Image:TRF_amplifier.gif|left|thumb]] By adjusting the center frequency of the tuned circuit, all other input signals can be excluded. ::[[Image:Channel_selection.gif|left|thumb]] The AM band ranges from about 500&nbsp;kHz to 1600&nbsp;kHz. Each station requires 10&nbsp;kHz of this spectrum, although the baseband signal is only 5&nbsp;kHz. Recall that for a tuned circuit: <math>Q = \frac{{f_c }}{B}</math>. The center or resonant frequency in an RLC network is most often adjusted by varying the capacitor value. However, the Q remains approximately constant as the center frequency is adjusted. This suggests that as the bandwidth varies as the circuit is tuned. :For example, the Q required at the lower end of the AM band to select only one radio station would be approximately: ::::<math>Q = \frac{{f_c }}{B} = \frac{{500\;kHz}}{{10\;kHz}} = 50</math> :As the tuned circuit is adjusted to the higher end of the AM band, the resulting bandwidth is: ::::<math>B = \frac{{f_c }}{Q} = \frac{{1600\;kHz}}{{50}} = 30\;kHz</math> A bandwidth this high could conceivably pass three adjacent stations, thus making meaningful reception impossible. To prevent this, the incoming RF signal is heterodyned to a fixed IF or intermediate frequency and passed through a constant bandwidth circuit. ====Superheterodyne Receiver==== ::[[Image:Heterodyne.gif|left|thumb]] The RF amplifier boosts the RF signal into the mixer. It has broad tuning and amplifies not just one RF station, but many of them simultaneously. It also amplifies any input noise and even contributes some of its own. The other mixer input is a high frequency sine wave created by a local oscillator. In AM receivers, it is always 455&nbsp;kHz above the desired station carrier frequency. An ideal mixer will combine the incoming carrier with the local oscillator to create sum and difference frequencies. . A real mixer combines two signals and creates a host of new frequencies: ::• A dc level ::• The original two frequencies ::• The sum and difference of the two input frequencies ::• Harmonics of the two input frequencies ::• Sums and differences of all of the harmonics Since the RF amplifier passes several radio stations at once, the mixer output can be very complex. However, the only signal of real interest is the difference between the desired station carrier frequency and the local oscillator frequency. This difference frequency, also called the IF (intermediate frequency) will always be 455&nbsp;kHz. By passing this through a 10&nbsp;kHz BPF (band pass filter) centered at 455&nbsp;kHz, the bulk of the unwanted signals can be eliminated. =====Local Oscillator Frequency===== Since the mixer generates sum and difference frequencies, it is possible to generate the 455&nbsp;kHz IF signal if the local oscillator is either above or below the IF. The inevitable question is which is preferable. ::'''Case I The local Oscillator is above the IF.''' This would require that the oscillator tune from (500 + 455) kHz to (1600 + 455) kHz or approximately 1 to 2 MHz. It is normally the capacitor in a tuned RLC circuit, which is varied to adjust the center frequency while the inductor is left fixed. ::Since <math>f_c = \frac{1}{{2\pi \sqrt {LC} }}</math> ::solving for ''C'' we obtain <math>C = \frac{1}{{L\left( {2\pi f_c } \right)^2 }}</math> ::When the tuning frequency is a maximum, the tuning capacitor is a minimum and vice versa. Since we know the range of frequencies to be created, we can deduce the range of capacitance required. ::::<math>\frac{{C_{\max } }}{{C_{\min } }} = \frac{{L\left( {2\pi f_{\max } } \right)^2 }}{{L\left( {2\pi f_{\min } } \right)^2 }} = \left( {\frac{{2\;MHz}}{{1\;MHz}}} \right)^2 = 4</math> Making a capacitor with a 4:1 value change is well within the realm of possibility. ::'''Case II The local Oscillator is below the IF'''. This would require that the oscillator tune from (500 - 455) kHz to (1600 - 455) kHz or approximately 45 kHz to 1145 kHz, in which case: ::::<math>\frac{{C_{\max } }}{{C_{\min } }} = \left( {\frac{{1145\;kHz}}{{45\;kHz}}} \right)^2 \approx 648</math> It is not practical to make a tunable capacitor with this type of range. Therefore the local oscillator in a standard AM receiver is above the radio band. =====Image Frequency===== Just as there are two oscillator frequencies, which can create the same IF, two different station frequencies can create the IF. The undesired station frequency is known as the image frequency. ::[[Image:Image_frequency.gif|left|thumb]] If any circuit in the radio front end exhibits non-linearities, there is a possibility that other combinations may create the intermediate frequency. Once the image frequency is in the mixer, there is no way to remove it since it is now heterodyned into the same IF band as the desired station. == AM Demodulation == ====AM Detection==== There are two basic type of AM detection, coherent and non-coherent. Of these two, the non-coherent is the simpler method. ::*Non-coherent detection does not rely on regenerating the carrier signal. The information or modulation envelope can be removed or detected by a diode followed by an audio filter. ::*Coherent detection relies on regenerating the carrier and mixing it with the AM signal. This creates sum and difference frequencies. The difference frequency corresponds to the original modulation signal. Both of these detection techniques have certain drawbacks. Consequently, most radio receivers use a combination of both. =====Envelope Detector===== ::[[Image:Envelope_detector.gif|left|thumb]] When trying to demodulate an AM signal, it seems like good sense that only the amplitude of the signal needs to be examined. By only examining the amplitude of the signal at any given time, we can remove the carrier signal from our considerations, and we can examine the original signal. Luckily, we have a tool in our toolbox that we can use to examine the amplitude of a signal: The Envelope Detector. An envelope detector is simply a half wave rectifier followed by a low pass filter. In the case of commercial AM radio receivers, the detector is placed after the IF section. The carrier at this point is 455&nbsp;kHz while the maximum envelope frequency is only 5&nbsp;kHz. Since the ripple component is nearly 100 times the frequency of the highest baseband signal and does not pass through any subsequent audio amplifiers. :An AM signal where the carrier frequency is only 10 times the envelope frequency would have considerable ripple: ::[[Image:Exagerated_am_ripple.gif|left|thumb]] =====Synchronous Detector===== In a synchronous or coherent detector, the incoming AM signal is mixed with the original carrier frequency. ::[[Image:Synchronous_detector.gif|left|thumb]] If you think this looks suspiciously like a mixer, you are absolutely right! A synchronous detector is one where the difference frequency between the two inputs is zero Hz. Of in other words, the two input frequencies are the same. Let's check the math. Recall that the AM input is mathematically defined by: ::::<math>e_{am} = \underbrace {\sin \omega _c t}_{{\rm{Carrier}}} + \underbrace {\frac{m}{2}\sin \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t}_{{\rm{Lower}}\;{\rm{Sideband}}} - \underbrace {\frac{m}{2}\sin \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t}_{{\rm{Upper}}\;{\rm{Sideband}}}</math> :At the multiplier output, we obtain: ::::<math>{\rm{mixer}}\;{\rm{out = }}e_{am} \times \sin \omega _c t = \underbrace { - \frac{m}{2}\sin \omega _m t}_{{\rm{Original}}\;{\rm{Modulation}}\;{\rm{Signal}}}\underbrace { - \frac{1}{2}\sin 2\omega _c t - \frac{m}{4}\sin \left( {2\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t + \frac{m}{4}\sin \left( {2\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t}_{{\rm{AM}}\;{\rm{signal}}\;{\rm{centered}}\;{\rm{at}}\;{\rm{2}}\;{\rm{times}}\;{\rm{the}}\;{\rm{carrier}}\;{\rm{frequency}}}</math> The high frequency component can be filtered off leaving only the original modulation signal. This technique has one serious drawback. The problem is how to create the exact carrier frequency. If the frequency is not exact, the entire baseband signal will be shifted by the difference. A shift of only 50&nbsp;Hz will make the human voice unrecognizable. It is possible to use a PLL (phase locked loop), but making one tunable for the entire AM band is not trivial. As a result, most radio receivers use an oscillator to create a fixed intermediate frequency. This is then followed by an envelope detector or a fixed frequency PLL. =====Squaring Detector===== The squaring detector is also a synchronous or coherent detector. It avoids the problem of having to recreate the carrier by simply squaring the input signal. It essentially uses the AM signal itself as a sort of wideband carrier. ::[[Image:Squaring_detector.gif|left|thumb]] :The output of the multiplier is the square of the input AM signal: ::::<math>{\left( {e_{am} } \right)^2 = \left( {\sin \omega _c t + \frac{m}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{m}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t} \right)^2} </math> Since the input is being multiplied by the <math>{\sin \omega _c t}</math> component, one of the resulting difference terms is the original modulation signal. The principle difficulty with this approach is trying to create a linear, high frequency multiplier. == AM-DSB-SC == AM-DSB-SC is characterized by the following transmission equation: ::::<math>v(t) = A s(t) \cos(2 \pi f_c t)</math> It is important to notice that s(t) can contain a negative value. AM-DSB-SC requires a coherent receiver, because the modulation data can go negative, and therefore the receiver needs to know that the signal is negative (and not just phase shifted). AM-DSB-SC systems are very susceptible to frequency shifting and phase shifting on the receiving end. In this equation, A is the transmission amplitude. Double side band suppressed carrier modulation is simply AM without the broadcast carrier. Recall that the AM signal is defined by: ::::<math>e_{am} = \left( {1 + m\sin \omega _m t} \right)\sin \omega _c t = \sin \omega _c t + \frac{{m_2 }}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{{m_2 }}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> :The carrier term in the spectrum can be eliminated by removing the dc offset from the modulating signal: ::::<math>e_{DSBSC} = m\sin \omega _m t\sin \omega _c t = \frac{{m_2 }}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{{m_2 }}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> === Double Balanced Ring Modulator === One of the circuits which is capable of creating DSBSC is the double balance ring modulator. ::[[Image:Ring_modulator.gif|left|thumb]] If the carrier is large enough to cause the diodes to switch states, then the circuit acts like a diode switching modulator: ::[[Image:Ring_modulator_2.gif|left|thumb]] The modulation signal is inverted at the carrier rate. This is essentially multiplication by ±1. Since the transformers cannot pass dc, there is no term which when multiplied can create an output carrier. Since the diodes will switch equally well on either cycle, the modulation signal is effectively being multiplied by a 50% duty cycle square wave creating numerous DSBSC signals, each centered at an odd multiple of the carrier frequency. Bandpass filters are used to extract the frequency of interest. Some IC balanced modulators use this technique, but use transistors instead of diodes to perform the switching. === Push Pull Square Law Balanced Modulator === ::[[Image:Push_pull_mod.gif|left|thumb]] This circuit uses the same principles as the diode square law modulator. Since dc cannot pass through the transformer, it would be expected that there would be no output signal at the carrier frequency. The drain current vs. gate-source voltage is of the form: ::::<math>i_d = i_0 + av_{gs} + v_{gs}^2 </math> :The net drain current in the output transformer is given by: ::::<math>i_{net} = i_{d1} - i_{d2} = i_0 + av_{gs1} + bv_{gs1}^2 - \left( {i_0 + av_{gs2} + bv_{gs2}^2 } \right)</math> ::::<math>i_{net} = a\left( {v_{gs1} - v_{gs2} } \right) + b\left( {v_{gs1} + v_{gs2} } \right)\left( {v_{gs1} - v_{gs2} } \right)</math> :By applying KVL around the gate loops we obtain: ::::<math>v_{gs1} = \frac{{e_m }}{2} + e_c \quad \quad \quad \quad v_{gs2} = - \frac{{e_m }}{2} + e_c </math> :Putting it all together we obtain: ::::<math>i_{net} = a\left( {\frac{{e_m }}{2} + e_c + \frac{{e_m }}{2} - e_c } \right) + b\left( {\frac{{e_m }}{2} + e_c - \frac{{e_m }}{2} + e_c } \right)\left( {\frac{{e_m }}{2} + e_c + \frac{{e_m }}{2} - e_c } \right)</math> ::::<math>i_{net} = ae_m + 2be_c e_m </math> :From this we note that the first term is the originating modulation signal and can easily be filtered off by a high pass filter. The second term is of the form: ::::<math>\sin \omega _m t\sin \omega _c t = \frac{1}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{1}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> :which is AM DSBSC. == AM-DSB-C == In contrast to AM-DSB-SC is AM-DSB-C, which is categorized by the following equation: ::::<math>v(t) = A [s(t) + c] \cos (2 \pi f_c t)</math> Where c is a positive term representing the carrier. If the term <math>[s(t) + c]</math> is always non-negative, we can receive the AM-DSB-C signal non-coherently, using a simple envelope detector to remove the cosine term. The +c term is simply a constant DC signal and can be removed by using a blocking capacitor. It is important to note that in AM-DSB-C systems, a large amount of power is wasted in the transmission sending a "boosted" carrier frequency. since the carrier contains no information, it is considered to be wasted energy. The advantage to this method is that it greatly simplifies the receiver design, since there is no need to generate a coherent carrier signal at the receiver. For this reason, this is the transmission method used in conventional AM radio. AM-DSB-SC and AM-DSB-C both suffer in terms of bandwidth from the fact that they both send two identical (but reversed) frequency "lobes", or bands. These bands (the upper band and the lower band) are exactly mirror images of each other, and therefore contain identical information. Why can't we just cut one of them out, and save some bandwidth? The answer is that we can cut out one of the bands, but it isn't always a good idea. The technique of cutting out one of the sidebands is called '''Amplitude Modulation Single-Side-Band''' (AM-SSB). AM-SSB has a number of problems, but also some good aspects. A compromise between AM-SSB and the two AM-DSB methods is called '''Amplitude Modulation Vestigial-Side-Band''' (AM-VSB), which uses less bandwidth then the AM-DSB methods, but more than the AM-SSB. === Transmitter === A typical AM-DSB-C transmitter looks like this: c cos(...) | | Signal ---->(+)---->(X)----> AM-DSB-C which is a little more complicated than an AM-DSB-SC transmitter. === Receiver === An AM-DSB-C receiver is very simple: AM-DSB-C ---->|Envelope Filter|---->|Capacitor|----> Signal The capacitor blocks the DC component, and effectively removes the +c term. == AM-SSB == To send an AM-SSB signal, we need to remove one of the sidebands from an AM-DSB signal. This means that we need to pass the AM-DSB signal through a filter, to remove one of the sidebands. The filter, however, needs to be a very high order filter, because we need to have a very aggressive roll-off. One sideband needs to pass the filter almost completely unchanged, and the other sideband needs to be stopped completely at the filter. To demodulate an AM-SSB signal, we need to perform the following steps: #Low-pass filter, to remove noise #Modulate the signal ''again'' by the carrier frequency #Pass through another filter, to remove high-frequency components #Amplify the signal, because the previous steps have attenuated it significantly. AM-SSB is most efficient in terms of bandwidth, but there is a significant added cost involved in terms of more complicated hardware to send and receive this signal. For this reason, AM-SSB is rarely seen as being cost effective. Single sideband is a form of AM with the carrier and one sideband removed. In normal AM broadcast, the transmitter is rated in terms of the carrier power. SSB transmitters attempt to eliminate the carrier and one of the sidebands. Therefore, transmitters are rated in PEP (peak envelope power). ::::<math>PEP = \frac{{\left( {{\rm{peak}}\;{\rm{envelope}}\;{\rm{voltage}}} \right)^2 }}{{2R_L }}</math> ::With normal voice signals, an SSB transmitter outputs 1/4 to 1/3 PEP. There are numerous variations of SSB: ::*SSB - Single sideband - amateur radio ::*SSSC - Single sideband suppressed carrier - a small pilot carrier is transmitted ::*ISB - Independent sideband - two separate sidebands with a suppressed carrier. Used in radio telephony. ::*VSB - Vestigial sideband - a partial sideband. Used in broadcast TV. ::*ACSSB - Amplitude companded SSB There are several advantages of using SSB: ::• More efficient spectrum utilization ::• Less subject to selective fading ::• More power can be placed in the intelligence signal ::• 10 to 12 dB noise reduction due to bandwidth limiting ===Filter Method=== The simplest way to create SSB is to generate DSBSC and then use a bandpass filter to extract one of the sidebands. ::[[Image:Filter_sideband.gif|left|thumb]] This technique can be used at relatively low carrier frequencies. At high frequencies, the ''Q'' of the filter becomes unacceptably high. The required ''Q'' necessary to filter off one of the sidebands can be approximated by: ::::<math>Q \approx \frac{{f_c \sqrt S }}{{4\Delta f}}</math> :where: ::::<math>f_c = {\rm{ carrier}}\;{\rm{frequency}}</math> ::::<math>\Delta f = {\rm{ sideband}}\;{\rm{separation}}</math> ::::<math>S = {\rm{ sideband}}\;{\rm{suppression}}\;{\rm{(not}}\;{\rm{in}}\;{\rm{dB)}}</math> Several types of filters are used to suppress unwanted sidebands: ::*LC - Maximum Q = 200 ::*Ceramic - Maximum Q = 2000 ::*Mechanical - Maximum Q = 10,000 ::*Crystal - Maximum Q = 50,000 In order to reduce the demands placed upon the filter, a double heterodyne technique can be used. ::[[Image:SSB_double_heterodyne.gif|left|thumb]] The first local oscillator has a relatively low frequency thus enabling the removal of one of the sidebands produced by the first mixer. The signal is then heterodyned a second time, creating another pair of sidebands. However, this time they are separated by a sufficiently large gap that one can be removed by the band limited power amplifier or antenna matching network. ::'''Example''' ::Observe the spectral distribution under the following conditions: :::• Audio baseband = 100 HZ to 5 KHz :::• LO1 = 100 kHz :::• LO2 = 50 MHz :The spectral output of the first mixer is: ::[[Image:First_mixer.gif]] ::If the desired sideband suppression is 80 dB, the ''Q'' required to filter off one of the sidebands is approximately: ::::<math>S = \log ^{ - 1} \left( {\frac{{80}}{{20}}} \right) = 10^4</math> ::::<math>Q \approx \frac{{f_c \sqrt S }}{{4\Delta f}} = \frac{{100 \times 10^3 \sqrt {10^4 } }}{{4 \times 200}} = 12500</math> :It is evident that a crystal filter would be needed to remove the unwanted sideband. :After the filter, only one sideband is left. In this example, we’ll retain the USB. The spectrum after the second mixer is: ::[[Image:SSB modulator second mixer output.gif]] :The ''Q'' required to suppress one of the side bands by 80 dB is approximately: ::::<math>Q \approx \frac{{f_c \sqrt S }}{{4\Delta f}} = \frac{{50 \times 10^6 \sqrt {10^4 } }}{{4 \times 200.2 \times 10^3 }} = 6244</math> :Thus, we note that the required Q drops in half. This SSB filter technique is used in radiotelephone applications. ===Phase Shift Method=== ::[[Image:SSB_phase_shift.gif|left|thumb]] The output from the top mixer is given by: ::::<math>\sin \omega _m t\sin \omega _c t = \frac{1}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{1}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> :The output from the bottom mixer is given by: ::::<math>\cos \omega _m t\cos \omega _c t = \frac{1}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t + \frac{1}{2}\cos \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t</math> :The output of the sumer is: ::::<math>\cos \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t</math> :which corresponds to the lower sideband. The major difficulty with this technique is the need to provide a constant 90^o phase shift over the entire input audio band. To overcome this obstacle, the Weaver or third method uses an audio sub carrier, which is phase shifted. ===Weaver Method=== The Weaver or ‘third’ method places the baseband signal on a low frequency quadrature carrier. ::[[Image:SSB_Weaver.gif|left|thumb]] This has the advantage of not requiring a broadband phase shifter however; the use of four mixers makes it awkward and seldom used. ::[[Image:AM_waveforms.gif|left|thumb]] === SSB Transmitter === AM-SSB transmitters are a little more complicated: cos(...) | Signal ---->(X)---->|Low-Pass Filter|----> AM-SSB The filter must be a very high order, for reasons explained in that chapter. === SSB Receiver === An AM-SSB receiver is a little bit complicated as well: cos(...) | AM-SSB ---->(X)---->|Low-Pass Filter|---->|Amplifier|----> Signal This filter doesnt need to be a very high order, like the transmitter has. These receivers require extremely stable oscillators, good adjacent channel selectivity, and typically use a double conversion technique. Envelope detectors cannot be used since the envelope varies at twice the frequency of the AM envelope. Stable oscillators are needed since the detected signal is proportional to the difference between the untransmitted carrier and the instantaneous side band. A small shift of 50&nbsp;Hz makes the received signal unusable. SSB receivers typically use fixed frequency tuning rather than continuous tuning as found on most radios. Crystal oscillators are often used to select the fixed frequency channels. == AM-VSB == Single-sideband modulation works satisfactorily for an information-bearing signal (e.g., speech signal) with an energy gap centered around zero frequency. However, for the spectrally efficient transmission of wideband signals, we have to look to a new method of modulation for two reasons: * ''Typically, the spectra of wideband signals (exemplified by television video signals and'' ''computer data) contain significant low frequencies, which make it impractical to use'' ''SSB modulation.'' * ''The spectral characteristics of wideband data befit the use of DSB-SC. However, DSBSC'' ''requires a transmission bandwidth equal to twice the message bandwidth, which'' ''violates the bandwidth conservation requirement.'' To overcome these two practical limitations, we need a compromise method of modulation that lies somewhere between SSB and DSB-SC in its spectral characteristics. Vestigial sideband, the remaining modulation scheme to be considered in this section, is that compromise scheme. Vestigial sideband (VSB) modulation distinguishes itself from SSB modulation in two practical respects: * ''Instead of completely removing a sideband, a trace or vestige of that sideband is transmitted, hence, the name “vestigial sideband.”'' * ''Instead of transmitting the other sideband in full, almost the whole of this second band is also transmitted.'' === Transmitter === Here we will talk about an AM-VSB transmitter circuit. === Receiver === Here we will talk about an AM-VSB receiver circuit. rzlpr7tq4rhcff9bcqpur3qf11obcgd 0 50474 4671921 3659801 2026-09-23T08:12:58Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671921 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Adjective Types== Quenya has 3 types of adjectives depending on their final letter: :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\`C}}</small> -''a'': :* <small>{{Tengwar|`Cj1E}}</small> ''alta'' "big" :* <small>{{Tengwar|aY65#}}</small> ''corna'' "round" :* <small>{{Tengwar|j#6aD}}</small> ''larca'' "swift, rapid" :* <small>{{Tengwar|7lDaD}}</small> ''raica'' "bent" :* <small>{{Tengwar|eD7R`C}}</small> ''farëa'' "enough" :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\`V}}</small> -''ë'': :* <small>{{Tengwar|j.FaR}}</small> ''leucë'' "sick" :* <small>{{Tengwar|5%v$}}</small> ''ninquë'' "white" :* <small>{{Tengwar|aD65$}}</small> ''carnë'' "red" :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\5}}</small> -''n''; most end in <small>{{Tengwar|\`B5}}</small> -''in'' but some in <small>{{Tengwar|\`V5}}</small> -''en'': :* <small>{{Tengwar|t#7T5}}</small> ''marin'' "ripe" :* <small>{{Tengwar|zDj%5}}</small> ''qualin'' "dead" :* <small>{{Tengwar|qR7R5}}</small> ''peren'' "patient" Adjectives are mostly placed in front of the noun to which they belong: * <small>{{Tengwar|j#6aD 8~B7R}}</small> ''larca sírë'' "a rapid river" * <small>{{Tengwar|`B 5%v$ eD5Ì#}}</small> ''i ninquë fanya'' "the white cloud" It is emphasized by putting it after its noun: * <small>{{Tengwar|t#j°$ 7lDaD}}</small> ''mallë raica'' "a bent (and not straight) road" With a proper noun adjectives are always put behind the noun: * <small>{{Tengwar|`Vj$2%j yY7Y2#}}</small> ''Elendil Voronda'' "Elendil (the) Faithful, Faithful Elendil" Adjectives can also be used predicatively with the verb ''ná'': * <small>{{Tengwar|`B qE6t# 5~C aD65$}}</small> ''i parma ná carnë'' "the book is red" In such short sentences <small>{{Tengwar|5~C}}</small> ''ná'' or <small>{{Tengwar|5#6}}</small> ''nar'' is often omitted: * <small>{{Tengwar|`B qE6t# aD65$}}</small> ''i parma carnë'' "the book is red" ==Plural== Adjectives have only one plural form; it is used whenever the noun it belongs to is not singular (so dual, plural and partitive plural make no difference for the adjective): * <small>{{Tengwar|aD65% qE6t#6}}</small> ''carni parmar'' "red books" * <small>{{Tengwar|aD65% qE6t#1}}</small> ''carni parmat'' "a pair of red books" * <small>{{Tengwar|aD65% qE6t#j%}}</small> ''carni parmali'' "some red books" Predicatively used adjectives are in the plural whenever the subject refers to more than one person or thing: * <small>{{Tengwar|`B aG7ÎE6 5#6 5%v%}}</small> ''i ciryar nar ninqui'' "the ships are white" * <small>{{Tengwar|`B `C7E5 `C6 `B 1~C7T 5#6 `Cj1R}}</small> ''i aran ar i tári nar altë'' "the king and queen are big" ''''Formation of the plural'''': :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\`C}}</small> -''a'' but not in <small>{{Tengwar|\`V`C}}</small> -''ëa'': :* <small>{{Tengwar|`Cj1E}}</small> ''alta'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Cj1R}}</small> ''altë'' "big" :* <small>{{Tengwar|aY65#}}</small> ''corna'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|aY65$}}</small> ''cornë'' "round" :* <small>{{Tengwar|7lDaD}}</small> ''raica'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|7lDaR}}</small> ''raicë'' "bent" :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\`V`C}}</small> -''ëa'': :* <small>{{Tengwar|eD7R`C}}</small> ''farëa'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|eD7T`V}}</small> ''farië'' "enough" :* <small>{{Tengwar|j.D7R`C}}</small> ''laurëa'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|j.D7T`V}}</small> ''laurië'' "golden" :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\`V}}</small> -''ë'': :* <small>{{Tengwar|j.FaR}}</small> ''leucë'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|j.FaG}}</small> ''leuci'' "sick" :* <small>{{Tengwar|5%v$}}</small> ''ninquë'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|5%v%}}</small> ''ninqui'' "white" :Adjectives in <small>{{Tengwar|\5}}</small> -''n'' have two possible forms: :* <small>{{Tengwar|t#7T5}}</small> ''marin'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|t#7T5% - t#7T2%}}</small> ''marini''/''marindi'' "ripe" :* <small>{{Tengwar|zDj%5}}</small> ''qualin'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|zDj%5% - zDj%2%}}</small> ''qualini''/''qualindi'' "dead" :* <small>{{Tengwar|qR7R5}}</small> ''peren'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|qR7R5% - qR7R2%}}</small> ''pereni''/''perendi'' "patient" :One adjective is irregular: :* <small>{{Tengwar|tlD1R}}</small> ''maitë'' &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|tlDiG}}</small> ''maisi'' "handy" ==Inflected adjectives== In Quenya there are only 2 occurrences in which the adjectives are inflected: :When the adjective is used as a noun :When the adjective immediately follows its noun In all other places an adjective only has 2 forms: singular and plural (see above). Examples and paradigms can be found on a separate page: [[../Inflected adjectives/]]. ==Comparative== Quenya uses two different comparatives: relative and absolute. ===Relative Comparison=== When we use an adjective in a relative comparison, it is preceded by <small>{{Tengwar|j~C}}</small> ''lá'' but its form doesn’t change: * <small>{{Tengwar|`N7Yt$ 5~C 9Cj°# j~C t#2^8}}</small> ''Oromë ná halla lá Mandos'' "Orome is taller than Mandos" * <small>{{Tengwar|`C5#6 5~C aDj%t# j~C `BiGj}}</small> ''Anar ná calima lá Isil'' "The sun is brighter than the moon" Note: <small>{{Tengwar|j~C}}</small> ''lá'' is also used to negate a [[../Verbs|verb]], so it can appear with both meanings in one sentence: * <small>{{Tengwar|j~C aD7Tj´$8 tlDaD j~C t#aGj$7ÎE}}</small> ''lá carilyes maica lá macilerya'' "you don't make it sharper than your sword" If one is unsure of the meaning of which <small>{{Tengwar|j~C}}</small> ''lá'' is being used, simply identify the following word to determine the meaning: * <small>{{Tengwar|j~C}}</small> ''lá'' followed by a "noun" = Relative Comparison. * <small>{{Tengwar|j~C}}</small> ''lá'' followed by a "verb" = Verb Negation. ===Absolute Comparison=== If on the other hand the comparison is used absolutively, we have a special ending <small>{{Tengwar|\m#}}</small> –''lda'': * <small>{{Tengwar|`N7Yt$ 5~C 9Cj°#m#}}</small> ''Oromë ná hallalda'' "Orome is longer" So these comparatives are always adjectives on <small>{{Tengwar|\`C}}</small> –''a'' and follow the rules of these adjectives: * <small>{{Tengwar|jlDzDm$ qRj$7T}}</small> ''laiqualdë peleri'' "greener fields" To apply the ending to adjectives on <small>{{Tengwar|\`V}}</small> –''ë'' we use their I-stem: * <small>{{Tengwar|5%v$}}</small> ''ninquë'' "white" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|5%v%m#}}</small> ''ninquilda'' and adjectives on <small>{{Tengwar|\`B5 - \`V5}}</small> –''in''/-''en'' get the ending <small>{{Tengwar|\`Bm#}}</small> –''ilda'': * <small>{{Tengwar|t$j%5}}</small> ''melin'' "dear" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|t$j%5%m#}}</small> ''melinilda'' Finally, a few are irregular: * <small>{{Tengwar|t~C7E - t#5$}}</small> ''mára''/''manë'' "good" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|t#m#}}</small> ''malda'' "better" * <small>{{Tengwar|yE5Ì#}}</small> ''vanya'' "beautiful, fair" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|yEm#}}</small> ''valda'' "more beautiful, fairer" * <small>{{Tengwar|`MjaD}}</small> ''ulca'' "bad" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Mm#}}</small> ''ulda'' "worse" * <small>{{Tengwar|elDaD}}</small> ''faica'' "bad" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|eRm#}}</small> ''felda'' "worse" * <small>{{Tengwar|j%w#}}</small> ''limba'' "many" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|j%m#}}</small> ''lilda'' "more" * <small>{{Tengwar|`Nj´#}}</small> ''olya'' "much" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Nm#}}</small> ''olda'' "more" and the diminutive: * <small>{{Tengwar|t#f#}}</small> ''manca'' "few" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|t%1E+}}</small> ''mitsa'' "less" ==Superlative== The superlative is formed by applying the prefix <small>{{Tengwar|`C5\}}</small> ''an''- to the adjective: * <small>{{Tengwar|aDj%t#}}</small> ''calima'' "clear" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Cf#j%t#}}</small> ''ancalima'' "clearest" * <small>{{Tengwar|yT5Ì#}}</small> ''vinya'' "new" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5yT5Ì#}}</small> ''anvinya'' "newest" This prefix cannot be applied to every adjective as otherwise unallowed consonant clusters could appear (see [[../Phonology/]]).<br /> It can be prefixed to adjectives beginning in: a vowel, ''c''-, ''n''-, ''qu''-, ''t''-, ''v''-, ''w''-, ''y''-. some other consonants can get the prefix <small>{{Tengwar|`C5#\}}</small> ''ana''-: * <small>{{Tengwar|`Cj1E}}</small> ''alta'' "big" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5#j1E}}</small> ''analta'' "biggest" * <small>{{Tengwar|5%2$}}</small> ''nindë'' "fragile" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5:%2$}}</small> ''annindë'' "most fragile" * <small>{{Tengwar|zD4#}}</small> ''quanta'' "full" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Cv#4#}}</small> ''anquanta'' "fullest" * <small>{{Tengwar|nTjnE}}</small> ''wilwa'' "vague" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5nTjnE}}</small> ''anwilwa'' "vaguest" * <small>{{Tengwar|hÍRjnE}}</small> ''yelwa'' "loathsome" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5Ì$jnE}}</small> ''anyelwa'' "most loathsome" * <small>{{Tengwar|eU7T5}}</small> ''furin'' "hidden" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5#eU7T5}}</small> ''anafurin'' "most hidden" * <small>{{Tengwar|9Cj°#}}</small> ''halla'' "long" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5#dEj°#}}</small> ''anahalla'' "longest" When an adjective begins in <small>{{Tengwar|q\}}</small> ''p''- the prefix becomes <small>{{Tengwar|`Ct\}}</small> ''am''-: * <small>{{Tengwar|qT1ÎE}}</small> ''pitya'' "small, little" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Cr%1ÎE}}</small> ''ampitya'' "smallest" Before ''l''-, ''m''-, ''r''-, ''s''- the ''n'' of ''an''- assimilates into the following consonant to make it a double consonant: * <small>{{Tengwar|jlDaD}}</small> ''lauca'' "warm" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Cj°lDaD}}</small> ''allauca'' "warmest" * <small>{{Tengwar|7Ts#}}</small> ''ringa'' "cold" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C7;Ts#}}</small> ''arringa'' "coldest" * <small>{{Tengwar|iDuE}}</small> ''sarda'' "hard" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C,DuE}}</small> ''assarda'' "hardest" * <small>{{Tengwar|t#7T5}}</small> ''marin'' "ripe" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`C5:#7T5}}</small> ''ammarin'' "ripest" But when we look at the historical development of Quenya, a large group of adjectives must have 'historical' irregularities, e.g. * <small>{{Tengwar|yE5Ì#}}</small> ''vanya'' "beautiful" &rarr; <small>{{Tengwar|`Cw#5Ì#}}</small> ''ambanya'' "most beautiful" We will look at these on a separate page: [[../Old-Elvish influences|historical superlatives]]. ---- >> [[Neo-Quenya]] >> [[../Adjectives/]] {{BookCat}} gqr4omkot6ckuyyeyhwsioplww3se6s 0 71663 4671943 3717007 2026-09-23T10:47:23Z ~2026-51299-17 3626669 /* Mixers */ 4671943 wikitext text/x-wiki {{honor_header|1|1928|Household Arts|General Conference}} {{AY Master|Homemaker}} ==1. Know how to properly operate the kind of stove you have in your home. Know how to put out an oil or grease fire on your stove. Know how to prevent such a fire. Know safety precautions while cooking, including consideration of small children.== ;Operating a stove: There are two major classes of stoves in common use in the United States today, the gas stove and the electric stove. Gas stoves burn either propane or natural gas and cook with an exposed flame. Most have automatic ignition so you do not need to strike a match to light a burner. Simply turn the knob and set the flame to the desired level. Electric stoves cook with a heating element which converts electrical energy into heat. Like gas stoves, the cook must turn a knob, but unlike gas stoves, there is no flame, so its level cannot be directly observed. Instead, the knobs are marked with numbers generally ranging from 1 to 9 or 10. The settings 1-3 corresponds to low heat, 4-6 correspond to medium heat, and 7-10 correspond to high heat. ;Putting out a grease fire: In case of a grease fire in a pan, cover the pan with its lid. This will deprive the fire of oxygen and it will go out. If the cover is already on the pan, you may need to use a fire extinguisher. Do not use water. Have a fire extinguisher in your kitchen for such an emergency. ;Safety considerations: Stoves with knobs along the back of the unit are more appropriate in households with small children because the children cannot reach the knobs and turn the stove on. This does present a greater danger to the cook, as he or she must reach across the burners to adjust the knobs - don't wear loose clothing when cooking with such a stove. Another hazard to children involving stoves are pot handles. A pot handle should always be turned so it does not overhang the edge of the stove where a child could grab it or run into it. An overturned pot of boiling water can cause severe burns. Do not place flammable items on the stove, ever. This includes paper or plastic plates, or food packaging items (boxes and bags). It is easy to accidentally turn on the wrong burner, and if a flammable item is on that burner, tragedy may ensue. Remember that the burners stay hot for several minutes after they have been turned off. Many foods (especially pastas) are boiled in water and the water is then drained. Use a colander for this purpose. When transporting a pot full of boiling water from the stove to the sink, do not lift the pot over the head of a child who may be underfoot - clear the area first. While cooking, dishes and cooking implements pile up in the sinks of even the cleanest of kitchens. Remove any dishes from the sink before pouring boiling water into it. The sudden temperature increase can shatter glass, and you do not want boiling water to pool up in any dishes in the sink. ==2. Know how to properly use measuring spoons, measuring cups, and if available an electric mixer, a blender, and a food processor.== ===Measuring spoons and cups=== Measuring spoons are used for measuring small amounts of dry or liquid ingredients. It is best to have two sets and use one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for measuring liquid ingredients. This will save you time because you won't have to wash and dry the spoons every time you need to switch between dry and liquid items. For liquid measures, fill the spoon all the way to the top. For dry measures, level the spoon off with a knife. Measuring cups are for measuring larger amounts of ingredients, and again, it is wise to have two to avoid mixing dry and wet ingredients during the measuring process, but even more importantly, a dry measure is not the same thing as a liquid measure. A dry measuring cup measures ''volume'' while a liquid measuring cup measures ''weight.'' It is unfortunate that these units are both named '''ounces'''. A one-ounce volume of water very nearly weighs one ounce, but a one-ounce volume of flour weighs quite a bit less than one ounce. Make sure you understand which type of ounce is being specified in a recipe. Measure dry ingredients with a dry measuring cup using the same procedure as with a measuring spoon - that is, level it off with a knife. Liquid measuring cups are usually made of glass, and the measurements are marked on the side. Fill the measuring cup to the correct level by looking directly across the measuring line, not looking down at an angle. ===Electric Mixer=== [[image:Handheld_Electric_Beater.jpg|right|250px]] A electric mixer is a kitchen appliance intended for mixing, folding, beating, and whipping food ingredients. Mixers come in two major variations, hand mixers and stand mixers. A hand mixer, as the name implies, is a hand-held device. It typically consists of a handle mounted over a large enclosure containing the motor, which drives two beaters. The beaters are immersed in the food to be mixed. Be careful when removing the beaters from the food. If you have a deep bowl and can lift the beaters free of the food without lifting them above the rim of the bowl, you may lift them before turning off the mixer. This will fling food onto the sides of the bowl freeing it from the beaters. If you lift running beaters outside the bowl, you will fling food all over the kitchen, creating an unnecessary mess. A stand mixer is essentially the same as a hand mixer, but is mounted on a stand which bears the weight of the device. Stand mixers are larger and have more powerful motors than their hand-held counterparts. They generally have a special bowl that is locked in place while the mixer is operating. {{clear}} ===Blenders=== [[image:ElectricBlender.jpg|right|250px]] A blender is a kitchen appliance used to blend ingredients or puree food. The term typically refers to a stationary, upright electrical device, which is to be distinguished from a hand-powered or electric mixer that may be used for similar purposes. A typical blender is built around a vessel for the ingredients to be blended. At the top of the vessel is a cap to prevent ingredients from escaping when the blender is switched on. At the bottom is a blade assembly, typically removable for cleaning purposes. The bottom seal is most likely watertight. The vessel rests upon a base containing a motor (for turning the blade assembly) with controls on its surface. Most modern blenders offer a number of possible speeds. {{clear}} ===Food Processors=== [[Image:Food Processor 2.jpg|right|250px]] A '''food processor''' is a kitchen appliance used to facilitate various repetitive tasks in the process of preparation of food. Today, the term almost always refers to an electric-motor-driven appliance, although there are some manual devices also referred to as "food processors". Food processors are similar to blenders in many ways. The primary difference is that food processors use swappable blades and disks (''attachments'') instead of a fixed blade. Also, their bowls are wider and shorter, a more appropriate shape for the solid or semi-solid foods usually worked in a food processor. Its functions normally consist of: * Chopping Vegetables * Grinding items such as nuts, meat, or dried fruit * Shredding or Grating cheese or vegetables * Pureeing * Mixing and kneading doughs The base of the unit houses a motor which turns a vertical shaft. A bowl, usually made of transparent plastic, fits around the shaft. Cutting blades can be attached to the shaft; these fit so as to operate near the bottom of the bowl. Shredding or slicing disks can be attached instead; these spin near the top of the bowl. A lid with a "feed tube" is then fitted onto the bowl. The feed tube allows ingredients to be added while chopping, grinding or pureeing. It also serves as a chute through which items are introduced to shredding or slicing disks. A "pusher" is provided, sized to slide through the feed tube, protecting fingers. Almost all modern food processors have safety devices which prevent the motor from operating if the bowl isn't properly affixed to the base or if the lid isn't properly affixed to the bowl. ==3. What is meant by boiling, broiling, frying, baking, simmering, waterless cooking, and if available microwave cooking? Which are the most healthful ways of preparing common foods? Which are the most unhealthful ways?== ===Boiling=== Boiling is cooking food in boiling water, or other water-based liquid such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles. In places where the available water supply is contaminated with disease-causing bacteria, boiling water (and allowing it to cool) before drinking it is a valuable health measure. Boiling water for a few minutes kills most bacteria, amoebas, and other microbial pathogens. It thus can help prevent cholera, dysentery, and other diseases caused by these organisms. Foods suitable for boiling include fish, vegetables, pasta, eggs, meats, sauces, stock, and soups. Advantages: * Older, tougher, cheaper joints of meat and poultry can be made digestible. * It is appropriate for large-scale cookery * Nutritious, well flavored stock is produced * It is safe and simple * Maximum colour and nutritive value is retained when cooking green vegetables, provided boiling time is kept to the minimum Disadvantages: * There is a loss of soluble vitamins in the water. * It can be a slow method * Foods can look unattractive Boiling can be done in two ways: The food can be placed into already rapidly boiling water and left to cook, the heat can be turned down and the food can be simmered; or the food can also be placed into the pot, and cold water may be added to the pot. This may then be boiled until the food is satisfactory. ===Broiling=== Broiling is a process of cooking food with high heat with the heat applied directly to the food, most commonly from above. As it is a way of cooking without added oil, it is popular in low-fat diets. In electric ovens, broiling is accomplished by placing the food near the upper heating element, with the lower heating element off and the oven door partially open. Gas ovens often have a separate compartment for broiling, as a drawer below the flame. ===Frying=== Frying is the cooking of food in oil or fat. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, but the distinction is only made when needed. Fats can reach much higher temperatures than water at normal atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear or even carbonize the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars. The food is cooked much more quickly and has a special crispness and texture. Depending on the food, the fat will penetrate it to varying degrees, contributing richness, lubricity, and its own flavour. Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessel required, and the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, and deep frying are all standard frying techniques. ===Baking=== Baking is the technique of cooking food in an oven by dry heat applied evenly throughout the oven or only from the bottom element. Breads, desserts, and meat are often baked, and baking is the primary cooking technique used to produce cakes and pastry-based goods such as pies, tarts, and quiches. ===Simmering=== Simmering is a cooking technique in which foods are cooked in hot liquids kept at or just barely below the boiling point of water (at average sea level air pressure), 100&nbsp;°C (212&nbsp;°F). To keep a pot simmering, one brings it to a boil and then adjusts the heat downward until just before the formation of steam bubbles stops completely. Water normally begins to simmer at about 94&nbsp;°C or 200&nbsp;°F. Simmering ensures gentler treatment than boiling to prevent toughening and prevent food from breaking up. Simmering is usually a rapid and efficient method of cooking. ===Waterless Cooking=== Waterless cooking is a method of cooking food without adding water (there is already water in most foods), fats, or oils. This technique requires the use of some very expensive cookware designed expressly for this purpose, but there are some health benefits too. Boiling water will dissolve some nutrients which are then flushed from the food. Waterless cooking is done in a sealed container that locks in all the moisture already present in the food. Vitamins and flavor are also retained by the food, so there is no need to add butter, salt or oil to liven it up. ===Microwave cooking=== Microwave ovens have revolutionized cooking since their use became widespread in the 1970s. Professional chefs generally find microwave ovens to be of limited usefulness. On the other hand, people who are lacking in free time, or not comfortable with their cooking skills, can use microwave ovens to reheat stored food (including commercially available pre-cooked frozen dishes) in only a few minutes. Food is heated for so short a time that it is often cooked unevenly. Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating previously cooked food, and bacterial contamination may not be killed by the reheating, resulting in foodborne illness. The uneven heating is partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan built in to the over (but hidden from view) that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, and by a turntable or carousel that turns the food. It is also important not to place food or a container in the center of a microwave's turntable. That actually defeats its purpose. Rather, it should be placed a bit off-center so that the item travels all around the area of oven's cooking cavity, thus assuring even heating. The second problem must be addressed by the cook, who should arrange the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically test and shield any parts of the food that overheat. Many microwave ovens' performance drops after about 15 minutes of continuous usage, which means food takes longer to cook. When heating several meals, the last meal to be cooked may not be heated properly as a result. Defrosting is another common weakness, as many microwave ovens may start to cook the edges of the frozen food, while the inside of the food remains frozen. Closed containers and eggs can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the pressure build-up of steam. Products that are heated too long can catch fire. Manuals of microwave ovens warn of such hazards. Tin foil, aluminum foil, ceramics decorated with metal, and products containing other metals can cause sparks when they are used in a microwave. Several microwave fires have been noted where Chinese takeout boxes with a metal handle are microwaved, and also where "homemade" microwave popcorn bags have been sealed using a metal staple, which is then heated and sets fire to the bag. This type of accident can pose a dangerous situation because of the extremely flammable mixture of popcorn and oil in the bag. Thus, it is good practice to remove any metal utensils or metal containing objects from a microwave oven before operating it, as the behavior of these objects when immersed in a strong microwave radiation field is unpredictable. ===Most/Least Healthful Methods=== Waterless cooking may be the most healthful way of cooking food, but baking is also a good choice. Fried foods are the least healthful way to cook food, and unfortunately, this is the technique used most frequently by "fast food" restaurants. ==4. Demonstrate your ability to properly prepare two different kinds of hot cereal, a healthful hot drink, and cook eggs in two different ways other than frying.== {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipes/Hominy Grits}} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name = Porridgethere are 30 kind of foos |ingredients= * 1/2 cup (120 mL) rolled oats or other grain * 3/4 cup (180 mL) water * 3/4 cup (180 mL) milk or soy milk |procedure= #Mix oats and water, then bring to a boil covered with a lid. #Once bubbling, stir and reduce temperature to the lowest possible to maintain simmering. Replace lid and watch carefully to prevent boiling over. #Stir every minute or so. After five minutes, remove lid, stir thoroughly and add 3/4 cup of milk. #Mix through, and keep stirring until fully mixed. #Serve and add sugar, brown sugar, maple syrup, a pinch of salt, honey or inverted sugar syrup to taste. |servings=1 }} ---- {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipes/Hot Apple Cider}} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name = Hard-boiled Eggs |ingredients= *6 to 8 large eggs, depending on appetite and number of people *Salt and pepper to taste |procedure = Using eggs that have been in the fridge for several days (but are still before the date on the shell or carton), will make it easier to peel the eggs once they are cooked. If you are using really fresh eggs, rather than commodity eggs from the store, you may have to keep them three weeks or more before they will be easily peeled. Two major problems arise when making hard-boiled eggs: overcooking and cracking. You can tell if an egg is overcooked by examining the yolk. If the egg was cooked too long the yolk will be a pale yellow surrounded by a green or greenish band. Overcooked eggs also give off the faint odor of sulfur. Cracking of eggs while cooking is caused by the too rapid expansion of pressure in the air pocket inside the egg. Eggshell is porous and will allow the air to escape as the egg heats and its contents expand. However if the egg heats too quickly the air does not have time to escape. This causes an uneven pressure on the inside of the shell as the air pocket heats at a different rate than the white. The egg then cracks, often leaking into the cooking water. There is one solution to these two problems. Place the eggs to be cooked in a pan or pot of cold water. There should be enough water to cover all the eggs completely. The pot should be large enough for all the eggs to lay on their sides with a little space between them. If they do touch it is alright, but there should be enough space that they don't have to be touching to fit. Turn the stove on and bring the water to a rolling boil. Notice as you heat the eggs, you will see tiny air bubbles coming from the base (the big end) of the egg. This is air from the air pocket escaping. Once the water has been at a rolling boil for about a minute and a half, turn the stove off. Allow the water to gradually cool with the eggs in it. After about twenty minutes the water should be cool enough to reach in with your hands and remove the eggs. Not only have you allowed the air to escape, preventing the egg from cracking, but by gradually heating and then cooling the eggs they won't have overcooked. By the time the center of the egg has become hot enough to start really cooking the water will be cooling it down. Enjoy your eggs! ====Sources==== [http://www.maccabe.org/index.php/Making_Great_Hard-boiled_eggs Making Great Hard-boiled Eggs] |servings=6-8 }} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name =Cottage Cheese Eggs |ingredients= * 2 Eggs * 2 Tablespoons Cottage cheese (Small Curd 4% Milkfat) * 1 Teaspoon Mexican seasoning (Or Chili powder) |procedure= # Preheat a large metal or non-stick skillet to medium heat. # Whisk eggs and cottage cheese together in a small container; place in skillet. # Sprinkle Mexican Seasoning on eggs (to taste). # As eggs begin to cook start folding together, turning as needed, until done cooking. Serve with or on wheat toast. |servings=1 }} ==5. Prepare potatoes healthfully by two different methods.== ===Mashed Potatoes=== The first step in making mashed potatoes is to boil them. Old potatoes normally need to be peeled before boiling. Many new potatoes are better when boiled in their skins, but you should of course wash them first. Small potatoes can be cooked whole. Larger potatoes will cook more evenly and quickly if you cut them into roughly egg-sized pieces. Put the potatoes in a large enough pan and add enough water to cover them easily. Add a little salt if you like. Bring to the boil. Potatoes will take around 25 minutes to cook through. To test whether they are done, press the tip of a cook's knife into one. It should be able to slip in and out easily. Drain the cooking water and attack the potatoes with a knife so that they are cut into small pieces. (This is very therapeutic.) You then need to add some milk and butter (according to taste and waistline) and puree all ingredients. Use a potato-ricer or a mixer for best results or a hand held masher for possibly lumpy mash. You can add salt and pepper or other herbs and spices as you wish. ===Baked Potatoes=== On a cold day, few things are nicer than a baked potato. Use a large potato, with its skin on. Preheat the oven to very hot (gas mark 7) and put in the potatoes for about an hour. Especially when using an electric oven, it is important to protect the potatoes from drying by covering them with foil or coating them in oil. A lid over the whole batch will do, saving on foil and oil. You may put a metal skewer through the potato to help distribute heat evenly. Trial and error are, as usual, your friends. Serve the potato as hot as you can stand it. Fillings can include butter, grated cheese (something strong like cheddar), baked beans, pesto - you name it. And eat the skin - it really is good for you, like your mum said. ==6. Cook three other vegetables in the most healthful way.== The most healthful way to prepare vegetables is to wash them and serve them raw (possibly slicing them first), but the requirement ''does'' say to ''cook'' them, so we'll have to go that route. Most vegetables can be steamed for a short amount of time - the shorter the better, as that's the closest to raw you're going to get and still cook them. ===Spinach=== Plain cooked spinach is best served steamed or boiled in a minimum amount of water for no more than five minutes. The bulk of the leaves reduces enormously in cooking. Allow about 4 ounces per serving and use the biggest pan you have. Serve with lemon juice, or perhaps with salt. Spinach is a common ingredient in Indian cuisine, where it is known as ''saag''. Try sprinkling the raw leaves with garam masala before cooking for a slightly different and low sodium alternative to salt. ===Green Beans=== Wash beans thoroughly in clear, cool water. Beans can be cooked whole, cut crosswise or diagonally, or French-cut (i.e., cut along the length of the bean). If you want sweet tasting, crisp fresh beans, cut them as little as possible. Cut older, more mature beans in the French style (i.e., lengthwise). Stir-frying is one of the easiest ways to prepare green beans. This method maintains more nutrients than other cooking methods, although it also adds a little fat to them. Whatever cooking method you choose, remember to cook beans as little as possible, using the least amount of water possible. Boiling, steaming, and microwaving are other common methods for preparing green beans. When boiling, beans may release some nutrients into the water, so try to re-use the bean water to regain some of the nutrients lost. For example, you can use the water to boil rice. ===Winter Squash=== To cook a decent-sized winter squash in the traditional way, first slice it in half from stem end to blossom end. If the squash is very large, cut it a few more times. Place the pieces into a baking dish. Cover the dish with foil to keep the squash from getting terribly dry. Cook the squash for a fairly long time, not at a very high temperature, so that it gets soft all the way to the inside. The squash is done when you can easily shove a spoon into it. Serve the squash as it is. Add butter and maple syrup at the table. ==7. Prepare a simple salad. Why do we need fresh salads in our diet?== Green salads are an excellent source of vitamins and dietary fiber. Furthermore, salads are generally low in calories, and if served at the beginning of a meal, tend to satisfy the appetite before high-calorie items are introduced. A simple salad may start out with one or more types of lettuce (iceberg, romaine, etc.), and to that other vegetables are added, such as tomatoes, olives, cucumber slices, green peppers, mushrooms, radishes, or onions. This combination is then "tossed" to mix the ingredients together before serving. Salad dressing may be selected and added by the person eating the salad. ==8. Know the food pyramid guide. Why is it important that we follow the food pyramid guide in our diet every day? Make a chart for one week of the foods you eat to see if you are following the food pyramid guide.== {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Food pyramid}} ==9. Set the table properly for your family for an evening meal. Serve a balanced meal that you have planned and prepared as much as possible by yourself. Include main dish, vegetable, and salad.== Properly setting a table means ''not'' putting out utensils and dishes that will not be used in the meal. A casual table setting will do for the family evening meal, and since this one requires a salad, vegetable, and main dish, we can dispense with many of the formalities. ;Dinner Plate: Start by setting the dinner plate on the center of the placemat (if a placemat is not used, set the plate on the table centered in front of the chair), about two inches from the edge of the table. ;Forks: You will need two forks - one for the salad (usually a smaller fork) and one for the main entree and vegetables. Both forks should be placed to the left of the plate, with the dinner fork closest to the plate. ;Napkin: Put a napkin to the left of the salad fork. ;Knife and Spoon: The knife and spoon go to the right of the dinner plate, with the knife set closer to the plate. The knife's edge should face the plate, and the spoon should be placed right-side up (such that the bowl of the spoon would hold a liquid). ;Glasses: The drinking glass should be placed above the knife. ;Salad Bowl: The salad bowl should be placed above the forks. ==10. Follow a recipe correctly in making a vegetarian entree or a vegetable casserole.== {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name =Tuno-mac |ingredients= * 1 can of Tuno * 1 15 oz can Cream of Mushroom Soup * 1 15 oz can Peas * 1 box Macaroni and Cheese Dinner |procedure= # In a large pot, prepare the Macaroni and Cheese as per the instructions on the box. # Drain the peas. # Add the peas, Tuno, and cream of mushroom soup to the mac & cheese and mix thoroughly. # Heat until warmed through, stirring occasionally. # Serve. |servings=4 }} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name = Ratatouille |servings=3-4 |ingredients= * Olive oil * 1 onion * 1 clove garlic * 1 eggplant * 1 green bell pepper * 2 zucchinis (cucumber also works well) * 6 medium tomatoes, ripe (juicy) and peeled * salt and pepper to taste * [[W:Herbes de Provence|Herbes de Provence]] to taste |procedure= # Put a large casserole on the stove on medium heat. # Chop the onions and garlic. When the casserole is hot, add enough olive oil to just cover the bottom. # Add the onions and garlic and brown. # Chop the green pepper, zucchinis and egg plant. Add to the casserole. Stir from time to time. # Peel the tomatoes. Dice them or cut them into quarters, add to the casserole. # Five minutes later, check to see if the tomatoes have made enough juice to almost cover the vegetables - if so, perfect. If not, add water as needed (not too much). # Add salt, pepper and Herbes de Provence to taste. In general, 1 tbsp of salt, 1/2 tsp of pepper and 1 tbsp of the herbs will suffice. # Cover the casserole and let simmer on low heat for 45 minutes to 1 hour. }} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name =Potato-Chickpea Curry |ingredients= * 1 smallish Onion * 2 (or so) cloves Garlic * Olive oil * 1 Tbsp. Curry powder * 1 can Coconut milk * 2 or 3 Potatoes (yukon gold are good, but use whatever you like) * 1 can chickpeas (unsalted, if available) |procedure= # Chop the onion and mince the garlic. Sauté them, in a saucepan, in some olive oil for 5 minutes or so. Then, add the curry powder, mix, and fry a couple minutes more. # Meanwhile, rinse and chop the potatoes. #Then, add the coconut milk and the potatoes. Simmer, covered, for about 20 minutes. Drain the chickpeas and add them (Note: if doubling the recipe, only drain one can). and simmer for about 20 minutes more, or until the potatoes are cooked. #Serve with basmati rice or whatever you prefer. #If the curry powder you use isn't spicy enough for your taste, try adding a half-teaspoon or so of cayenne pepper with it. |servings=4 }} ==11. Start a recipe file of your own. Put into it 10 recipes of dishes you have personally prepared from entrees, vegetables, salads, and beverages.== This answer book already has eight recipes in it, so the Pathfinder should find two (or more!) recipes on his or her own. Also note that the recipes listed here are only suggestions. Individual taste may dictate that other recipes be used instead, and not only is that fine, it is highly encouraged. Bon Appetite! ==References== Some recipes for this chapter were taken, or adapted from Wikibook's [[Cookbook]]. [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] o1cgcutyh2hrzdsdbph0w0pmwcct5on 4671944 4671943 2026-09-23T10:52:04Z ~2026-51299-17 3626669 /* Blenders */ The word pure was written with double e so I erased one e 4671944 wikitext text/x-wiki {{honor_header|1|1928|Household Arts|General Conference}} {{AY Master|Homemaker}} ==1. Know how to properly operate the kind of stove you have in your home. Know how to put out an oil or grease fire on your stove. Know how to prevent such a fire. Know safety precautions while cooking, including consideration of small children.== ;Operating a stove: There are two major classes of stoves in common use in the United States today, the gas stove and the electric stove. Gas stoves burn either propane or natural gas and cook with an exposed flame. Most have automatic ignition so you do not need to strike a match to light a burner. Simply turn the knob and set the flame to the desired level. Electric stoves cook with a heating element which converts electrical energy into heat. Like gas stoves, the cook must turn a knob, but unlike gas stoves, there is no flame, so its level cannot be directly observed. Instead, the knobs are marked with numbers generally ranging from 1 to 9 or 10. The settings 1-3 corresponds to low heat, 4-6 correspond to medium heat, and 7-10 correspond to high heat. ;Putting out a grease fire: In case of a grease fire in a pan, cover the pan with its lid. This will deprive the fire of oxygen and it will go out. If the cover is already on the pan, you may need to use a fire extinguisher. Do not use water. Have a fire extinguisher in your kitchen for such an emergency. ;Safety considerations: Stoves with knobs along the back of the unit are more appropriate in households with small children because the children cannot reach the knobs and turn the stove on. This does present a greater danger to the cook, as he or she must reach across the burners to adjust the knobs - don't wear loose clothing when cooking with such a stove. Another hazard to children involving stoves are pot handles. A pot handle should always be turned so it does not overhang the edge of the stove where a child could grab it or run into it. An overturned pot of boiling water can cause severe burns. Do not place flammable items on the stove, ever. This includes paper or plastic plates, or food packaging items (boxes and bags). It is easy to accidentally turn on the wrong burner, and if a flammable item is on that burner, tragedy may ensue. Remember that the burners stay hot for several minutes after they have been turned off. Many foods (especially pastas) are boiled in water and the water is then drained. Use a colander for this purpose. When transporting a pot full of boiling water from the stove to the sink, do not lift the pot over the head of a child who may be underfoot - clear the area first. While cooking, dishes and cooking implements pile up in the sinks of even the cleanest of kitchens. Remove any dishes from the sink before pouring boiling water into it. The sudden temperature increase can shatter glass, and you do not want boiling water to pool up in any dishes in the sink. ==2. Know how to properly use measuring spoons, measuring cups, and if available an electric mixer, a blender, and a food processor.== ===Measuring spoons and cups=== Measuring spoons are used for measuring small amounts of dry or liquid ingredients. It is best to have two sets and use one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for measuring liquid ingredients. This will save you time because you won't have to wash and dry the spoons every time you need to switch between dry and liquid items. For liquid measures, fill the spoon all the way to the top. For dry measures, level the spoon off with a knife. Measuring cups are for measuring larger amounts of ingredients, and again, it is wise to have two to avoid mixing dry and wet ingredients during the measuring process, but even more importantly, a dry measure is not the same thing as a liquid measure. A dry measuring cup measures ''volume'' while a liquid measuring cup measures ''weight.'' It is unfortunate that these units are both named '''ounces'''. A one-ounce volume of water very nearly weighs one ounce, but a one-ounce volume of flour weighs quite a bit less than one ounce. Make sure you understand which type of ounce is being specified in a recipe. Measure dry ingredients with a dry measuring cup using the same procedure as with a measuring spoon - that is, level it off with a knife. Liquid measuring cups are usually made of glass, and the measurements are marked on the side. Fill the measuring cup to the correct level by looking directly across the measuring line, not looking down at an angle. ===Electric Mixer=== [[image:Handheld_Electric_Beater.jpg|right|250px]] A electric mixer is a kitchen appliance intended for mixing, folding, beating, and whipping food ingredients. Mixers come in two major variations, hand mixers and stand mixers. A hand mixer, as the name implies, is a hand-held device. It typically consists of a handle mounted over a large enclosure containing the motor, which drives two beaters. The beaters are immersed in the food to be mixed. Be careful when removing the beaters from the food. If you have a deep bowl and can lift the beaters free of the food without lifting them above the rim of the bowl, you may lift them before turning off the mixer. This will fling food onto the sides of the bowl freeing it from the beaters. If you lift running beaters outside the bowl, you will fling food all over the kitchen, creating an unnecessary mess. A stand mixer is essentially the same as a hand mixer, but is mounted on a stand which bears the weight of the device. Stand mixers are larger and have more powerful motors than their hand-held counterparts. They generally have a special bowl that is locked in place while the mixer is operating. {{clear}} ===Blenders=== [[image:ElectricBlender.jpg|right|250px]] A blender is a kitchen appliance used to blend ingredients or pure food. The term typically refers to a stationary, upright electrical device, which is to be distinguished from a hand-powered or electric mixer that may be used for similar purposes. A typical blender is built around a vessel for the ingredients to be blended. At the top of the vessel is a cap to prevent ingredients from escaping when the blender is switched on. At the bottom is a blade assembly, typically removable for cleaning purposes. The bottom seal is most likely watertight. The vessel rests upon a base containing a motor (for turning the blade assembly) with controls on its surface. Most modern blenders offer a number of possible speeds. {{clear}} ===Food Processors=== [[Image:Food Processor 2.jpg|right|250px]] A '''food processor''' is a kitchen appliance used to facilitate various repetitive tasks in the process of preparation of food. Today, the term almost always refers to an electric-motor-driven appliance, although there are some manual devices also referred to as "food processors". Food processors are similar to blenders in many ways. The primary difference is that food processors use swappable blades and disks (''attachments'') instead of a fixed blade. Also, their bowls are wider and shorter, a more appropriate shape for the solid or semi-solid foods usually worked in a food processor. Its functions normally consist of: * Chopping Vegetables * Grinding items such as nuts, meat, or dried fruit * Shredding or Grating cheese or vegetables * Pureeing * Mixing and kneading doughs The base of the unit houses a motor which turns a vertical shaft. A bowl, usually made of transparent plastic, fits around the shaft. Cutting blades can be attached to the shaft; these fit so as to operate near the bottom of the bowl. Shredding or slicing disks can be attached instead; these spin near the top of the bowl. A lid with a "feed tube" is then fitted onto the bowl. The feed tube allows ingredients to be added while chopping, grinding or pureeing. It also serves as a chute through which items are introduced to shredding or slicing disks. A "pusher" is provided, sized to slide through the feed tube, protecting fingers. Almost all modern food processors have safety devices which prevent the motor from operating if the bowl isn't properly affixed to the base or if the lid isn't properly affixed to the bowl. ==3. What is meant by boiling, broiling, frying, baking, simmering, waterless cooking, and if available microwave cooking? Which are the most healthful ways of preparing common foods? Which are the most unhealthful ways?== ===Boiling=== Boiling is cooking food in boiling water, or other water-based liquid such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles. In places where the available water supply is contaminated with disease-causing bacteria, boiling water (and allowing it to cool) before drinking it is a valuable health measure. Boiling water for a few minutes kills most bacteria, amoebas, and other microbial pathogens. It thus can help prevent cholera, dysentery, and other diseases caused by these organisms. Foods suitable for boiling include fish, vegetables, pasta, eggs, meats, sauces, stock, and soups. Advantages: * Older, tougher, cheaper joints of meat and poultry can be made digestible. * It is appropriate for large-scale cookery * Nutritious, well flavored stock is produced * It is safe and simple * Maximum colour and nutritive value is retained when cooking green vegetables, provided boiling time is kept to the minimum Disadvantages: * There is a loss of soluble vitamins in the water. * It can be a slow method * Foods can look unattractive Boiling can be done in two ways: The food can be placed into already rapidly boiling water and left to cook, the heat can be turned down and the food can be simmered; or the food can also be placed into the pot, and cold water may be added to the pot. This may then be boiled until the food is satisfactory. ===Broiling=== Broiling is a process of cooking food with high heat with the heat applied directly to the food, most commonly from above. As it is a way of cooking without added oil, it is popular in low-fat diets. In electric ovens, broiling is accomplished by placing the food near the upper heating element, with the lower heating element off and the oven door partially open. Gas ovens often have a separate compartment for broiling, as a drawer below the flame. ===Frying=== Frying is the cooking of food in oil or fat. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, but the distinction is only made when needed. Fats can reach much higher temperatures than water at normal atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear or even carbonize the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars. The food is cooked much more quickly and has a special crispness and texture. Depending on the food, the fat will penetrate it to varying degrees, contributing richness, lubricity, and its own flavour. Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessel required, and the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, and deep frying are all standard frying techniques. ===Baking=== Baking is the technique of cooking food in an oven by dry heat applied evenly throughout the oven or only from the bottom element. Breads, desserts, and meat are often baked, and baking is the primary cooking technique used to produce cakes and pastry-based goods such as pies, tarts, and quiches. ===Simmering=== Simmering is a cooking technique in which foods are cooked in hot liquids kept at or just barely below the boiling point of water (at average sea level air pressure), 100&nbsp;°C (212&nbsp;°F). To keep a pot simmering, one brings it to a boil and then adjusts the heat downward until just before the formation of steam bubbles stops completely. Water normally begins to simmer at about 94&nbsp;°C or 200&nbsp;°F. Simmering ensures gentler treatment than boiling to prevent toughening and prevent food from breaking up. Simmering is usually a rapid and efficient method of cooking. ===Waterless Cooking=== Waterless cooking is a method of cooking food without adding water (there is already water in most foods), fats, or oils. This technique requires the use of some very expensive cookware designed expressly for this purpose, but there are some health benefits too. Boiling water will dissolve some nutrients which are then flushed from the food. Waterless cooking is done in a sealed container that locks in all the moisture already present in the food. Vitamins and flavor are also retained by the food, so there is no need to add butter, salt or oil to liven it up. ===Microwave cooking=== Microwave ovens have revolutionized cooking since their use became widespread in the 1970s. Professional chefs generally find microwave ovens to be of limited usefulness. On the other hand, people who are lacking in free time, or not comfortable with their cooking skills, can use microwave ovens to reheat stored food (including commercially available pre-cooked frozen dishes) in only a few minutes. Food is heated for so short a time that it is often cooked unevenly. Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating previously cooked food, and bacterial contamination may not be killed by the reheating, resulting in foodborne illness. The uneven heating is partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan built in to the over (but hidden from view) that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, and by a turntable or carousel that turns the food. It is also important not to place food or a container in the center of a microwave's turntable. That actually defeats its purpose. Rather, it should be placed a bit off-center so that the item travels all around the area of oven's cooking cavity, thus assuring even heating. The second problem must be addressed by the cook, who should arrange the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically test and shield any parts of the food that overheat. Many microwave ovens' performance drops after about 15 minutes of continuous usage, which means food takes longer to cook. When heating several meals, the last meal to be cooked may not be heated properly as a result. Defrosting is another common weakness, as many microwave ovens may start to cook the edges of the frozen food, while the inside of the food remains frozen. Closed containers and eggs can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the pressure build-up of steam. Products that are heated too long can catch fire. Manuals of microwave ovens warn of such hazards. Tin foil, aluminum foil, ceramics decorated with metal, and products containing other metals can cause sparks when they are used in a microwave. Several microwave fires have been noted where Chinese takeout boxes with a metal handle are microwaved, and also where "homemade" microwave popcorn bags have been sealed using a metal staple, which is then heated and sets fire to the bag. This type of accident can pose a dangerous situation because of the extremely flammable mixture of popcorn and oil in the bag. Thus, it is good practice to remove any metal utensils or metal containing objects from a microwave oven before operating it, as the behavior of these objects when immersed in a strong microwave radiation field is unpredictable. ===Most/Least Healthful Methods=== Waterless cooking may be the most healthful way of cooking food, but baking is also a good choice. Fried foods are the least healthful way to cook food, and unfortunately, this is the technique used most frequently by "fast food" restaurants. ==4. Demonstrate your ability to properly prepare two different kinds of hot cereal, a healthful hot drink, and cook eggs in two different ways other than frying.== {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipes/Hominy Grits}} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name = Porridgethere are 30 kind of foos |ingredients= * 1/2 cup (120 mL) rolled oats or other grain * 3/4 cup (180 mL) water * 3/4 cup (180 mL) milk or soy milk |procedure= #Mix oats and water, then bring to a boil covered with a lid. #Once bubbling, stir and reduce temperature to the lowest possible to maintain simmering. Replace lid and watch carefully to prevent boiling over. #Stir every minute or so. After five minutes, remove lid, stir thoroughly and add 3/4 cup of milk. #Mix through, and keep stirring until fully mixed. #Serve and add sugar, brown sugar, maple syrup, a pinch of salt, honey or inverted sugar syrup to taste. |servings=1 }} ---- {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipes/Hot Apple Cider}} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name = Hard-boiled Eggs |ingredients= *6 to 8 large eggs, depending on appetite and number of people *Salt and pepper to taste |procedure = Using eggs that have been in the fridge for several days (but are still before the date on the shell or carton), will make it easier to peel the eggs once they are cooked. If you are using really fresh eggs, rather than commodity eggs from the store, you may have to keep them three weeks or more before they will be easily peeled. Two major problems arise when making hard-boiled eggs: overcooking and cracking. You can tell if an egg is overcooked by examining the yolk. If the egg was cooked too long the yolk will be a pale yellow surrounded by a green or greenish band. Overcooked eggs also give off the faint odor of sulfur. Cracking of eggs while cooking is caused by the too rapid expansion of pressure in the air pocket inside the egg. Eggshell is porous and will allow the air to escape as the egg heats and its contents expand. However if the egg heats too quickly the air does not have time to escape. This causes an uneven pressure on the inside of the shell as the air pocket heats at a different rate than the white. The egg then cracks, often leaking into the cooking water. There is one solution to these two problems. Place the eggs to be cooked in a pan or pot of cold water. There should be enough water to cover all the eggs completely. The pot should be large enough for all the eggs to lay on their sides with a little space between them. If they do touch it is alright, but there should be enough space that they don't have to be touching to fit. Turn the stove on and bring the water to a rolling boil. Notice as you heat the eggs, you will see tiny air bubbles coming from the base (the big end) of the egg. This is air from the air pocket escaping. Once the water has been at a rolling boil for about a minute and a half, turn the stove off. Allow the water to gradually cool with the eggs in it. After about twenty minutes the water should be cool enough to reach in with your hands and remove the eggs. Not only have you allowed the air to escape, preventing the egg from cracking, but by gradually heating and then cooling the eggs they won't have overcooked. By the time the center of the egg has become hot enough to start really cooking the water will be cooling it down. Enjoy your eggs! ====Sources==== [http://www.maccabe.org/index.php/Making_Great_Hard-boiled_eggs Making Great Hard-boiled Eggs] |servings=6-8 }} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name =Cottage Cheese Eggs |ingredients= * 2 Eggs * 2 Tablespoons Cottage cheese (Small Curd 4% Milkfat) * 1 Teaspoon Mexican seasoning (Or Chili powder) |procedure= # Preheat a large metal or non-stick skillet to medium heat. # Whisk eggs and cottage cheese together in a small container; place in skillet. # Sprinkle Mexican Seasoning on eggs (to taste). # As eggs begin to cook start folding together, turning as needed, until done cooking. Serve with or on wheat toast. |servings=1 }} ==5. Prepare potatoes healthfully by two different methods.== ===Mashed Potatoes=== The first step in making mashed potatoes is to boil them. Old potatoes normally need to be peeled before boiling. Many new potatoes are better when boiled in their skins, but you should of course wash them first. Small potatoes can be cooked whole. Larger potatoes will cook more evenly and quickly if you cut them into roughly egg-sized pieces. Put the potatoes in a large enough pan and add enough water to cover them easily. Add a little salt if you like. Bring to the boil. Potatoes will take around 25 minutes to cook through. To test whether they are done, press the tip of a cook's knife into one. It should be able to slip in and out easily. Drain the cooking water and attack the potatoes with a knife so that they are cut into small pieces. (This is very therapeutic.) You then need to add some milk and butter (according to taste and waistline) and puree all ingredients. Use a potato-ricer or a mixer for best results or a hand held masher for possibly lumpy mash. You can add salt and pepper or other herbs and spices as you wish. ===Baked Potatoes=== On a cold day, few things are nicer than a baked potato. Use a large potato, with its skin on. Preheat the oven to very hot (gas mark 7) and put in the potatoes for about an hour. Especially when using an electric oven, it is important to protect the potatoes from drying by covering them with foil or coating them in oil. A lid over the whole batch will do, saving on foil and oil. You may put a metal skewer through the potato to help distribute heat evenly. Trial and error are, as usual, your friends. Serve the potato as hot as you can stand it. Fillings can include butter, grated cheese (something strong like cheddar), baked beans, pesto - you name it. And eat the skin - it really is good for you, like your mum said. ==6. Cook three other vegetables in the most healthful way.== The most healthful way to prepare vegetables is to wash them and serve them raw (possibly slicing them first), but the requirement ''does'' say to ''cook'' them, so we'll have to go that route. Most vegetables can be steamed for a short amount of time - the shorter the better, as that's the closest to raw you're going to get and still cook them. ===Spinach=== Plain cooked spinach is best served steamed or boiled in a minimum amount of water for no more than five minutes. The bulk of the leaves reduces enormously in cooking. Allow about 4 ounces per serving and use the biggest pan you have. Serve with lemon juice, or perhaps with salt. Spinach is a common ingredient in Indian cuisine, where it is known as ''saag''. Try sprinkling the raw leaves with garam masala before cooking for a slightly different and low sodium alternative to salt. ===Green Beans=== Wash beans thoroughly in clear, cool water. Beans can be cooked whole, cut crosswise or diagonally, or French-cut (i.e., cut along the length of the bean). If you want sweet tasting, crisp fresh beans, cut them as little as possible. Cut older, more mature beans in the French style (i.e., lengthwise). Stir-frying is one of the easiest ways to prepare green beans. This method maintains more nutrients than other cooking methods, although it also adds a little fat to them. Whatever cooking method you choose, remember to cook beans as little as possible, using the least amount of water possible. Boiling, steaming, and microwaving are other common methods for preparing green beans. When boiling, beans may release some nutrients into the water, so try to re-use the bean water to regain some of the nutrients lost. For example, you can use the water to boil rice. ===Winter Squash=== To cook a decent-sized winter squash in the traditional way, first slice it in half from stem end to blossom end. If the squash is very large, cut it a few more times. Place the pieces into a baking dish. Cover the dish with foil to keep the squash from getting terribly dry. Cook the squash for a fairly long time, not at a very high temperature, so that it gets soft all the way to the inside. The squash is done when you can easily shove a spoon into it. Serve the squash as it is. Add butter and maple syrup at the table. ==7. Prepare a simple salad. Why do we need fresh salads in our diet?== Green salads are an excellent source of vitamins and dietary fiber. Furthermore, salads are generally low in calories, and if served at the beginning of a meal, tend to satisfy the appetite before high-calorie items are introduced. A simple salad may start out with one or more types of lettuce (iceberg, romaine, etc.), and to that other vegetables are added, such as tomatoes, olives, cucumber slices, green peppers, mushrooms, radishes, or onions. This combination is then "tossed" to mix the ingredients together before serving. Salad dressing may be selected and added by the person eating the salad. ==8. Know the food pyramid guide. Why is it important that we follow the food pyramid guide in our diet every day? Make a chart for one week of the foods you eat to see if you are following the food pyramid guide.== {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Food pyramid}} ==9. Set the table properly for your family for an evening meal. Serve a balanced meal that you have planned and prepared as much as possible by yourself. Include main dish, vegetable, and salad.== Properly setting a table means ''not'' putting out utensils and dishes that will not be used in the meal. A casual table setting will do for the family evening meal, and since this one requires a salad, vegetable, and main dish, we can dispense with many of the formalities. ;Dinner Plate: Start by setting the dinner plate on the center of the placemat (if a placemat is not used, set the plate on the table centered in front of the chair), about two inches from the edge of the table. ;Forks: You will need two forks - one for the salad (usually a smaller fork) and one for the main entree and vegetables. Both forks should be placed to the left of the plate, with the dinner fork closest to the plate. ;Napkin: Put a napkin to the left of the salad fork. ;Knife and Spoon: The knife and spoon go to the right of the dinner plate, with the knife set closer to the plate. The knife's edge should face the plate, and the spoon should be placed right-side up (such that the bowl of the spoon would hold a liquid). ;Glasses: The drinking glass should be placed above the knife. ;Salad Bowl: The salad bowl should be placed above the forks. ==10. Follow a recipe correctly in making a vegetarian entree or a vegetable casserole.== {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name =Tuno-mac |ingredients= * 1 can of Tuno * 1 15 oz can Cream of Mushroom Soup * 1 15 oz can Peas * 1 box Macaroni and Cheese Dinner |procedure= # In a large pot, prepare the Macaroni and Cheese as per the instructions on the box. # Drain the peas. # Add the peas, Tuno, and cream of mushroom soup to the mac & cheese and mix thoroughly. # Heat until warmed through, stirring occasionally. # Serve. |servings=4 }} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name = Ratatouille |servings=3-4 |ingredients= * Olive oil * 1 onion * 1 clove garlic * 1 eggplant * 1 green bell pepper * 2 zucchinis (cucumber also works well) * 6 medium tomatoes, ripe (juicy) and peeled * salt and pepper to taste * [[W:Herbes de Provence|Herbes de Provence]] to taste |procedure= # Put a large casserole on the stove on medium heat. # Chop the onions and garlic. When the casserole is hot, add enough olive oil to just cover the bottom. # Add the onions and garlic and brown. # Chop the green pepper, zucchinis and egg plant. Add to the casserole. Stir from time to time. # Peel the tomatoes. Dice them or cut them into quarters, add to the casserole. # Five minutes later, check to see if the tomatoes have made enough juice to almost cover the vegetables - if so, perfect. If not, add water as needed (not too much). # Add salt, pepper and Herbes de Provence to taste. In general, 1 tbsp of salt, 1/2 tsp of pepper and 1 tbsp of the herbs will suffice. # Cover the casserole and let simmer on low heat for 45 minutes to 1 hour. }} ---- {{Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Recipe |name =Potato-Chickpea Curry |ingredients= * 1 smallish Onion * 2 (or so) cloves Garlic * Olive oil * 1 Tbsp. Curry powder * 1 can Coconut milk * 2 or 3 Potatoes (yukon gold are good, but use whatever you like) * 1 can chickpeas (unsalted, if available) |procedure= # Chop the onion and mince the garlic. Sauté them, in a saucepan, in some olive oil for 5 minutes or so. Then, add the curry powder, mix, and fry a couple minutes more. # Meanwhile, rinse and chop the potatoes. #Then, add the coconut milk and the potatoes. Simmer, covered, for about 20 minutes. Drain the chickpeas and add them (Note: if doubling the recipe, only drain one can). and simmer for about 20 minutes more, or until the potatoes are cooked. #Serve with basmati rice or whatever you prefer. #If the curry powder you use isn't spicy enough for your taste, try adding a half-teaspoon or so of cayenne pepper with it. |servings=4 }} ==11. Start a recipe file of your own. Put into it 10 recipes of dishes you have personally prepared from entrees, vegetables, salads, and beverages.== This answer book already has eight recipes in it, so the Pathfinder should find two (or more!) recipes on his or her own. Also note that the recipes listed here are only suggestions. Individual taste may dictate that other recipes be used instead, and not only is that fine, it is highly encouraged. Bon Appetite! ==References== Some recipes for this chapter were taken, or adapted from Wikibook's [[Cookbook]]. [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] 10xjq14wix9waesg2mj5zvbvcpr5krm 0 83102 4671924 4671576 2026-09-23T08:24:27Z ~2026-51385-23 3626656 /* New Blocks */ 4671924 wikitext text/x-wiki This page is intended to supply a list of some useful symbols separated by topic so they can be found quickly without the need to search in the [[Unicode/Character reference|Unicode reference tables]]. ==Typography== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> <table border="0"> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2713;</td><td>&nbsp;2713 check mark</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2717;</td><td>&nbsp;2717 cross mark</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2012;</td><td>&nbsp;2012 figure dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2013;</td><td>&nbsp;2013 en dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2014;</td><td>&nbsp;2014 em dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2015;</td><td>&nbsp;2015 quotation dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2E3A;</td><td>&nbsp;2E3A two-em dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2E3B;</td><td>&nbsp;2E3B three-em dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x3003;</td><td>&nbsp;3003 ditto</td></tr><tr><td>々</td><td>&nbsp;3005 ideographic iteration mark (ditto)</td></tr><tr><td>〻</td><td>&nbsp;303B vertical ideographic iteration mark (ditto)</td></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00A7;</td><td>&nbsp;00A7 section</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00B6;</td><td>&nbsp;00B6 paragraph</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00B7;</td><td>&nbsp;00B7 interpunct, middle dot</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2018;</td><td>&nbsp;2018 left single quote</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2019;</td><td>&nbsp;2019 right single quote, apostrophe</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201A;</td><td>&nbsp;201A low-9 single quote</td></tr><tr><td>‛</td><td>201B single high-reversed-9 quotation mark</td></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201C;</td><td>&nbsp;201C left double quote</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201D;</td><td>&nbsp;201D right double quote</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201E;</td><td>&nbsp;201E low-9 double quote</td></tr><tr><td>‟</td><td>201F double high-reversed-9 quotation mark</td></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2020;</td><td>&nbsp;2020 dagger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2021;</td><td>&nbsp;2021 double dagger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2022;</td><td>&nbsp;2022 bullet</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2026;</td><td>&nbsp;2026 ellipsis</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x203D;</td><td>&nbsp;203D interrobang</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2042;</td><td>&nbsp;2042 asterism</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2190;</td><td>&nbsp;2190 left arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2191;</td><td>&nbsp;2191 up arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2192;</td><td>&nbsp;2192 right arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2193;</td><td>&nbsp;2193 down arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2610;</td><td>&nbsp;2610 ballot box</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2611;</td><td>&nbsp;2611 ballot box with check</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2612;</td><td>&nbsp;2612 ballot box with X</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x261B;</td><td>&nbsp;261B black right pointing finger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x261E;</td><td>&nbsp;261E white right pointing finger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x269C;</td><td>&nbsp;269C fleur-de-lys</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2605;</td><td>&nbsp;2605 starf, bigstar, black star</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2606;</td><td>&nbsp;2606 white star</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x25A1;</td><td>&nbsp;25A1 square</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x26E4;</td><td>&nbsp;26E4 pentagram</td></tr> </table> ===Special Typography Symbols=== <table border="0"> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x23CE;</td><td>&nbsp;23CE carriage return symbol</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x232B;</td><td>&nbsp;232B erase to the left (backspace)</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2423;</td><td>&nbsp;2423 space symbol</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;color:#f99">⎵</td><td>&nbsp;00A0 non-breaking space - invisible forced space.</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">-</td><td>&nbsp;00AD soft hyphen - is shown where it is inserted in a word if the word is too long for the line and breaks just after the soft hyphen. Otherwise the hyphen is invisible. In several wordprocessors soft hyphen can be entered by holding the control key and at the same time pressing the hyphen key, and is shown as a hyphen with gray background.</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x200B;</td><td>&nbsp;200B zero-width space - provides a non-printing word separator, an invisible line break opportunity</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x200C;</td><td>&nbsp;200C zero-width non-joiner - non-printing character to separate two characters that would otherwise produce a ligature</td></tr> </table> ===Intellectual Property Typography Symbols=== {| !© |00A9 copyright sign |- |® |00AE registered sign |- |™ |2122 trademark sign |- |🄯 |1F12F copyleft sign |} : </div> ==Mathematical== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> <big>'''Mathematical Alphanumeric Small Letters /Algebraic Letters'''</big> <small>𝑐 1d450 algebraic letter c</small> <small>𝑑 1d451 algebraic letter d</small> <small>𝑒 1d452 algebraic letter e</small> <small>𝑓 1d453 algebraic letter f</small> <small>𝑔 1d454 algebraic letter g</small> <small>𝑘 1d458 algebraic letter k</small> <small>𝑙 1d459 algebraic letter l</small> <small>𝑠 1d460 algebraic letter s</small> <small>𝑡 1d461 algebraic letter t</small> <small>𝑢 1d462 algebraic letter u</small> <small>𝑣 1d463 algebraic letter v</small> <small>𝑤 1d464 algebraic letter w</small> <small>𝑥 1d465 algebraic letter x</small> <small>𝑦 1d466 algebraic letter y</small> <small>𝑧 1d467 algebraic letter z</small> ===Unary operators=== : √ 221A radic, Sqrt, radical, square root : ∛ 221B cube root : ∜ 221C fourth root : ± 00B1 plus or minus : ∓ 2213 minus or plus : ′ 2032 prime, derivative : ″ 2033 Prime, double prime : ‴ 2034 tprime, triple prime : ∏ 220F N-ary product : ∑ 2211 N-ary summation ===Binary operators=== : − 2212 minus : × 00D7 multiplication sign : ⋅ 22C5 dot operator : ∕ 2215 division slash : ÷ 00f7 division sign ===Relationships=== : ∝ 221D prop, propto, Proportional, vprop, varpropto, proportional to : ∣ 2223 divides : ∤ 2224 does not divide : ≃ 2243 asymptotically equal to : ≄ 2244 not asymptotically equal to : ≅ 2245 approximately equal to : ≆ 2246 approximately but not actually equal to : ≇ 2247 neither approximately nor actually equal to : ≈ 2248 almost equal to : ≉ 2249 not almost equal to : ≜ 225C trie, triangleq, delta equal to : ≝ 225D equal to by definition : ≟ 225F equest, checked equal to : ≠ 2260 ne, NotEqual, not equal to : ≡ 2261 equiv, Congruent, equivalent to : ≤ 2264 less-than or equal to : ≥ 2265 greater-than or equal to : ≪ 226A much less than : ≫ 226B much greater than ===Calculus, Vector Calculus, Differential Equations=== : ∞ 221E infinity : ∂ 2202 partial differential : ∫ 222B integral : ∬ 222C double integral : ∭ 222D triple integral : ⨌ 2A0C quadruple integral : ∮ 222E contour integral : ∯ 222F surface integral : ∰ 2230 volume integral : ∱ 2231 clockwise integral : ∲ 2232 clockwise contour integral : ∳ 2233 anticlockwise contour integral : ∇ 2207 nabla, Del, backward difference, gradient ===Sets=== : ⊂ 2282 subset, included in, proper subset : ⊃ 2283 superset, includes, proper superset : ⊆ 2286 subset of or equal to : ⊇ 2287 superset or equal to : ⊄ 2284 notin set : ∩ 2229 intersection : ∪ 222A union : ∈ 2208 isin, isinv, Element, in, element of (large symbol) : ∊ 220A element of (small symbol) : ∉ 2209 notin, NotElement, notinva, not element of : ∋ 220B niv, ReverseElement, ni, SuchThat, contains as member (large symbol) : ∍ 220D contains as member (small symbol) : ∌ 220C notni, notniva, NotReverseElement, does not contain as member : ∅ 2205 empty, emptyset, emptyv, varnothing, empty set ===Geometry=== : ∠ 2220 ang, angle : ∡ 2221 angmsd, measured angle : ∢ 2222 spherical angle : ⟂ 27C2 perpendicular to : ∟ 221F right angle ===Logic=== : ¬ 00AC Logical NOT : ∧ 2227 Logical AND : ∨ 2228 Logical OR : ∎ 220E End of proof : ∴ 2234 THEREFORE , there4, therefore, Therefore : ∵ 2235 BECAUSE , becaus, because, Because : ∀ 2200 FOR ALL , forall, for all, ForAll : ∃ 2203 THERE EXISTS , exists, exist, Exists : ∄ 2204 THERE DOES NOT EXIST , nexist, nexists, NotExists ===Superscript and Subscript Numbers=== : ⁰ 2070 superscript zero : ¹ 00B9 superscript one : ² 00B2 superscript two : ³ 00B3 superscript three : ⁴ 2074 superscript four : ⁵ 2075 superscript five : ⁶ 2076 superscript six : ⁷ 2077 superscript seven : ⁸ 2078 superscript eight : ⁹ 2079 superscript nine : ₀ 2080 subscript zero : ₁ 2081 subscript one : ₂ 2082 subscript two : ₃ 2083 subscript three : ₄ 2084 subscript four : ₅ 2085 subscript five : ₆ 2086 subscript six : ₇ 2087 subscript seven : ₈ 2088 subscript eight : ₉ 2089 subscript nine ===Fractions=== <table> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00BD;</td><td>&nbsp;00BD one-half</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2153;</td><td>&nbsp;2153 one-third</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2154;</td><td>&nbsp;2154 two-thirds</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00BC;</td><td>&nbsp;00BC one-quarter</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00BE;</td><td>&nbsp;00BE three-quarters</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2155;</td><td>&nbsp;2155 one-fifth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2156;</td><td>&nbsp;2156 two-fifths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2157;</td><td>&nbsp;2157 three-fifths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2158;</td><td>&nbsp;2158 four-fifths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2159;</td><td>&nbsp;2159 one-sixth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215A;</td><td>&nbsp;215A five-sixths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2150;</td><td>&nbsp;2150 one-seventh</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215B;</td><td>&nbsp;215B one-eighth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215C;</td><td>&nbsp;215C three-eighths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215D;</td><td>&nbsp;215D five-eighths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215E;</td><td>&nbsp;215E seven-eighths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2151;</td><td>&nbsp;2151 one-ninth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2152;</td><td>&nbsp;2152 one-tenth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215F;</td><td>&nbsp;215F fraction numerator one</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2044;</td><td>&nbsp;2044 fraction slash</td></tr> </table> ===Mathematical typography=== : ⋮ 22EE vellip, vertical ellipsis : ⋯ 22EF hellip, horizontal ellipsis : ⋰ 22F0 utdot, rising dots, up right diagonal ellipsis : ⋱ 22F1 dtdot, falling dots, down right diagonal ellipsis : ⟨ 27E8, left angle bracket : ⟩ 27E9, right angle bracket : ° 00B0 degree ===Other === : θ 03B8 Greek small letter theta : μ 03BC Greek small letter mu : π 03C0 Greek small letter pi : ℂ 2102 Complex numbers : ℍ 210D Hyperbolic plane, quaternions : ℓ 2113 Small script letter L, litre. : ℕ 2115 Natural numbers : ℙ 2119 Prime numbers : ℚ 211A Rational numbers : ℝ 211D Real numbers : ℤ 2124 Integers : 𝕆 1D546 Octonions </div> ==Science== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> ===Meteorology and astronomy=== : ☁ 2601 cloud : ☇ 2607 lightning : ☂ 2602 umbrella : ☔ 2614 umbrella with rain drops : ☈ 2608 thunderstorm : ☉ 2609 sun : ☼ 263C white sun with rays : ☀ 2600 black sun with rays : ☽ 263D first quarter moon : ☾ 263E last quarter moon : ☿ 263F Mercury : ♀ 2640 female sign, Venus : ♁ 2641 Earth : ♂ 2642 male sign, Mars : ♃ 2643 Jupiter : ♄ 2644 Saturn : ⛢ 26E2 Astronomical Symbol for Uranus : ♅ 2645 Astrological Symbol for Uranus : ♆ 2646 Neptune : ♇ 2647 Pluto : ⚳ 26B3 Ceres : ⚷ 26B7 Chiron :♈ 2648 constellation Aries : ♓ 2653 constellation Pisces :♋ 264B constellation Cancer : ⛄ 26C4 snowman without snow (light snow) : ⛅ 26C5 sun behind cloud (partly cloudy) : ⛆ 26C6 rain : ⛇ 26C7 black snowman (heavy snow) : ⛈ 26C8 thunder cloud and rain :❄ 2744 snowflake : &#x1f300; 1F300 cyclone, typhoon : &#x1f301; 1F301 foggy : &#x1f302; 1F302 closed umbrella : &#x1f30c; 1F30C Milky Way : &#x1f311; 1F311 new moon : &#x1f313; 1F313 first quarter moon : &#x1f315; 1F315 full moon : &#x1f317; 1F317 last quarter moon : &#x1f319; 1F319 crescent moon : &#x1f320; 1F320 shooting star ===Physics=== : &#x0127; 0127 reduced Planck constant : &#x019b; 019B reduced wavelength : &#x03a8; 03A8 Greek capital letter psi : &#x03bb; 03BB Greek small letter lambda : &#x03bd; 03BD Greek small letter nu : &#x03c8; 03C8 Greek small letter psi : &#x03c9; 03C9 Greek small letter omega === Chemistry === : &#x21cc; 21CC equilibrium sign </div> ==Engineering== <div style="column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; -moz-column-count:2;"> : ⌭ 232D cylindricity (drafting) : Ω 2126 omega, ohm : ℄ 2104 Centerline symbol : ﹊ FE4A overline dashes : ﹎ FE4E underline dashes <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> ===IEC 60417&#x202f;/&#x202f;IEEE 1621 power symbols=== : ⏻ 23FB Power : ⏼ 23FC Toggle power : ⏽ 23FD Power on : ⭘ 2B58 Power off : ⏾ 23FE Sleep mode </div> </div> ==Financial== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> ===Currency=== : ₳ 20B3 Austral : &#x0e3f; 0E3F Baht : ৲ 09F2 Bengali Rupee : ৳ 09F3 Bengali Rupee : &#x20bf; 20BF Bitcoin : &#x00a2; 00A2 Cent : ￠ FFE0 Cent, fullwidth : ₡ 20A1 Colon : &#xa4; 00A4 Currency : &#x24; 0024 Dollar : ＄ FF04 Dollar, fullwidth : ₫ 20AB Dong : ₯ 20AF Drachma : &#x20ac; 20AC Euro : ₠ 20A0 Euro-currency : ₣ 20A3 Franc : ₲ 20B2 Guarani : ૱ 0AF1 Gujarati Rupee : &#x20b4; 20B4 Hryvnia : &#x20b9; 20B9 Indian Rupee : ₭ 20AD Kip : &#x20a4; 20A4 Lira : ₶ Livre Tournois : ₥ 20A5 Mill : ₦ 20A6 Naira : &#x20aa; 20AA New Shekel : ₰ 20B0 Penny : ₧ 20A7 Peseta : &#x20b1; 20B1 Peso : &#x00a3; 00A3 Pound (Sterling) : ￡ FFE1 Pound (Sterling), fullwidth : ﷼ FDFC Rial : &#x20bd; 20BD Russian Ruble : ₨ 20A8 Rupee : ₷ Spesmilo : : ௹ 0BF9 Tamil Rupee : &#x20ba; 20BA Turkish Lira : ₮ 20AE Tugrik : &#x20a9; 20A9 Won : ￦ FFE6 Won, fullwidth : &#x00a5; 00A5 Yen(Yuan) : ￥ FFE5 Yen (Yuan), fullwidth ===Other=== : &#x2030; 2030 Per mille : &#x2031; 2031 Basis point, per ten thousand, permyriad : 💰 1F4B0 money bag : 💱 1F4B1 currency exchange : 💳 1F4B3 credit card : 📈 1F4C8 chart with upward trend : 📉 1F4C9 chart with downward trend </div> ==Music== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : &#x2669; 2669 quarter note : &#x266a; 266A eighth note : &#x266b; 266B beamed eighth notes : &#x266c; 266C beamed sixteenth notes : &#x266d; 266D music flat sign : &#x266e; 266E music natural sign : &#x266f; 266F music sharp sign : &#x1d106; 1D106 left repeat sign : &#x1d107; 1D107 right repeat sign : &#x1d110; 1D110 fermata : &#x1d11c; 1D11C six-string fretboard (tablature) : &#x1d11d; 1D11D four-string fretboard (tablature) : &#x1d11e; 1D11E G CLEF : &#x1d11f; 1D11F G CLEF OTTAVA ALTA : &#x1d120; 1D120 G CLEF OTTAVA BASSA : &#x1d121; 1D121 C CLEF : &#x1d122; 1D122 F CLEF : &#x1d123; 1D123 F CLEF OTTAVA ALTA : &#x1d124; 1D124 F CLEF OTTAVA BASSA : &#x1d125; 1D125 DRUM CLEF-1 : &#x1d126; 1D126 SYMBOL DRUM CLEF-2 : &#x1d1d0; 1D1D0 MUSICAL SYMBOL GREGORIAN C CLEF : &#x1d1d1; 1D1D1 GREGORIAN F CLEF : &#x1d12a; 1D12A double sharp : &#x1d12b; 1D12B double flat : &#x1d134; 1D134 common time . : &#x1d13b; 1D13B whole rest : &#x1d13c; 1D13C half rest : &#x1d13d; 1D13D quarter rest : &#x1d13e; 1D13E eighth rest : &#x1d13f; 1D13F sixteenth rest : &#x1d140; 1D140 thirty-second rest : &#x1d141; 1D141 sixty-fourth rest : &#x1d142; 1D142 one hundred twenty-eighth rest . : &#x1d15d; 1D15D whole note :𝅗𝅥 1D15E half note :𝅘𝅥 1D15F quarter note :𝅘𝅥𝅮 1D160 eighth note :𝅘𝅥𝅯 1D161 sixteenth note :𝅘𝅥𝅰 1D162 thirty-second note :𝅘𝅥𝅱 1D163 sixty-fourth note :𝅘𝅥𝅲 1D164 one hundred twenty-eighth note . : &#x1d192; 1D192 crescendo : &#x1d193; 1D193 decrescendo : &#x1f3b5; 1F3B5 musical note : &#x1f3b6; 1F3B6 multiple musical notes : &#x1f3b8; 1F3B8 guitar : &#x1f3bb; 1F3BB violin : &#x1fa95; 1FA95 banjo </div> ==Food and drink== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ☕ 2615 hot beverage : ⛾ 26FE restaurant : &#x1f345; 1F345 tomato : &#x1f34a; 1F34A tangerine : &#x1f34f; 1F34F green apple : &#x1f951; 1F951 avocado : &#x1f354; 1F354 hamburger : &#x1f355; 1F355 slice of pizza : &#x1f359; 1F359 rice ball : &#x1f35e; 1F35E bread : &#x1f363; 1F363 sushi : &#x1f368; 1F368 ice cream : &#x1f36d; 1F36D lollipop : &#x1f372; 1F372 pot of food : &#x1f377; 1F377 wine glass : &#x1f37c; 1F37C baby bottle : &#x1f353; 1F353 strawberry </div> ==Health and safety== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ☠ 2620 skull and crossbones : ☡ 2621 caution sign (curves ahead on road) : ☢ 2622 radioactive sign (trefoil) : ☣ 2623 biohazard sign : ☤ 2624 caduceus : ☮ 262E peace symbol : ☯ 262F yin yang : ♿ 267F wheelchair symbol : ⚕ 2695 staff of Asclepius : ⚠ 26A0 warning sign : ⚡ 26A1 high voltage sign : ⛐ 26D0 sliding car : ⛨ 26E8 hospital : 💉 1F489 syringe : 💊 1F48A pill </div> ==Sports, games== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> ===Chess=== : ♔ 2654 white chess king : ♕ 2655 white chess queen : ♖ 2656 white chess rook : ♗ 2657 white chess bishop : ♘ 2658 white chess knight : ♙ 2659 white chess pawn </div> <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> : ♚ 265A black chess king : ♛ 265B black chess queen : ♜ 265C black chess rook : ♝ 265D black chess bishop : ♞ 265E black chess knight : ♟ 265F black chess pawn </div> <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> ===Card games=== : ♠ 2660 black spade suit : ♡ 2661 white heart suit : ♢ 2662 white diamond suit : ♣ 2663 black club suit : ♤ 2664 white spade suit : ♥ 2665 black heart suit : ♦ 2666 black diamond suit : ♧ 2667 white club suit </div> ===Other=== : ⚽ 26BD soccer : ⚾ 26BE baseball : ⛷ 26F7 skier : &#x1f3ae; 1F3AE video game : &#x1f3b3; 1F3B3 bowling : &#x1f3bd; 1F3BD running shirt and sash : &#x1f3c0; 1F3C0 basketball : &#x1f3c3; 1F3C3 runner : &#x1f3c6; 1F3C6 trophy : &#x1f3c9; 1F3C9 rugby : &#x1F3F8; 1F3F8 badminton racquet and shuttlecock </div> ==Control Pictures== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ␀ 2400 symbol for null : ␁ 2401 symbol for start of heading : ␂ 2402 symbol for start of text : ␃ 2403 symbol for end of text : ␄ 2404 symbol for end of transmission : ␅ 2405 symbol for enquiry : ␆ 2406 symbol for acknowledge : ␇ 2407 symbol for bell : ␈ 2408 symbol for backspace : ␉ 2409 symbol for horizontal tabulation : ␊ 240A symbol for line feed : ␋ 240B symbol for vertical tabulation : ␌ 240C symbol for form feed : ␍ 240D symbol for carriage return : ␎ 240E symbol for shift out : ␏ 240F symbol for shift in : ␐ 2410 symbol for data link escape : ␑ 2411 symbol for device control one : ␒ 2412 symbol for device control two : ␓ 2413 symbol for device control three : ␔ 2414 symbol for device control four : ␕ 2415 symbol for negative acknowledge : ␖ 2416 symbol for synchronous idle : ␗ 2417 symbol for end of transmission block : ␘ 2418 symbol for cancel : ␙ 2419 symbol for end of medium : ␚ 241A symbol for substitute : ␛ 241B symbol for escape : ␜ 241C symbol for separator (information separator one) : ␝ 241D symbol for group separator (information separator two) : ␞ 241E symbol for record separator (information separator three) : ␟ 241F symbol for unit separator (information separator four) : ␠ 2420 symbol for space : ␡ 2421 symbol for delete </div> ==Box Drawing== ==Block Elements== <table border="0" style="margin-left:1em"> <tr><td> ▀ <td> 2580 <td> upper half block <tr><td> ▄ <td> 2584 <td> lower half block <tr><td> ▌ <td> 258C <td> left half block <tr><td> ▐ <td> 2590 <td> right half block </table> ==Geometric Shapes== : &#x25B3; 25B3 equilateral triangle : &#x22BF; 22BF right triangle : &#x2B1C; 2B1C square : &#x2662; 2662 lozenge, rhombus, diamond : &#x25AD; 25AD rectangle : &#x2B20; 2B20 pentagon : &#x2B21; 2B21 hexagon : &#x25CB; 25CB circle : &#x2B2D; 2B2D ellipse ==Dingbats== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ⏪ 23EA Black left-pointing double triangle : ⏩ 23E9 Black right-pointing double triangle : ⏫ 23EB Black up-pointing double triangle : ⏬ 23EC Black down-pointing double triangle : ⏭ 23ED Black right-pointing pointer double triangle with vertical bar : ⏮ 23EE Black left-pointing pointer double triangle with vertical bar : ► 25BA Black right-pointing pointer : ◄ 25C4 Black left-pointing pointer : ▲ 25B2 Black up-pointing triangle : ▼ 25BC Black down-pointing triangle : △ 25B3 White up-pointing triangle : ▽ 25BD White down-pointing triangle : ◉ 25C9 Fisheye : ◎ 25CE Bullseye : ✂ 2702 Black Scissors : ✄ 2704 White Scissors : ✅ 2705 White heavy check mark : ✓ 2713 Check mark : ✔ 2714 Heavy check mark : ✕ 2715 Multiplication : ✖ 2716 Heavy multiplication : ✗ 2717 Ballot X : ✘ 2718 Heavy ballot X : ❌ 274C Cross mark </div> ==Social Networking== : 👍 1F44D Thumbs Up : 👎 1F44E Thumbs Down : ☺ 263A white smiley ==External links== * [http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/search.htm Unicode lookup] * [http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/block/index.htm Unicode blocks] * [http://www.unicode.org/charts Unicode Charts] * [http://farlingo.narod.ru/unimapboard/unimapboard.html Input of all unicode 6.1 symbols] * [http://emojipedia.org Emojipedia, list and information about many unicode text symbols ] {{BookCat}} ==Unicode 16.0== Unicode 16.0 will be released in September 2024. ===New Blocks=== * '''Todhri''' (U+105C0-U+105FF), containing 52 characters will be added. * '''Garay''' (U+10D40-U+10D8F), containing 69 characters will be added. * '''Tulu-Tigalari''' (U+11380-U+113FF), containing 80 characters will be added. * '''Myanmar Extended-C''' (U+116D0-U+116FF), containing 20 characters will be added. * '''Sunuwar''' (U+11BC0-U+11BFF), containing 44 characters will be added. * '''Egyptian Hieroglyphs Extended-A''' (U+13460-U+143FF), containing 3994 characters will be added. * '''Gurung Khema''' (U+16100-U+1613F), containing 58 characters will be added. * '''Kirat Rai''' (U+16D40-U+16D7F), containing 58 characters will be added. * '''Symbols for Legacy Computing Supplement''' (U+1CC00-U+1CEBF), containing 686 characters will be added. * '''Ol Onal''' (U+1E5D0-U+1E5FF), containing 44 characters will be added. ===Extended Blocks=== * A combining diacritical mark for Jawi (total 1 character) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-B'''. (U+0897) * Inverted letters and a punctuation mark (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Balinese'''. (U+1B4E-U+1B4F and U+1B7F) * A letter Tje (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-C'''. (U+1C89-U+1C8A) * Legacy computing symbols for Delete (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Control Pictures'''. (U+2427-U+2429) * CJK strokes Hxg and Szp (total 2 characters) will be added to '''CJK Strokes'''. (U+31E4-U+31E5) * A capital Rams Horn, an S with Diagonal Stroke, Lamda Letters, and letters for Wakashan and Salishan Languages (total 6 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7CB-U+A7CD, U+A7DA-U+A7DC) * A combining Alef overlay and letters with two dots vertically below (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC2-U+10EC4 and U+10EFC) * A sign Nukta (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kawi'''. (U+11F5A) * A blank character (total 1 character) will be added to '''Khitan Small Script'''. (U+18CFF) * A Liarence To Machines Microwaves Airfryers and Hund emoji (total 5 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6EE-U+1F6EF-U+1F6FD-U+1F6FF) * A rightwards arrow with hook, and arrows for legacy computing and arrows for Egyptology (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8B2-U+1F8BB, U+1F8C0-U+1F8C1) * A Harp, Shovel, Leafless Tree, Fingerprint, Root Vegetable, Splatter, and Face with Bags Under Eyes (total 7 characters) will be added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA89, U+1FA8F, U+1FABE, U+1FAC6, U+1FADC, U+1FADF, and U+1FAE9) * Graphic shapes for legacy computing (total 37 characters) will be added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''. (U+1FBCB-U+1FBEF) ==Unicode 17.0== Unicode 17.0 will be released in September 2025. This is a section where you can add any upcoming Unicode characters that have been [provisionally assigned for mature proposals] (but not yet accepted) for a future update of The Unicode Standard. ===New Blocks=== * '''Sidetic''' (U+10940-U+1095F), containing 29 characters will be added. * '''Sharada Supplement''' (U+11B60-U+11B7F), containing 8 characters will be added. * '''Tolong Siki''' (U+11DB0-U+11DEF), containing 54 characters will be added. * '''Beria Erfe''' (U+16EA0-U+16EDF), containing 50 characters will be added. * '''Tangut Components Supplement''' (U+18D80-U+18DFF), containing 115 characters will be added. * '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement''': (U+1CEC0-U+1CEFF), containing 34 characters will be added. * '''Tai Yo''' (U+1E6C0-U+1E6FF), containing 55 characters will be added. * '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension J''' (U+323B0-U+334FF), containing 1024 characters will be added. ===Extended Blocks=== * Modifier letters Eh, Ini, and Yi (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0558, U+058B, U+058C) * A Noon with Ring Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-B'''. (U+088F) * An alternate letter Ba (total 1 character) will be added to '''Bengali'''. (U+09FF) * Signs for dot above and double dot above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B53, U+0B54) * An archaic ligature Shrii (total 1 character) will be added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C5C) * An archaic ligature Shrii (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CDC) * Mongolian Letter Manchu Alternative Ue (total 1 character) will be added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+1879) * Compound tone, Harrington, and alternate positioned IPA diacritics (total 27 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ACF-U+1AEB) * Equal Sign with Infinity Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2B96) * CJK strokes Cjk and Low (total 9 characters) will be added to '''CJK Strokes'''. (U+31E6-U+31EE) * 2 capital letters for Middle English, and Latin pharyngeal voiced fricative, and Modifier Letter Capital S (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7CE-U+A7CF, U+A7D2, U+A7D4, U+A7F1) * Arabic Ligature Rahmatu Allaahi Alayh and Arabic Honorifics (total 825 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''. (U+FBC3-U+FBD2, U+FD90, U+FD91, U+FDC8-U+FDCE) * Latin Small modifier letters (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-F'''. (107BB-107BF) * A Small Yeh Barree with Two Dots Below, Thin Noon, Biblical End of Verse, Yeh with Four Dots Below, Arabic Honorifics, Double Vertical Bar Below, and Small Low Noon (total 13 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC5-U+10EC7, U+10ED0-U+10ED7 and U+10EFA-U+10EFB) * Vocalic Sign Vowel Sign letter R Rr L Ll (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Kaithi'''. (U+110C3-U+110CC,U+110CE-U+10ECF) * These Vocalic Short Candra Vowel Sign letter to R Rr L Ll (total 15 characters) will be added to '''Khojki'''. (U+11212-U+11242-U+1124F) * These Sign Auspicious Sign Lower (total 45 characters) will be added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0A-U+11B46) * A vowel sign Spacing Candrabindu Prishthamatra (total 5 character) will be added to '''Kawi'''. (U+11F5B-U+11F5F) * Very Early Dynastic Cuneiform Numbers for counting (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation'''. (U+1246F-U+12475 and U+1247F) * Very Egyptian Hieroglyph Californiaeos Numbers for counting (total 10 characters) will be added to '''Eygptian Hieroglyph Format Controls'''. (U+13456-U+1345F) * Chinese Simplified and Traditional Er and Yangqin Slow Signs Two, Three, and Four (total 25 characters) will be added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE5-U+16FF2-U+16FF3-16FF6) * Some additional ideographs (total 8 characters) will be added to '''Tangut'''. (U+187F8-U+187FF) * Additional ideographs (total 20 characters) will be added to '''Tangut Supplement'''. (U+18D09-U+18D1C) * Katakana and Lows Tones (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Kana Extended-B'''. (U+1AFF4-U+1AFFC-U+1AFFF) * Katakana and Hiragana Cantonese Tones (total 13 characters) will be added to '''Kana Extended-A'''. (U+1B123-U+1B12F) * Katakana to Hiragana small Ki Ku Sa Si Su Se and So Reserved code points for specific characters Yi Ye Wu Archaic E (total 55 characters) will be added to '''Small Kana Extension'''.(U+1B130-1B153-1B154-U+1B16F) * Stein Zimmerman Symbols, Digit Slash Symbols, and other Symbols (total 23 characters) will be added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D127-U+1D128, U+1D1EB-U+1D1F6, U+1D1F7-U+1D1FF) * Twelve symbols (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing Supplement'''. (U+1CCFA-U+1CCFF, U+1CEBA-1CEBF) * Kaktovik Numerals Text Mark (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Kaktovik Numerals'''. (U+1D2D4-U+1D2DF) * Affricate ligatures and letters with palatal hook Modifiers Retroflex hook Strikethrough will be added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF1F-U+1DF24, U+1DF2B-U+1DF3A, U+1DF3B-U+1DFFF) * Cyrillic Super Sub Modifier letters for to will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-D'''. (U+1E06E-U+1E07B) * A Unillange To Neters Unifieding Legan and Furoses emoji (total 5 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D8-U+1F6DB-U+1F6ED) * Historical asteroid symbols (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Alchemical Symbols'''. (U+1F777-U+1F77A) * Chemical symbols (total 9 characters) will be added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8D0-U+1F8D8) * White and Black Chess Ferz and Alfil (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Chess Symbols'''. (U+1FA54-U+1FA57) * A Cumans, Gander and Contses (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FAEA-U+1FAEC) * An Left Over alarm bell symbol Text Mark (total 7 characters) will be added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''. (U+1FB93-U+1FBFA-U+1FBFF) * A disunified ideograph To Beautiful (total 6 character) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C'''. (U+2B73A-U+2B73F) == Unicode 18.0 == Unicode 18.0 was released on September 16, 2026. === New Blocks === *'''Bengali Supplement''' (U+11DF0-U+11DFF), containing 2 characters, was added. * '''Archaic Cuneiform Numerals''' (U+12550-U+1268F), containing 311 characters, was added. * '''Jurchen''' (U+18E00-U+1919F), containing 914 characters, was added. * '''Jurchen Radicals''' (U+191A0-U+191DF), containing 51 characters, was added. * '''Musical Symbols Supplement''' (U+1D250-U+1D28F), containing 50 characters, was added. * '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows Extended''' (U+1DB00-U+1DBFF), containing 29 characters, was added. * '''Seal Script''' (U+3D000-U+3FC3F), containing 11328 characters, was added. === Extended Blocks === * Modifier letters Eh, Ini, and Yi (total 3 characters) was added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0558, U+058B-U+058C) * Hebrew Point Sheva Na Mudgash and Hebrew Point Dagesh Hazaq Mudgash (total 2 characters) was added to '''Hebrew'''. (U+05C8-U+05C9) * Signs for dot above and double dot above (total 2 characters) was added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B53-U+0B54) * Alternate positioned IPA diacritics and diacritics for Chao and Khoe (total 7 characters) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ADE-U+1ADF, U+1AEC-U+1AF0) * Latin subscript small letter w, y, and z and Modifier letter high and low vertical line (total 4 characters) was added to '''Superscripts and Subscripts'''. (U+208F, U+209D-U+209F) * Rufiyaa Sign, UAE Dirham Sign, and Omani Rial (total 3 characters) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C2-U+20C4) * Two Wiggly Exclamation Marks and Two Parenthesis with Middle Ring (total 4 characters) was added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E60-U+2E63) * Latin capital letter closed omega and Latin capital letter r with long leg and (total 2 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7DD and U+A7E2) * Latin capital letter script r and script r with ring (total 2 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB6C-U+AB6D) * Latin modifier letters for clicks (total 5 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-F'''. (U+107BB-U+107BF) * Arabic Crown Letters, Quranic Characters, and Arabic Crown (total 39 characters) was added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC9-U+10ECF, U+10ED9-U+10EEE, U+10EF0-U+10EF9) * Devanagari Letter Alternate Ddda (total 1 character) was added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0A) * Extended Cuneiform Numeric Signs (total 12 characters) was added to '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation'''. (U+1246F, U+12475-U+1247F) * Jurchen Small Script characters (total 5 characters) was added to '''Khitan Small Script'''. (U+18CD6-U+18CDA) * Two additional ideographs (total 2 characters) was added to '''Tangut Supplement'''. (U+18D1F-U+18D20) * Hiragana Digraph Koto, Katakana Diagraphs Toki, Tote, and Yori, letters alternate Ne, and Wi (total 6 characters) was added to '''Kana Extended-A'''. (U+1B123-U+1B128) * Katakana letter small archaic Ye (total 1 character) was added to '''Small Kana Extension'''. (U+1B168) * Leibnizian alchemical symbols, Leibnizian cossic characters, and Leibnizian mathematical signs and symbols (total 19 characters) was added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1CED2-U+1CED4, U+1CEDD-U+1CEDF, U+1CEF1-U+1CEFD) * Stein Zimmerman Symbols, Digit Slash Symbols, and other Symbols (total 23 characters) was added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D127-U+1D128, U+1D1EB-U+1D1FF) * Mathematical italic long s with descender s (U+1D6A6) was added to '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''. * Affricate ligatures, letters with palatal hook, barred letters, RFE letters, Initial Teaching Alphabet, English Phonotypic Alphabet, Leibnizian cossic characters, and modifier letters (total 151 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF1F-U+1DF24, U+1DF2B-U+1DF81, U+1DF90-U+1DF96, U+1DFCD-U+1DFFF) * A Tomobiki symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F1AE) * A lighthouse (total 1 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D9) * A black circle with white vertical bar, and Extended Geometric Shapes (total 17 characters) was added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7DA-U+1F7DB, U+1F7F1-U+1F7FF) * A meteor, eraser, net with handle, monarch butterfly, pickle, cracking face, leftwards thumb sign, and rightwards thumb sign (total 8 characters) was added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA8B-1FA8D, U+1FACC, U+1FADD, U+1FAEB, U+1FAF9-1FAFA) * An additional ideograph (total 1 character) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension D'''. (U+2B81E) == Unicode 19.0== Unicode 19.0 will be released in late 2027. There are more characters targeted for this version, but they have not been confirmed yet. === New Blocks === * '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended-A''' (U+107C0-U+107FF), containing 16 characters, will be added. * '''Arabic Extended-D''' (U+10D90-U+10E5F), containing 3 characters, will be added. * '''Sirmauri''' (U+11850-U+1188F), containing 55 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Leke''' (U+11B80-U+11BBF), containing 55 characters, will be added. * '''Proto-Cuneiform''' (U+12690-U+12ECF), containing 1392 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Chisoi''' (U+16D80-U+16DAF), containing 40 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Mwangwego''' (U+16E00-U+16E3F), containing 64 characters, will be added. * '''Nwagu Aneke''' (U+1C780-U+1C7FF), containing 77 characters, will be added. * '''Shaaldaa''' (U+1C800-U+1CB2F), containing 804 characters, will be added. * '''Soyombo Supplement''' (U+1DAB0-U+1DADF), containing 50 characters, was added. * '''Leibnizian Ambiguous Signs''' (U+1DC00-U+1DC3F), containing 54 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B''' (U+1FD00-U+1FDFF), containing 13 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''CJK Unified Ideographs Components-A''' (U+2FA20-U+2FA9F), containing 119 characters, will be added. * '''CJK Unified Ideographs Components-B''' (U+2FAA0-U+2FC1F), containing 375 characters, will be added. === Extended Blocks === * Telugu Sign Spacing Candrabindu (total 1 character) will be added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C70)<!--target: 19.0--> * Kannada Signs Ardhanusvara and Combining Anusvara Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CF0 and U+0CF4)<!--target: 19.0--> * Mongolian Letter Manchu Alternative Ue (total 1 character) will be added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+1879) * Combining Grave-Acute-Macron, Combining inverted lazy s Above, and Combining comma Above and acute (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1AF1-U+1AF3) * Cyrillic small letter Yeru with connecting bar (total 1 character) will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-C'''. (U+1C8B)<!--target: 19.0--> * Belarusian Ruble sign and Ruble sign with double vertical stem (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C5, U+20CF)<!--20C5 target: 19.0--> * Combining Long Triple Solidus Overlay and Combining Saltire Overlay (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''. (U+20F1-U+20F2)<!--target: 19.0--> * Latin capital and small letter i with oblique stroke (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7DE-U+A7DF) * Latin capital letter u with left hook (total 1 character) will be added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB6E)<!--target: 19.0--> * Arabic Dotless Half-Yeh, Half-Yeh, Dotless Half-Jeem and Astronomical Kaf (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC0-U+10EC1, U+10EC8, U+10EEF)<!--10EC0-10EC1 target: 19.0--> * Brahmi minimizing virama (total 1 character) will be added to '''Brahmi'''. (U+1107E)<!--target: 19.0--> * Tulu-Tigalari letter combining anusvara above, signs om pushpika with tail and shrii pushpika, and letter archaic II (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Tulu-Tigalari'''. (U+113CB, U+113D9-U+113DB)<!--target: 19.0--> * Newa Letter Heavy Ya (total 1 character) will be added to '''Newa'''. (U+11462) * Dogra Signs Candrabindu and Avaragha (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Dogra'''. (U+1183C-U+1183D)<!--target: 19.0--> * Devanagari Jivamuliya and Upadhmaniya (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0B-U+11B0C)<!--target: 19.0--> * White Ideographic Comma and Double Ideographic Full Stop (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE5-U+16FE6)<!--target: 19.0--> * Alchemical Symbol for Calx-2 and Alchemical Symbol for Retort-2 (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1CED1, U+1CED5)<!--target: 19.0--> * Musical Symbol down arrowhead breath mark and Musical Symbol up arrowhead breath mark (total 2 character) will be added to '''Musical Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1D282-U+1D283) * Small w with palatal hook, small n and r with double middle tilde, small capital i with retroflex hook, small open q, x with stroke, small wavy y, schwa with right hook, Romance dialectology symbols, zh ligature, Albanian letter edhe, Albanian Frashëri letters, Modifier letter capital y, and modifier letter accents (total 28 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF82-U+1DF8F, U+1DF97-U+1DFA5, U+1DFC4-U+1DFCC)<!--1DF82-1DF8A, 1DFC5-1DFCC target: 19.0--> *Arabic Astronomical zero and five astronomical symbols (total 6 characters) will be added to Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols (U+1EEE0-U+1EEE5) 4o0rkxxhf4oezqj0taeslf1jy7oy2o9 4671930 4671924 2026-09-23T08:38:04Z ~2026-51385-23 3626656 /* Extended Blocks */ 4671930 wikitext text/x-wiki This page is intended to supply a list of some useful symbols separated by topic so they can be found quickly without the need to search in the [[Unicode/Character reference|Unicode reference tables]]. ==Typography== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> <table border="0"> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2713;</td><td>&nbsp;2713 check mark</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2717;</td><td>&nbsp;2717 cross mark</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2012;</td><td>&nbsp;2012 figure dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2013;</td><td>&nbsp;2013 en dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2014;</td><td>&nbsp;2014 em dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2015;</td><td>&nbsp;2015 quotation dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2E3A;</td><td>&nbsp;2E3A two-em dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2E3B;</td><td>&nbsp;2E3B three-em dash</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x3003;</td><td>&nbsp;3003 ditto</td></tr><tr><td>々</td><td>&nbsp;3005 ideographic iteration mark (ditto)</td></tr><tr><td>〻</td><td>&nbsp;303B vertical ideographic iteration mark (ditto)</td></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00A7;</td><td>&nbsp;00A7 section</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00B6;</td><td>&nbsp;00B6 paragraph</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00B7;</td><td>&nbsp;00B7 interpunct, middle dot</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2018;</td><td>&nbsp;2018 left single quote</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2019;</td><td>&nbsp;2019 right single quote, apostrophe</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201A;</td><td>&nbsp;201A low-9 single quote</td></tr><tr><td>‛</td><td>201B single high-reversed-9 quotation mark</td></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201C;</td><td>&nbsp;201C left double quote</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201D;</td><td>&nbsp;201D right double quote</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x201E;</td><td>&nbsp;201E low-9 double quote</td></tr><tr><td>‟</td><td>201F double high-reversed-9 quotation mark</td></tr><tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2020;</td><td>&nbsp;2020 dagger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2021;</td><td>&nbsp;2021 double dagger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2022;</td><td>&nbsp;2022 bullet</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2026;</td><td>&nbsp;2026 ellipsis</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x203D;</td><td>&nbsp;203D interrobang</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2042;</td><td>&nbsp;2042 asterism</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2190;</td><td>&nbsp;2190 left arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2191;</td><td>&nbsp;2191 up arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2192;</td><td>&nbsp;2192 right arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2193;</td><td>&nbsp;2193 down arrow</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2610;</td><td>&nbsp;2610 ballot box</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2611;</td><td>&nbsp;2611 ballot box with check</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2612;</td><td>&nbsp;2612 ballot box with X</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x261B;</td><td>&nbsp;261B black right pointing finger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x261E;</td><td>&nbsp;261E white right pointing finger</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x269C;</td><td>&nbsp;269C fleur-de-lys</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2605;</td><td>&nbsp;2605 starf, bigstar, black star</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2606;</td><td>&nbsp;2606 white star</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x25A1;</td><td>&nbsp;25A1 square</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x26E4;</td><td>&nbsp;26E4 pentagram</td></tr> </table> ===Special Typography Symbols=== <table border="0"> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x23CE;</td><td>&nbsp;23CE carriage return symbol</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x232B;</td><td>&nbsp;232B erase to the left (backspace)</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2423;</td><td>&nbsp;2423 space symbol</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top;color:#f99">⎵</td><td>&nbsp;00A0 non-breaking space - invisible forced space.</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">-</td><td>&nbsp;00AD soft hyphen - is shown where it is inserted in a word if the word is too long for the line and breaks just after the soft hyphen. Otherwise the hyphen is invisible. In several wordprocessors soft hyphen can be entered by holding the control key and at the same time pressing the hyphen key, and is shown as a hyphen with gray background.</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x200B;</td><td>&nbsp;200B zero-width space - provides a non-printing word separator, an invisible line break opportunity</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x200C;</td><td>&nbsp;200C zero-width non-joiner - non-printing character to separate two characters that would otherwise produce a ligature</td></tr> </table> ===Intellectual Property Typography Symbols=== {| !© |00A9 copyright sign |- |® |00AE registered sign |- |™ |2122 trademark sign |- |🄯 |1F12F copyleft sign |} : </div> ==Mathematical== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> <big>'''Mathematical Alphanumeric Small Letters /Algebraic Letters'''</big> <small>𝑐 1d450 algebraic letter c</small> <small>𝑑 1d451 algebraic letter d</small> <small>𝑒 1d452 algebraic letter e</small> <small>𝑓 1d453 algebraic letter f</small> <small>𝑔 1d454 algebraic letter g</small> <small>𝑘 1d458 algebraic letter k</small> <small>𝑙 1d459 algebraic letter l</small> <small>𝑠 1d460 algebraic letter s</small> <small>𝑡 1d461 algebraic letter t</small> <small>𝑢 1d462 algebraic letter u</small> <small>𝑣 1d463 algebraic letter v</small> <small>𝑤 1d464 algebraic letter w</small> <small>𝑥 1d465 algebraic letter x</small> <small>𝑦 1d466 algebraic letter y</small> <small>𝑧 1d467 algebraic letter z</small> ===Unary operators=== : √ 221A radic, Sqrt, radical, square root : ∛ 221B cube root : ∜ 221C fourth root : ± 00B1 plus or minus : ∓ 2213 minus or plus : ′ 2032 prime, derivative : ″ 2033 Prime, double prime : ‴ 2034 tprime, triple prime : ∏ 220F N-ary product : ∑ 2211 N-ary summation ===Binary operators=== : − 2212 minus : × 00D7 multiplication sign : ⋅ 22C5 dot operator : ∕ 2215 division slash : ÷ 00f7 division sign ===Relationships=== : ∝ 221D prop, propto, Proportional, vprop, varpropto, proportional to : ∣ 2223 divides : ∤ 2224 does not divide : ≃ 2243 asymptotically equal to : ≄ 2244 not asymptotically equal to : ≅ 2245 approximately equal to : ≆ 2246 approximately but not actually equal to : ≇ 2247 neither approximately nor actually equal to : ≈ 2248 almost equal to : ≉ 2249 not almost equal to : ≜ 225C trie, triangleq, delta equal to : ≝ 225D equal to by definition : ≟ 225F equest, checked equal to : ≠ 2260 ne, NotEqual, not equal to : ≡ 2261 equiv, Congruent, equivalent to : ≤ 2264 less-than or equal to : ≥ 2265 greater-than or equal to : ≪ 226A much less than : ≫ 226B much greater than ===Calculus, Vector Calculus, Differential Equations=== : ∞ 221E infinity : ∂ 2202 partial differential : ∫ 222B integral : ∬ 222C double integral : ∭ 222D triple integral : ⨌ 2A0C quadruple integral : ∮ 222E contour integral : ∯ 222F surface integral : ∰ 2230 volume integral : ∱ 2231 clockwise integral : ∲ 2232 clockwise contour integral : ∳ 2233 anticlockwise contour integral : ∇ 2207 nabla, Del, backward difference, gradient ===Sets=== : ⊂ 2282 subset, included in, proper subset : ⊃ 2283 superset, includes, proper superset : ⊆ 2286 subset of or equal to : ⊇ 2287 superset or equal to : ⊄ 2284 notin set : ∩ 2229 intersection : ∪ 222A union : ∈ 2208 isin, isinv, Element, in, element of (large symbol) : ∊ 220A element of (small symbol) : ∉ 2209 notin, NotElement, notinva, not element of : ∋ 220B niv, ReverseElement, ni, SuchThat, contains as member (large symbol) : ∍ 220D contains as member (small symbol) : ∌ 220C notni, notniva, NotReverseElement, does not contain as member : ∅ 2205 empty, emptyset, emptyv, varnothing, empty set ===Geometry=== : ∠ 2220 ang, angle : ∡ 2221 angmsd, measured angle : ∢ 2222 spherical angle : ⟂ 27C2 perpendicular to : ∟ 221F right angle ===Logic=== : ¬ 00AC Logical NOT : ∧ 2227 Logical AND : ∨ 2228 Logical OR : ∎ 220E End of proof : ∴ 2234 THEREFORE , there4, therefore, Therefore : ∵ 2235 BECAUSE , becaus, because, Because : ∀ 2200 FOR ALL , forall, for all, ForAll : ∃ 2203 THERE EXISTS , exists, exist, Exists : ∄ 2204 THERE DOES NOT EXIST , nexist, nexists, NotExists ===Superscript and Subscript Numbers=== : ⁰ 2070 superscript zero : ¹ 00B9 superscript one : ² 00B2 superscript two : ³ 00B3 superscript three : ⁴ 2074 superscript four : ⁵ 2075 superscript five : ⁶ 2076 superscript six : ⁷ 2077 superscript seven : ⁸ 2078 superscript eight : ⁹ 2079 superscript nine : ₀ 2080 subscript zero : ₁ 2081 subscript one : ₂ 2082 subscript two : ₃ 2083 subscript three : ₄ 2084 subscript four : ₅ 2085 subscript five : ₆ 2086 subscript six : ₇ 2087 subscript seven : ₈ 2088 subscript eight : ₉ 2089 subscript nine ===Fractions=== <table> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00BD;</td><td>&nbsp;00BD one-half</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2153;</td><td>&nbsp;2153 one-third</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2154;</td><td>&nbsp;2154 two-thirds</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00BC;</td><td>&nbsp;00BC one-quarter</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x00BE;</td><td>&nbsp;00BE three-quarters</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2155;</td><td>&nbsp;2155 one-fifth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2156;</td><td>&nbsp;2156 two-fifths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2157;</td><td>&nbsp;2157 three-fifths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2158;</td><td>&nbsp;2158 four-fifths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2159;</td><td>&nbsp;2159 one-sixth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215A;</td><td>&nbsp;215A five-sixths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2150;</td><td>&nbsp;2150 one-seventh</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215B;</td><td>&nbsp;215B one-eighth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215C;</td><td>&nbsp;215C three-eighths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215D;</td><td>&nbsp;215D five-eighths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215E;</td><td>&nbsp;215E seven-eighths</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2151;</td><td>&nbsp;2151 one-ninth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2152;</td><td>&nbsp;2152 one-tenth</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x215F;</td><td>&nbsp;215F fraction numerator one</td></tr> <tr><td style="vertical-align:top">&#x2044;</td><td>&nbsp;2044 fraction slash</td></tr> </table> ===Mathematical typography=== : ⋮ 22EE vellip, vertical ellipsis : ⋯ 22EF hellip, horizontal ellipsis : ⋰ 22F0 utdot, rising dots, up right diagonal ellipsis : ⋱ 22F1 dtdot, falling dots, down right diagonal ellipsis : ⟨ 27E8, left angle bracket : ⟩ 27E9, right angle bracket : ° 00B0 degree ===Other === : θ 03B8 Greek small letter theta : μ 03BC Greek small letter mu : π 03C0 Greek small letter pi : ℂ 2102 Complex numbers : ℍ 210D Hyperbolic plane, quaternions : ℓ 2113 Small script letter L, litre. : ℕ 2115 Natural numbers : ℙ 2119 Prime numbers : ℚ 211A Rational numbers : ℝ 211D Real numbers : ℤ 2124 Integers : 𝕆 1D546 Octonions </div> ==Science== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> ===Meteorology and astronomy=== : ☁ 2601 cloud : ☇ 2607 lightning : ☂ 2602 umbrella : ☔ 2614 umbrella with rain drops : ☈ 2608 thunderstorm : ☉ 2609 sun : ☼ 263C white sun with rays : ☀ 2600 black sun with rays : ☽ 263D first quarter moon : ☾ 263E last quarter moon : ☿ 263F Mercury : ♀ 2640 female sign, Venus : ♁ 2641 Earth : ♂ 2642 male sign, Mars : ♃ 2643 Jupiter : ♄ 2644 Saturn : ⛢ 26E2 Astronomical Symbol for Uranus : ♅ 2645 Astrological Symbol for Uranus : ♆ 2646 Neptune : ♇ 2647 Pluto : ⚳ 26B3 Ceres : ⚷ 26B7 Chiron :♈ 2648 constellation Aries : ♓ 2653 constellation Pisces :♋ 264B constellation Cancer : ⛄ 26C4 snowman without snow (light snow) : ⛅ 26C5 sun behind cloud (partly cloudy) : ⛆ 26C6 rain : ⛇ 26C7 black snowman (heavy snow) : ⛈ 26C8 thunder cloud and rain :❄ 2744 snowflake : &#x1f300; 1F300 cyclone, typhoon : &#x1f301; 1F301 foggy : &#x1f302; 1F302 closed umbrella : &#x1f30c; 1F30C Milky Way : &#x1f311; 1F311 new moon : &#x1f313; 1F313 first quarter moon : &#x1f315; 1F315 full moon : &#x1f317; 1F317 last quarter moon : &#x1f319; 1F319 crescent moon : &#x1f320; 1F320 shooting star ===Physics=== : &#x0127; 0127 reduced Planck constant : &#x019b; 019B reduced wavelength : &#x03a8; 03A8 Greek capital letter psi : &#x03bb; 03BB Greek small letter lambda : &#x03bd; 03BD Greek small letter nu : &#x03c8; 03C8 Greek small letter psi : &#x03c9; 03C9 Greek small letter omega === Chemistry === : &#x21cc; 21CC equilibrium sign </div> ==Engineering== <div style="column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; -moz-column-count:2;"> : ⌭ 232D cylindricity (drafting) : Ω 2126 omega, ohm : ℄ 2104 Centerline symbol : ﹊ FE4A overline dashes : ﹎ FE4E underline dashes <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> ===IEC 60417&#x202f;/&#x202f;IEEE 1621 power symbols=== : ⏻ 23FB Power : ⏼ 23FC Toggle power : ⏽ 23FD Power on : ⭘ 2B58 Power off : ⏾ 23FE Sleep mode </div> </div> ==Financial== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> ===Currency=== : ₳ 20B3 Austral : &#x0e3f; 0E3F Baht : ৲ 09F2 Bengali Rupee : ৳ 09F3 Bengali Rupee : &#x20bf; 20BF Bitcoin : &#x00a2; 00A2 Cent : ￠ FFE0 Cent, fullwidth : ₡ 20A1 Colon : &#xa4; 00A4 Currency : &#x24; 0024 Dollar : ＄ FF04 Dollar, fullwidth : ₫ 20AB Dong : ₯ 20AF Drachma : &#x20ac; 20AC Euro : ₠ 20A0 Euro-currency : ₣ 20A3 Franc : ₲ 20B2 Guarani : ૱ 0AF1 Gujarati Rupee : &#x20b4; 20B4 Hryvnia : &#x20b9; 20B9 Indian Rupee : ₭ 20AD Kip : &#x20a4; 20A4 Lira : ₶ Livre Tournois : ₥ 20A5 Mill : ₦ 20A6 Naira : &#x20aa; 20AA New Shekel : ₰ 20B0 Penny : ₧ 20A7 Peseta : &#x20b1; 20B1 Peso : &#x00a3; 00A3 Pound (Sterling) : ￡ FFE1 Pound (Sterling), fullwidth : ﷼ FDFC Rial : &#x20bd; 20BD Russian Ruble : ₨ 20A8 Rupee : ₷ Spesmilo : : ௹ 0BF9 Tamil Rupee : &#x20ba; 20BA Turkish Lira : ₮ 20AE Tugrik : &#x20a9; 20A9 Won : ￦ FFE6 Won, fullwidth : &#x00a5; 00A5 Yen(Yuan) : ￥ FFE5 Yen (Yuan), fullwidth ===Other=== : &#x2030; 2030 Per mille : &#x2031; 2031 Basis point, per ten thousand, permyriad : 💰 1F4B0 money bag : 💱 1F4B1 currency exchange : 💳 1F4B3 credit card : 📈 1F4C8 chart with upward trend : 📉 1F4C9 chart with downward trend </div> ==Music== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : &#x2669; 2669 quarter note : &#x266a; 266A eighth note : &#x266b; 266B beamed eighth notes : &#x266c; 266C beamed sixteenth notes : &#x266d; 266D music flat sign : &#x266e; 266E music natural sign : &#x266f; 266F music sharp sign : &#x1d106; 1D106 left repeat sign : &#x1d107; 1D107 right repeat sign : &#x1d110; 1D110 fermata : &#x1d11c; 1D11C six-string fretboard (tablature) : &#x1d11d; 1D11D four-string fretboard (tablature) : &#x1d11e; 1D11E G CLEF : &#x1d11f; 1D11F G CLEF OTTAVA ALTA : &#x1d120; 1D120 G CLEF OTTAVA BASSA : &#x1d121; 1D121 C CLEF : &#x1d122; 1D122 F CLEF : &#x1d123; 1D123 F CLEF OTTAVA ALTA : &#x1d124; 1D124 F CLEF OTTAVA BASSA : &#x1d125; 1D125 DRUM CLEF-1 : &#x1d126; 1D126 SYMBOL DRUM CLEF-2 : &#x1d1d0; 1D1D0 MUSICAL SYMBOL GREGORIAN C CLEF : &#x1d1d1; 1D1D1 GREGORIAN F CLEF : &#x1d12a; 1D12A double sharp : &#x1d12b; 1D12B double flat : &#x1d134; 1D134 common time . : &#x1d13b; 1D13B whole rest : &#x1d13c; 1D13C half rest : &#x1d13d; 1D13D quarter rest : &#x1d13e; 1D13E eighth rest : &#x1d13f; 1D13F sixteenth rest : &#x1d140; 1D140 thirty-second rest : &#x1d141; 1D141 sixty-fourth rest : &#x1d142; 1D142 one hundred twenty-eighth rest . : &#x1d15d; 1D15D whole note :𝅗𝅥 1D15E half note :𝅘𝅥 1D15F quarter note :𝅘𝅥𝅮 1D160 eighth note :𝅘𝅥𝅯 1D161 sixteenth note :𝅘𝅥𝅰 1D162 thirty-second note :𝅘𝅥𝅱 1D163 sixty-fourth note :𝅘𝅥𝅲 1D164 one hundred twenty-eighth note . : &#x1d192; 1D192 crescendo : &#x1d193; 1D193 decrescendo : &#x1f3b5; 1F3B5 musical note : &#x1f3b6; 1F3B6 multiple musical notes : &#x1f3b8; 1F3B8 guitar : &#x1f3bb; 1F3BB violin : &#x1fa95; 1FA95 banjo </div> ==Food and drink== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ☕ 2615 hot beverage : ⛾ 26FE restaurant : &#x1f345; 1F345 tomato : &#x1f34a; 1F34A tangerine : &#x1f34f; 1F34F green apple : &#x1f951; 1F951 avocado : &#x1f354; 1F354 hamburger : &#x1f355; 1F355 slice of pizza : &#x1f359; 1F359 rice ball : &#x1f35e; 1F35E bread : &#x1f363; 1F363 sushi : &#x1f368; 1F368 ice cream : &#x1f36d; 1F36D lollipop : &#x1f372; 1F372 pot of food : &#x1f377; 1F377 wine glass : &#x1f37c; 1F37C baby bottle : &#x1f353; 1F353 strawberry </div> ==Health and safety== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ☠ 2620 skull and crossbones : ☡ 2621 caution sign (curves ahead on road) : ☢ 2622 radioactive sign (trefoil) : ☣ 2623 biohazard sign : ☤ 2624 caduceus : ☮ 262E peace symbol : ☯ 262F yin yang : ♿ 267F wheelchair symbol : ⚕ 2695 staff of Asclepius : ⚠ 26A0 warning sign : ⚡ 26A1 high voltage sign : ⛐ 26D0 sliding car : ⛨ 26E8 hospital : 💉 1F489 syringe : 💊 1F48A pill </div> ==Sports, games== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> ===Chess=== : ♔ 2654 white chess king : ♕ 2655 white chess queen : ♖ 2656 white chess rook : ♗ 2657 white chess bishop : ♘ 2658 white chess knight : ♙ 2659 white chess pawn </div> <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> : ♚ 265A black chess king : ♛ 265B black chess queen : ♜ 265C black chess rook : ♝ 265D black chess bishop : ♞ 265E black chess knight : ♟ 265F black chess pawn </div> <div style="display:inline-block; width:100%"> ===Card games=== : ♠ 2660 black spade suit : ♡ 2661 white heart suit : ♢ 2662 white diamond suit : ♣ 2663 black club suit : ♤ 2664 white spade suit : ♥ 2665 black heart suit : ♦ 2666 black diamond suit : ♧ 2667 white club suit </div> ===Other=== : ⚽ 26BD soccer : ⚾ 26BE baseball : ⛷ 26F7 skier : &#x1f3ae; 1F3AE video game : &#x1f3b3; 1F3B3 bowling : &#x1f3bd; 1F3BD running shirt and sash : &#x1f3c0; 1F3C0 basketball : &#x1f3c3; 1F3C3 runner : &#x1f3c6; 1F3C6 trophy : &#x1f3c9; 1F3C9 rugby : &#x1F3F8; 1F3F8 badminton racquet and shuttlecock </div> ==Control Pictures== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ␀ 2400 symbol for null : ␁ 2401 symbol for start of heading : ␂ 2402 symbol for start of text : ␃ 2403 symbol for end of text : ␄ 2404 symbol for end of transmission : ␅ 2405 symbol for enquiry : ␆ 2406 symbol for acknowledge : ␇ 2407 symbol for bell : ␈ 2408 symbol for backspace : ␉ 2409 symbol for horizontal tabulation : ␊ 240A symbol for line feed : ␋ 240B symbol for vertical tabulation : ␌ 240C symbol for form feed : ␍ 240D symbol for carriage return : ␎ 240E symbol for shift out : ␏ 240F symbol for shift in : ␐ 2410 symbol for data link escape : ␑ 2411 symbol for device control one : ␒ 2412 symbol for device control two : ␓ 2413 symbol for device control three : ␔ 2414 symbol for device control four : ␕ 2415 symbol for negative acknowledge : ␖ 2416 symbol for synchronous idle : ␗ 2417 symbol for end of transmission block : ␘ 2418 symbol for cancel : ␙ 2419 symbol for end of medium : ␚ 241A symbol for substitute : ␛ 241B symbol for escape : ␜ 241C symbol for separator (information separator one) : ␝ 241D symbol for group separator (information separator two) : ␞ 241E symbol for record separator (information separator three) : ␟ 241F symbol for unit separator (information separator four) : ␠ 2420 symbol for space : ␡ 2421 symbol for delete </div> ==Box Drawing== ==Block Elements== <table border="0" style="margin-left:1em"> <tr><td> ▀ <td> 2580 <td> upper half block <tr><td> ▄ <td> 2584 <td> lower half block <tr><td> ▌ <td> 258C <td> left half block <tr><td> ▐ <td> 2590 <td> right half block </table> ==Geometric Shapes== : &#x25B3; 25B3 equilateral triangle : &#x22BF; 22BF right triangle : &#x2B1C; 2B1C square : &#x2662; 2662 lozenge, rhombus, diamond : &#x25AD; 25AD rectangle : &#x2B20; 2B20 pentagon : &#x2B21; 2B21 hexagon : &#x25CB; 25CB circle : &#x2B2D; 2B2D ellipse ==Dingbats== <div style="column-count:3; -webkit-column-count:3; -moz-column-count:3;"> : ⏪ 23EA Black left-pointing double triangle : ⏩ 23E9 Black right-pointing double triangle : ⏫ 23EB Black up-pointing double triangle : ⏬ 23EC Black down-pointing double triangle : ⏭ 23ED Black right-pointing pointer double triangle with vertical bar : ⏮ 23EE Black left-pointing pointer double triangle with vertical bar : ► 25BA Black right-pointing pointer : ◄ 25C4 Black left-pointing pointer : ▲ 25B2 Black up-pointing triangle : ▼ 25BC Black down-pointing triangle : △ 25B3 White up-pointing triangle : ▽ 25BD White down-pointing triangle : ◉ 25C9 Fisheye : ◎ 25CE Bullseye : ✂ 2702 Black Scissors : ✄ 2704 White Scissors : ✅ 2705 White heavy check mark : ✓ 2713 Check mark : ✔ 2714 Heavy check mark : ✕ 2715 Multiplication : ✖ 2716 Heavy multiplication : ✗ 2717 Ballot X : ✘ 2718 Heavy ballot X : ❌ 274C Cross mark </div> ==Social Networking== : 👍 1F44D Thumbs Up : 👎 1F44E Thumbs Down : ☺ 263A white smiley ==External links== * [http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/char/search.htm Unicode lookup] * [http://www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/block/index.htm Unicode blocks] * [http://www.unicode.org/charts Unicode Charts] * [http://farlingo.narod.ru/unimapboard/unimapboard.html Input of all unicode 6.1 symbols] * [http://emojipedia.org Emojipedia, list and information about many unicode text symbols ] {{BookCat}} ==Unicode 16.0== Unicode 16.0 will be released in September 2024. ===New Blocks=== * '''Todhri''' (U+105C0-U+105FF), containing 52 characters will be added. * '''Garay''' (U+10D40-U+10D8F), containing 69 characters will be added. * '''Tulu-Tigalari''' (U+11380-U+113FF), containing 80 characters will be added. * '''Myanmar Extended-C''' (U+116D0-U+116FF), containing 20 characters will be added. * '''Sunuwar''' (U+11BC0-U+11BFF), containing 44 characters will be added. * '''Egyptian Hieroglyphs Extended-A''' (U+13460-U+143FF), containing 3994 characters will be added. * '''Gurung Khema''' (U+16100-U+1613F), containing 58 characters will be added. * '''Kirat Rai''' (U+16D40-U+16D7F), containing 58 characters will be added. * '''Symbols for Legacy Computing Supplement''' (U+1CC00-U+1CEBF), containing 686 characters will be added. * '''Ol Onal''' (U+1E5D0-U+1E5FF), containing 44 characters will be added. ===Extended Blocks=== * A combining diacritical mark for Jawi (total 1 character) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-B'''. (U+0897) * Inverted letters and a punctuation mark (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Balinese'''. (U+1B4E-U+1B4F and U+1B7F) * A letter Tje (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-C'''. (U+1C89-U+1C8A) * Legacy computing symbols for Delete (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Control Pictures'''. (U+2427-U+2429) * CJK strokes Hxg and Szp (total 2 characters) will be added to '''CJK Strokes'''. (U+31E4-U+31E5) * A capital Rams Horn, an S with Diagonal Stroke, Lamda Letters, and letters for Wakashan and Salishan Languages (total 6 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7CB-U+A7CD, U+A7DA-U+A7DC) * A combining Alef overlay and letters with two dots vertically below (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC2-U+10EC4 and U+10EFC) * A sign Nukta (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kawi'''. (U+11F5A) * A blank character (total 1 character) will be added to '''Khitan Small Script'''. (U+18CFF) * A Liarence To Machines Microwaves Airfryers and Hund emoji (total 5 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6EE-U+1F6EF-U+1F6FD-U+1F6FF) * A rightwards arrow with hook, and arrows for legacy computing and arrows for Egyptology (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8B2-U+1F8BB, U+1F8C0-U+1F8C1) * A Harp, Shovel, Leafless Tree, Fingerprint, Root Vegetable, Splatter, and Face with Bags Under Eyes (total 7 characters) will be added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA89, U+1FA8F, U+1FABE, U+1FAC6, U+1FADC, U+1FADF, and U+1FAE9) * Graphic shapes for legacy computing (total 37 characters) will be added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''. (U+1FBCB-U+1FBEF) ==Unicode 17.0== Unicode 17.0 will be released in September 2025. This is a section where you can add any upcoming Unicode characters that have been [provisionally assigned for mature proposals] (but not yet accepted) for a future update of The Unicode Standard. ===New Blocks=== * '''Sidetic''' (U+10940-U+1095F), containing 29 characters will be added. * '''Sharada Supplement''' (U+11B60-U+11B7F), containing 8 characters will be added. * '''Tolong Siki''' (U+11DB0-U+11DEF), containing 54 characters will be added. * '''Beria Erfe''' (U+16EA0-U+16EDF), containing 50 characters will be added. * '''Tangut Components Supplement''' (U+18D80-U+18DFF), containing 115 characters will be added. * '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement''': (U+1CEC0-U+1CEFF), containing 34 characters will be added. * '''Tai Yo''' (U+1E6C0-U+1E6FF), containing 55 characters will be added. * '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension J''' (U+323B0-U+334FF), containing 1024 characters will be added. ===Extended Blocks=== * Modifier letters Eh, Ini, and Yi (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0558, U+058B, U+058C) * A Noon with Ring Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-B'''. (U+088F) * An alternate letter Ba (total 1 character) will be added to '''Bengali'''. (U+09FF) * Signs for dot above and double dot above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B53, U+0B54) * An archaic ligature Shrii (total 1 character) will be added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C5C) * An archaic ligature Shrii (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CDC) * Mongolian Letter Manchu Alternative Ue (total 1 character) will be added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+1879) * Compound tone, Harrington, and alternate positioned IPA diacritics (total 27 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ACF-U+1AEB) * Equal Sign with Infinity Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows'''. (U+2B96) * CJK strokes Cjk and Low (total 9 characters) will be added to '''CJK Strokes'''. (U+31E6-U+31EE) * 2 capital letters for Middle English, and Latin pharyngeal voiced fricative, and Modifier Letter Capital S (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7CE-U+A7CF, U+A7D2, U+A7D4, U+A7F1) * Arabic Ligature Rahmatu Allaahi Alayh and Arabic Honorifics (total 825 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Presentation Forms-A'''. (U+FBC3-U+FBD2, U+FD90, U+FD91, U+FDC8-U+FDCE) * Latin Small modifier letters (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-F'''. (107BB-107BF) * A Small Yeh Barree with Two Dots Below, Thin Noon, Biblical End of Verse, Yeh with Four Dots Below, Arabic Honorifics, Double Vertical Bar Below, and Small Low Noon (total 13 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC5-U+10EC7, U+10ED0-U+10ED7 and U+10EFA-U+10EFB) * Vocalic Sign Vowel Sign letter R Rr L Ll (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Kaithi'''. (U+110C3-U+110CC,U+110CE-U+10ECF) * These Vocalic Short Candra Vowel Sign letter to R Rr L Ll (total 15 characters) will be added to '''Khojki'''. (U+11212-U+11242-U+1124F) * These Sign Auspicious Sign Lower (total 45 characters) will be added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0A-U+11B46) * A vowel sign Spacing Candrabindu Prishthamatra (total 5 character) will be added to '''Kawi'''. (U+11F5B-U+11F5F) * Very Early Dynastic Cuneiform Numbers for counting (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation'''. (U+1246F-U+12475 and U+1247F) * Very Egyptian Hieroglyph Californiaeos Numbers for counting (total 10 characters) will be added to '''Eygptian Hieroglyph Format Controls'''. (U+13456-U+1345F) * Chinese Simplified and Traditional Er and Yangqin Slow Signs Two, Three, and Four (total 25 characters) will be added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE5-U+16FF2-U+16FF3-16FF6) * Some additional ideographs (total 8 characters) will be added to '''Tangut'''. (U+187F8-U+187FF) * Additional ideographs (total 20 characters) will be added to '''Tangut Supplement'''. (U+18D09-U+18D1C) * Katakana and Lows Tones (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Kana Extended-B'''. (U+1AFF4-U+1AFFC-U+1AFFF) * Katakana and Hiragana Cantonese Tones (total 13 characters) will be added to '''Kana Extended-A'''. (U+1B123-U+1B12F) * Katakana to Hiragana small Ki Ku Sa Si Su Se and So Reserved code points for specific characters Yi Ye Wu Archaic E (total 55 characters) will be added to '''Small Kana Extension'''.(U+1B130-1B153-1B154-U+1B16F) * Stein Zimmerman Symbols, Digit Slash Symbols, and other Symbols (total 23 characters) will be added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D127-U+1D128, U+1D1EB-U+1D1F6, U+1D1F7-U+1D1FF) * Twelve symbols (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing Supplement'''. (U+1CCFA-U+1CCFF, U+1CEBA-1CEBF) * Kaktovik Numerals Text Mark (total 12 characters) will be added to '''Kaktovik Numerals'''. (U+1D2D4-U+1D2DF) * Affricate ligatures and letters with palatal hook Modifiers Retroflex hook Strikethrough will be added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF1F-U+1DF24, U+1DF2B-U+1DF3A, U+1DF3B-U+1DFFF) * Cyrillic Super Sub Modifier letters for to will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-D'''. (U+1E06E-U+1E07B) * A Unillange To Neters Unifieding Legan and Furoses emoji (total 5 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D8-U+1F6DB-U+1F6ED) * Historical asteroid symbols (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Alchemical Symbols'''. (U+1F777-U+1F77A) * Chemical symbols (total 9 characters) will be added to '''Supplemental Arrows-C'''. (U+1F8D0-U+1F8D8) * White and Black Chess Ferz and Alfil (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Chess Symbols'''. (U+1FA54-U+1FA57) * A Cumans, Gander and Contses (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FAEA-U+1FAEC) * An Left Over alarm bell symbol Text Mark (total 7 characters) will be added to '''Symbols for Legacy Computing'''. (U+1FB93-U+1FBFA-U+1FBFF) * A disunified ideograph To Beautiful (total 6 character) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension C'''. (U+2B73A-U+2B73F) == Unicode 18.0 == Unicode 18.0 was released on September 16, 2026. === New Blocks === *'''Bengali Supplement''' (U+11DF0-U+11DFF), containing 2 characters, was added. * '''Archaic Cuneiform Numerals''' (U+12550-U+1268F), containing 311 characters, was added. * '''Jurchen''' (U+18E00-U+1919F), containing 914 characters, was added. * '''Jurchen Radicals''' (U+191A0-U+191DF), containing 51 characters, was added. * '''Musical Symbols Supplement''' (U+1D250-U+1D28F), containing 50 characters, was added. * '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows Extended''' (U+1DB00-U+1DBFF), containing 29 characters, was added. * '''Seal Script''' (U+3D000-U+3FC3F), containing 11328 characters, was added. === Extended Blocks === * Modifier letters Eh, Ini, and Yi (total 3 characters) was added to '''Armenian'''. (U+0558, U+058B-U+058C) * Hebrew Point Sheva Na Mudgash and Hebrew Point Dagesh Hazaq Mudgash (total 2 characters) was added to '''Hebrew'''. (U+05C8-U+05C9) * Signs for dot above and double dot above (total 2 characters) was added to '''Oriya'''. (U+0B53-U+0B54) * Alternate positioned IPA diacritics and diacritics for Chao and Khoe (total 7 characters) was added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1ADE-U+1ADF, U+1AEC-U+1AF0) * Latin subscript small letter w, y, and z and Modifier letter high and low vertical line (total 4 characters) was added to '''Superscripts and Subscripts'''. (U+208F, U+209D-U+209F) * Rufiyaa Sign, UAE Dirham Sign, and Omani Rial (total 3 characters) was added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C2-U+20C4) * Two Wiggly Exclamation Marks and Two Parenthesis with Middle Ring (total 4 characters) was added to '''Supplemental Punctuation'''. (U+2E60-U+2E63) * Latin capital letter closed omega and Latin capital letter r with long leg and (total 2 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7DD and U+A7E2) * Latin capital letter script r and script r with ring (total 2 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB6C-U+AB6D) * Latin modifier letters for clicks (total 5 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-F'''. (U+107BB-U+107BF) * Arabic Crown Letters, Quranic Characters, and Arabic Crown (total 39 characters) was added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC9-U+10ECF, U+10ED9-U+10EEE, U+10EF0-U+10EF9) * Devanagari Letter Alternate Ddda (total 1 character) was added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0A) * Extended Cuneiform Numeric Signs (total 12 characters) was added to '''Cuneiform Numbers and Punctuation'''. (U+1246F, U+12475-U+1247F) * Jurchen Small Script characters (total 5 characters) was added to '''Khitan Small Script'''. (U+18CD6-U+18CDA) * Two additional ideographs (total 2 characters) was added to '''Tangut Supplement'''. (U+18D1F-U+18D20) * Hiragana Digraph Koto, Katakana Diagraphs Toki, Tote, and Yori, letters alternate Ne, and Wi (total 6 characters) was added to '''Kana Extended-A'''. (U+1B123-U+1B128) * Katakana letter small archaic Ye (total 1 character) was added to '''Small Kana Extension'''. (U+1B168) * Leibnizian alchemical symbols, Leibnizian cossic characters, and Leibnizian mathematical signs and symbols (total 19 characters) was added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1CED2-U+1CED4, U+1CEDD-U+1CEDF, U+1CEF1-U+1CEFD) * Stein Zimmerman Symbols, Digit Slash Symbols, and other Symbols (total 23 characters) was added to '''Musical Symbols'''. (U+1D127-U+1D128, U+1D1EB-U+1D1FF) * Mathematical italic long s with descender s (U+1D6A6) was added to '''Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols'''. * Affricate ligatures, letters with palatal hook, barred letters, RFE letters, Initial Teaching Alphabet, English Phonotypic Alphabet, Leibnizian cossic characters, and modifier letters (total 151 characters) was added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF1F-U+1DF24, U+1DF2B-U+1DF81, U+1DF90-U+1DF96, U+1DFCD-U+1DFFF) * A Tomobiki symbol (total 1 character) was added to '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement'''. (U+1F1AE) * A lighthouse (total 1 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6D9) * A black circle with white vertical bar, and Extended Geometric Shapes (total 17 characters) was added to '''Geometric Shapes Extended'''. (U+1F7DA-U+1F7DB, U+1F7F1-U+1F7FF) * A meteor, eraser, net with handle, monarch butterfly, pickle, cracking face, leftwards thumb sign, and rightwards thumb sign (total 8 characters) was added to '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A'''. (U+1FA8B-1FA8D, U+1FACC, U+1FADD, U+1FAEB, U+1FAF9-1FAFA) * An additional ideograph (total 1 character) was added to '''CJK Unified Ideographs Extension D'''. (U+2B81E) == Unicode 19.0== Unicode 19.0 will be released in late 2027. There are more characters targeted for this version, but they have not been confirmed yet. === New Blocks === * '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended-A''' (U+107C0-U+107FF), containing 16 characters, will be added. * '''Arabic Extended-D''' (U+10D90-U+10E5F), containing 3 characters, will be added. * '''Sirmauri''' (U+11850-U+1188F), containing 55 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Leke''' (U+11B80-U+11BBF), containing 55 characters, will be added. * '''Proto-Cuneiform''' (U+12690-U+12ECF), containing 1392 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Chisoi''' (U+16D80-U+16DAF), containing 40 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Mwangwego''' (U+16E00-U+16E3F), containing 64 characters, will be added. * '''Nwagu Aneke''' (U+1C780-U+1C7FF), containing 77 characters, will be added. * '''Shaaldaa''' (U+1C800-U+1CB2F), containing 804 characters, will be added. * '''Soyombo Supplement''' (U+1DAB0-U+1DADF), containing 50 characters, was added. * '''Leibnizian Ambiguous Signs''' (U+1DC00-U+1DC3F), containing 54 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B''' (U+1FD00-U+1FDFF), containing 13 characters, will be added.<!--target: 19.0--> * '''CJK Unified Ideographs Components-A''' (U+2FA20-U+2FA9F), containing 119 characters, will be added. * '''CJK Unified Ideographs Components-B''' (U+2FAA0-U+2FC1F), containing 375 characters, will be added. === Extended Blocks === * Telugu Sign Spacing Candrabindu (total 1 character) will be added to '''Telugu'''. (U+0C70)<!--target: 19.0--> * Kannada Signs Ardhanusvara and Combining Anusvara Above (total 1 character) will be added to '''Kannada'''. (U+0CF0 and U+0CF4)<!--target: 19.0--> * Mongolian Letter Manchu Alternative Ue (total 1 character) will be added to '''Mongolian'''. (U+1879) * Combining Grave-Acute-Macron, Combining inverted lazy s Above, and Combining comma Above and acute (total 3 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks Extended'''. (U+1AF1-U+1AF3) * Cyrillic small letter Yeru with connecting bar (total 1 character) will be added to '''Cyrillic Extended-C'''. (U+1C8B)<!--target: 19.0--> * Belarusian Ruble sign and Ruble sign with double vertical stem (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Currency Symbols'''. (U+20C5, U+20CF)<!--20C5 target: 19.0--> * Combining Long Triple Solidus Overlay and Combining Saltire Overlay (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Combining Diacritical Marks for Symbols'''. (U+20F1-U+20F2)<!--target: 19.0--> * Latin capital and small letter i with oblique stroke (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-D'''. (U+A7DE-U+A7DF) * Latin capital letter u with left hook (total 1 character) will be added to '''Latin Extended-E'''. (U+AB6E)<!--target: 19.0--> * Arabic Dotless Half-Yeh, Half-Yeh, Dotless Half-Jeem and Astronomical Kaf (total 4 characters) will be added to '''Arabic Extended-C'''. (U+10EC0-U+10EC1, U+10EC8, U+10EEF)<!--10EC0-10EC1 target: 19.0--> * Brahmi minimizing virama (total 1 character) will be added to '''Brahmi'''. (U+1107E)<!--target: 19.0--> * Tulu-Tigalari letter combining anusvara above, signs om pushpika with tail and shrii pushpika, and letter archaic II (total 5 characters) will be added to '''Tulu-Tigalari'''. (U+113CB, U+113D9-U+113DB)<!--target: 19.0--> * Newa Letter Heavy Ya (total 1 character) will be added to '''Newa'''. (U+11462) * Dogra Signs Candrabindu and Avaragha (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Dogra'''. (U+1183C-U+1183D)<!--target: 19.0--> * Devanagari Jivamuliya and Upadhmaniya (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Devanagari Extended-A'''. (U+11B0B-U+11B0C)<!--target: 19.0--> * White Ideographic Comma and Double Ideographic Full Stop (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Ideographic Symbols and Punctuation'''. (U+16FE5-U+16FE6)<!--target: 19.0--> * Alchemical Symbol for Calx-2 and Alchemical Symbol for Retort-2 (total 2 characters) will be added to '''Miscellaneous Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1CED1, U+1CED5)<!--target: 19.0--> * Musical Symbol down arrowhead breath mark and Musical Symbol up arrowhead breath mark (total 2 character) will be added to '''Musical Symbols Supplement'''. (U+1D282-U+1D283) * Small w with palatal hook, small n and r with double middle tilde, small capital i with retroflex hook, small open q, x with stroke, small wavy y, schwa with right hook, Romance dialectology symbols, zh ligature, Albanian letter edhe, Albanian Frashëri letters, Modifier letter capital y, and modifier letter accents (total 28 characters) will be added to '''Latin Extended-G'''. (U+1DF82-U+1DF8F, U+1DF97-U+1DFA5, U+1DFC4-U+1DFCC)<!--1DF82-1DF8A, 1DFC5-1DFCC target: 19.0--> *Arabic Astronomical zero and five astronomical symbols (total 6 characters) will be added to Arabic Mathematical Alphabetic Symbols (U+1EEE0-U+1EEE5) * A seatbelt sign and hot air balloon (total 2 character) was added to '''Transport and Map Symbols'''. (U+1F6DB and U+1F6FD) lnq0df16ak5gnbv2sq2tleulp0cvplm 110 102493 4671772 4671750 2026-09-22T12:31:53Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4671750|4671750]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|discuss]]) 4671772 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''C''' is for '''C'''ow</div> [[File:Holstein Friesian cattle, Senbonmatsu Farm.jpg|center|500px]] {{ {{BOOKTEMPLATE}} }} [[az:Vikiuşaq:Əlifba/C]] [[fr:Wikijunior:Alphabet/C]] ffzbsozlhb577k57kjzhu420wjl6m73 0 109210 4671794 4640665 2026-09-22T14:09:58Z R. Henrik Nilsson 3395618 alway > always 4671794 wikitext text/x-wiki == As You Read == * Explain how scientists discovered {{tooltip|subatomic|subatomic means smaller than an atom}} particles. * Explain how today’s model of the atom developed. * Describe the structure of the nuclear atom. * Vocab: element, electron, proton, neutron, and electron cloud. * Think about the different models of the atom, draw them and compare between them. * Names: {{w|John Dalton}}, {{w|Ernest Rutford}}, {{w|James Chadwik}}, {{w|J. J. Thomson}}, {{w|Niels Bohr}} == First Thoughts == Do you like mysteries? Are you curious? Don’t be embarrassed! Humans have always been curious. Someone always wants to know something that is not easy to detect or to see what can’t be seen. For example, people began wondering about matter more than 2,500 years ago. Some of the Greek philosophers thought that matter was composed of tiny particles. They reasoned that you could take a piece of matter, cut it in half, cut the half piece in half again, and continue to cut again and again. Eventually, you wouldn’t be able to cut any more. You would have only one particle left. They named these particles ''atomos'', a term that means ''indivisible''. Another way to imagine this is to picture a string of beads. If you keep dividing the string into pieces, you eventually come to one single bead. === Describing the Unseen === The Greek philosophers didn’t try to prove their theories by doing experiments as scientists now do. Their theories were the result of reasoning, debating, and discussion&nbsp;&ndash; not of evidence or proof. Today, scientists will not accept a theory that is not supported by experimental evidence. But even if the Greek philosophers had experimented, they could not have proven the existence of atoms. People had not yet discovered much about what is now called chemistry, the study of matter. The kind of equipment needed to study matter was a long way from being invented. Even as recently as 500 years ago, atoms were still a mystery. == Different Atomic Theories == === Dalton’s Atomic Theory === One of the first published theories of the atom was proposed by John Dalton, an English chemist born in 1766. His theory had five main points to it. # Elements are made of tiny parts called ''atoms''. # The atoms of a given element are different from those of any other element, and are distinguishable by their {{tooltip|atomic weight|old term for atomic mass}}. # All atoms of a given element are identical. (Now known to be false&nbsp;&ndash; see the section on Isotopes [coming [[Special: Diff/2008461|soon]]].) # Atoms of one element can combine with atoms of another element to form chemical compounds. A given compound will always have the same relative numbers of different atoms. # Atoms can neither be created nor divided by a chemical reaction, merely grouped together in different ways. === Discovering The Electron === The news of Crooke’s experiments excited the scientific community of the time. But many scientists were not convinced that the cathode rays were streams of particles. Was the greenish glow caused by a new form of light, or was it a stream of charged particles? In 1897, J.&nbsp;J. Thomson, an English physicist, tried to clear up the confusion. He placed a magnet beside the tube from Crooke’s experiments; the beam deflects. However, we know light cannot be bent by a magnet, so the beam couldn’t be light. Therefore, Thomson concluded that the beam must be made up of charged particles of matter that came from the cathode. Thomson then repeated the {{abbr|CRT|cathode‐ray tube}} experiment using different metals for the {{tooltip|cathode|the electrode connected to the negative terminal of a voltage (electric potential difference) source}} and different gases in the tube. He found that the same charged particles were produced no matter what elements were used for the cathode or the gas in the tube. Thomson concluded that cathode rays are negatively charged particles of matter. How did Thomson know the particles were negatively charged? He knew that opposite charges attract each other. He observed that these particles were attracted to the positively charged anode, so he reasoned that the particles must be negatively charged. These negatively charged particles are now called ''electrons''. Thomson also inferred that electrons are a part of every kind of atom because they are produced by every kind of cathode material. Perhaps the biggest surprise that came from Thomson’s experiments was the evidence that particles smaller than the atom do exist. === Thomson’s Atomic Model === [[File:Bohr-planetary-atom-model.jpg|thumb|307px|The Bohr model of the atom<br>Showing electron quantum jumping to ground state n=1]] Some of the questions posed by scientists were answered in light of Thomson’s experiments. However, the answers inspired new questions. If atoms contain one or more negatively charged particles, then all matter, which is made of atoms, should be negatively charged as well. But all matter isn’t negatively charged. How can this be explained? Could it be that atoms also contain some positive charge? The negatively charged electrons and the unknown positive charge would then neutralize each other in the atom. Thomson came to this conclusion and included positive charge in his model of the atom. Using his new findings, Thomson revised Dalton’s model of the atom. Instead of a solid ball that was the same throughout, Thomson pictured a sphere of positive charge. The negatively charged electrons were spread evenly among the positive charge. This is modeled by a ball of clay. The positive charge of the clay is equal to the negative charge of the electrons. Therefore, the atom is neutral. It was later discovered that not all atoms are neutral. The number of electrons within an element can vary. If there is more positive charge than negative electrons, the atom has an overall positive charge. If there are more negative electrons than positive charge, the atom has an overall negative charge. === Rutherford’s Experiments === A model is not accepted in the scientific community until it has been tested and the tests support previous observations. In 1906, Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers began an experiment to find out if Thomson’s model of the atom was correct. They wanted to see what would happen when they fired fast-moving, positively charged bits of matter, called alpha particles, at a thin film of a {{tooltip|metal such as gold|gold is very malleable, it can be made very thin}}. Alpha particles come from {{tooltip|unstable|difficultly for atom’s components to hold together}} atoms. Alpha particles are positively charged, and so they are repelled by particles of matter which also have a positive charge. A source of alpha particles was aimed at a thin sheet of gold foil that was only {{tooltip|400&nbsp;nm|400 nanometers &#x3D; 0.000 000 4 m}} thick. The foil was surrounded by a fluorescent screen that gave a flash of light each time it was hit by a charged particle.{{quote|I had observed the scattering of alpha particles, and&nbsp;… it was as if you had fired a 15-inch naval shell at a piece of tissue paper and the shell came right back and hit you&nbsp;… it was then that I had an idea of an atom with a minute massive centre, carrying a charge.|Ernest Rutherford|Rutherford et al., [[w:Harvard Project Physics|Project Physics]] Unit 5 Text, 1971}} {{BookCat}} 69qqsdbtconjlrgdihk41lwzwrbhxi0 4 112405 4671762 4671671 2026-09-22T12:00:53Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Pages created by User:Sisterian */ new section 4671762 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Request for comment (the future of Abstract Wikipedia) == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">You are invited to voice your opinions in a [[:m:Requests for comment/The future of Abstract Wikipedia|request for comment about the future of Abstract Wikipedia]]. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[:m:User:Kowal2701|Kowal2701]] ([[:m:User talk:Kowal2701|talk]]) 12:24, 24 July 2026 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:DreamRimmer@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Call for administrators == Any experienced editor who has a good understanding of Wikibooks' policies should consider applying for administrator permissions at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]]. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 August 2026 (UTC) :Is there a page here that describes what admins do? I am curious because I checked [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&group=sysop&wpsubmit=&wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&limit=50 List of admins] and I see that there are already quite a few admins here and wonder which areas have a shortage. :Just curious. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:56, 16 September 2026 (UTC) ::[[Wikibooks:Administrators]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:09, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == August 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25 Next 25] == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in August. Both sessions will focus on [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25 the Next 25 initiative], including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25/A_proposal_to_frame_Next_25 framing the initiative]. Participants may attend either or both Café sessions. #'''29 August 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1788015600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''30 August 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1788058800 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session agenda details] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 01:32, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks project is not defined by goal == If it is for texbooks why is it called Wikibooks? It should be called Wikitextbooks! If it is for textbooks why does it contain cookbooks? For textbooks it's not supposed to have a [[Wikibooks:Featured books]]. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 09:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :It's "textbooks" broadly construed: guides, manuals, how-tos, etc. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:15, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::So we should change "Wikibooks:Featured books" to "Wikibooks:Featured texts". [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::I disagree and even if I agreed, it would be priority #49,389. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::::It's according to community consensus that says this website contains textbooks not books. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:23, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::::"[[wb:WIW|Simply, Wikibooks is a collection of open-content textbooks.]]" [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:26, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Most textbooks are made by collaboration of some authors, co-authors and editors. Wikibooks help pages and guidelines remain silent when it comes to stages of writing a new texbooks. Even [[Using Wikibooks]] is not complete emough for enthusiasts. --[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 18:13, 3 September 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]], In my opinion this is a good question. I wish more users would chime in. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:10, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == Wishlist 2027, invitation to share feedback == Hi, I’m [[m:User:SPerry-WMF|Sonja]] and I lead some of the [[mw:Contributors|teams]] at the Foundation who will be responsible for picking up wish work under the new wishlist process. As you may know, the [[m:Community_Wishlist|Community Wishlist]] started out as an annual process through which Wikimedia contributors submit and vote on technical improvements they would like the Wikimedia Foundation to work on. The main goal of it is and has been to improve the editing experience by making changes and features the community asks for specifically. In recent years, the process behind the wishlist has changed, and we’ve heard from many of you that it no longer meets many community members’ needs. So now, the Foundation is designing a new process with the community to improve how wishes are triaged, voted on, and prioritized in a way that is transparent, balanced across project families and language editions, and takes into account what the Foundation can deliver. I would like to get community input specifically on these three stages of the Wishlist process: * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#triage|'''triage stage''']], meaning how wishes are fleshed out, organized and filtered prior to voting ** We recommend to have a working group, including volunteers from various wikis and Wikimedia Foundation staff to work through this together * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#vote|'''voting stage''']], including who may vote and how votes are structured * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#postvote|'''post-vote stage''']], including how to bring equity into what work is prioritized ** One way to do this is to rank wishes within 3 categories: Large Wikipedias or covering all wikis, small and medium-sized Wikipedias, and '''sister projects''', so that top-voted wishes from smaller projects also get attention This message is an abstract of the full proposed process. As you [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|read the proposed ideas on Meta]] (available in your language), please speak up about whether you think this will work well or if there are ways to make it stronger. Regarding the timeline, this consultation is open for two weeks. You can post your feedback on Meta (in your preferred language) or in response below. For this year’s cycle, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#timeline|we plan]] to have the wish submission period in late October/early November and the triage process completed by late November. To respect the end-of-year holiday season, voting would happen in early to mid January. This first voting cycle is meant as a first step to try out a new process, and there will be more opportunities to provide feedback along the way, so that we can figure out the best process for future years together. [[oldwikisource:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 13:52, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you to everyone who engaged in the discussion around [[m:Talk:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|the proposal from August 26]]. We've processed your feedback and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027&diff=prev&oldid=31041090 made changes] accordingly. Note that we weren’t able to implement all of it for this cycle, mostly for logistical reasons, but this is merely meant to be a first step and we will continue to improve this process with you all before we run through the next cycle. We plan to use [[m:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#Updated_Community_Wishlist_Process_2027/2028|this updated version]] for the Wishlist 2027, and we look forward to hearing from you all during the submission and voting periods. :[[:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 14:49, 17 September 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:SPerry-WMF|User:SPerry-WMF]],@[[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]: Thank you for posting info regarding the wishlist to the English Wikibooks. I am sure there are many new users here who can benefit. ::I used to participate in those discussions years ago and I know a lot of effort goes into making discussions useful not only for users of wikipedia, but also for the many language versions of the smaller wikimedia projects such as Wikibooks. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == How Do I Get My Book On A Shelf? == Help, I don't know how shelves work. I don't know how to put my book on a shelf. Can anyone help? The book is called''' Art And AI''' [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 23:00, 8 September 2026 (UTC) : Which shelf are you referring? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:45, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Who is allowed to delete pages here? == On Aug 14, 2026 a user by the name of Max deleted a page I created in my user space. I don't see max in the list of admins here. Do they have the right to delete pages? Is there any documentation here I can consult? Thanks in advance, [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 22:38, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :We have local admins who have the technical ability to delete pages and virtually all material deleted here would be done by us (I'm one of them). A fairly small amount of users have global rights across all Wikimedia Foundation wikis and they will very rarely make deletions (e.g. if there are some kind of legal implications to material). [[User:Ottawahitech/American politics]] was deleted by [[User:Max]], who has [[Special:UserRights/Max|no special rights here]] but is one of the [[:m:Global sysops|global sysops]] I mentioned earlier. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:55, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : Probably unrelated to the above, but Ottawahitech should do that with their account, unless if they are blocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 23:33, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Agreed and [[User:Ottawahitech]] is not blocked here, so no idea why he's using a temp account. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:43, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :::There may be many reasons registered users are "editing" without logging in. Is it possible that they want to go about peacefully without attracting too much attention? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:01, 16 September 2026 (UTC) :::: We neither have a policy nor a guideline about this, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:12, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Assistance to get page reviewed == My page is a translation page: [[Baiyi Zhuan]] It is a single page, it is translated according to my own ability and familiarity with the language with a disclosure on external tools. I would like it to get reviewed if possible as I do not have the rights. [[User:Taitesena|Taitesena]] ([[User talk:Taitesena|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taitesena|contribs]]) 11:19, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Translation of books == Hello, I would like to translate books from other Wikibooks into English. Are there any guidelines regarding how to do this? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:34, 20 September 2026 (UTC) : This has yet to be expanded, but you might want to take a look at [[Wikibooks:Content translation]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:13, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on Wikibooks redirect == I would like your feedback on my proposal to make [[Wikibooks:Username|this page]] redirect to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]? I would do it myself, but it is not possible due to the fact that [[Wikibooks:Username]] can only be made by admins. This is because [[Wikibooks:Username policy]] also links to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]. Regards, [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:37, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) This seems like a good idea to me. [[User:Alextejthompson|''Alextejthompson'']] (''Ping me or leave a message on my [[User talk:Alextejthompson|talk page]]'') 17:49, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Pages created by [[User:Sisterian]] == I have checked with AI checkers (GPTZero, ZeroGPT) and they claim that these pages have been made with the use of GenAI. I do not know whether this is correct or not; because yes, AI checkers can and do make mistakes. I have tried reaching out to the person via talk page, to no response. I am asking for input just to see what the future of these pages are. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 2ffbj8zhpy6gp846x31q0xggk2lnln9 4671813 4671762 2026-09-22T20:50:49Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Pages created by User:Sisterian */ Reply 4671813 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Request for comment (the future of Abstract Wikipedia) == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">You are invited to voice your opinions in a [[:m:Requests for comment/The future of Abstract Wikipedia|request for comment about the future of Abstract Wikipedia]]. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[:m:User:Kowal2701|Kowal2701]] ([[:m:User talk:Kowal2701|talk]]) 12:24, 24 July 2026 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:DreamRimmer@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Call for administrators == Any experienced editor who has a good understanding of Wikibooks' policies should consider applying for administrator permissions at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]]. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 August 2026 (UTC) :Is there a page here that describes what admins do? I am curious because I checked [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&group=sysop&wpsubmit=&wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&limit=50 List of admins] and I see that there are already quite a few admins here and wonder which areas have a shortage. :Just curious. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:56, 16 September 2026 (UTC) ::[[Wikibooks:Administrators]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:09, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == August 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25 Next 25] == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in August. Both sessions will focus on [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25 the Next 25 initiative], including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25/A_proposal_to_frame_Next_25 framing the initiative]. Participants may attend either or both Café sessions. #'''29 August 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1788015600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''30 August 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1788058800 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session agenda details] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 01:32, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks project is not defined by goal == If it is for texbooks why is it called Wikibooks? It should be called Wikitextbooks! If it is for textbooks why does it contain cookbooks? For textbooks it's not supposed to have a [[Wikibooks:Featured books]]. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 09:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :It's "textbooks" broadly construed: guides, manuals, how-tos, etc. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:15, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::So we should change "Wikibooks:Featured books" to "Wikibooks:Featured texts". [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::I disagree and even if I agreed, it would be priority #49,389. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::::It's according to community consensus that says this website contains textbooks not books. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:23, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::::"[[wb:WIW|Simply, Wikibooks is a collection of open-content textbooks.]]" [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:26, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Most textbooks are made by collaboration of some authors, co-authors and editors. Wikibooks help pages and guidelines remain silent when it comes to stages of writing a new texbooks. Even [[Using Wikibooks]] is not complete emough for enthusiasts. --[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 18:13, 3 September 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]], In my opinion this is a good question. I wish more users would chime in. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:10, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == Wishlist 2027, invitation to share feedback == Hi, I’m [[m:User:SPerry-WMF|Sonja]] and I lead some of the [[mw:Contributors|teams]] at the Foundation who will be responsible for picking up wish work under the new wishlist process. As you may know, the [[m:Community_Wishlist|Community Wishlist]] started out as an annual process through which Wikimedia contributors submit and vote on technical improvements they would like the Wikimedia Foundation to work on. The main goal of it is and has been to improve the editing experience by making changes and features the community asks for specifically. In recent years, the process behind the wishlist has changed, and we’ve heard from many of you that it no longer meets many community members’ needs. So now, the Foundation is designing a new process with the community to improve how wishes are triaged, voted on, and prioritized in a way that is transparent, balanced across project families and language editions, and takes into account what the Foundation can deliver. I would like to get community input specifically on these three stages of the Wishlist process: * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#triage|'''triage stage''']], meaning how wishes are fleshed out, organized and filtered prior to voting ** We recommend to have a working group, including volunteers from various wikis and Wikimedia Foundation staff to work through this together * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#vote|'''voting stage''']], including who may vote and how votes are structured * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#postvote|'''post-vote stage''']], including how to bring equity into what work is prioritized ** One way to do this is to rank wishes within 3 categories: Large Wikipedias or covering all wikis, small and medium-sized Wikipedias, and '''sister projects''', so that top-voted wishes from smaller projects also get attention This message is an abstract of the full proposed process. As you [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|read the proposed ideas on Meta]] (available in your language), please speak up about whether you think this will work well or if there are ways to make it stronger. Regarding the timeline, this consultation is open for two weeks. You can post your feedback on Meta (in your preferred language) or in response below. For this year’s cycle, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#timeline|we plan]] to have the wish submission period in late October/early November and the triage process completed by late November. To respect the end-of-year holiday season, voting would happen in early to mid January. This first voting cycle is meant as a first step to try out a new process, and there will be more opportunities to provide feedback along the way, so that we can figure out the best process for future years together. [[oldwikisource:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 13:52, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you to everyone who engaged in the discussion around [[m:Talk:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|the proposal from August 26]]. We've processed your feedback and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027&diff=prev&oldid=31041090 made changes] accordingly. Note that we weren’t able to implement all of it for this cycle, mostly for logistical reasons, but this is merely meant to be a first step and we will continue to improve this process with you all before we run through the next cycle. We plan to use [[m:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#Updated_Community_Wishlist_Process_2027/2028|this updated version]] for the Wishlist 2027, and we look forward to hearing from you all during the submission and voting periods. :[[:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 14:49, 17 September 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:SPerry-WMF|User:SPerry-WMF]],@[[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]: Thank you for posting info regarding the wishlist to the English Wikibooks. I am sure there are many new users here who can benefit. ::I used to participate in those discussions years ago and I know a lot of effort goes into making discussions useful not only for users of wikipedia, but also for the many language versions of the smaller wikimedia projects such as Wikibooks. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == How Do I Get My Book On A Shelf? == Help, I don't know how shelves work. I don't know how to put my book on a shelf. Can anyone help? The book is called''' Art And AI''' [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 23:00, 8 September 2026 (UTC) : Which shelf are you referring? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:45, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Who is allowed to delete pages here? == On Aug 14, 2026 a user by the name of Max deleted a page I created in my user space. I don't see max in the list of admins here. Do they have the right to delete pages? Is there any documentation here I can consult? Thanks in advance, [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 22:38, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :We have local admins who have the technical ability to delete pages and virtually all material deleted here would be done by us (I'm one of them). A fairly small amount of users have global rights across all Wikimedia Foundation wikis and they will very rarely make deletions (e.g. if there are some kind of legal implications to material). [[User:Ottawahitech/American politics]] was deleted by [[User:Max]], who has [[Special:UserRights/Max|no special rights here]] but is one of the [[:m:Global sysops|global sysops]] I mentioned earlier. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:55, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : Probably unrelated to the above, but Ottawahitech should do that with their account, unless if they are blocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 23:33, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Agreed and [[User:Ottawahitech]] is not blocked here, so no idea why he's using a temp account. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:43, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :::There may be many reasons registered users are "editing" without logging in. Is it possible that they want to go about peacefully without attracting too much attention? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:01, 16 September 2026 (UTC) :::: We neither have a policy nor a guideline about this, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:12, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Assistance to get page reviewed == My page is a translation page: [[Baiyi Zhuan]] It is a single page, it is translated according to my own ability and familiarity with the language with a disclosure on external tools. I would like it to get reviewed if possible as I do not have the rights. [[User:Taitesena|Taitesena]] ([[User talk:Taitesena|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taitesena|contribs]]) 11:19, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Translation of books == Hello, I would like to translate books from other Wikibooks into English. Are there any guidelines regarding how to do this? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:34, 20 September 2026 (UTC) : This has yet to be expanded, but you might want to take a look at [[Wikibooks:Content translation]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:13, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on Wikibooks redirect == I would like your feedback on my proposal to make [[Wikibooks:Username|this page]] redirect to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]? I would do it myself, but it is not possible due to the fact that [[Wikibooks:Username]] can only be made by admins. This is because [[Wikibooks:Username policy]] also links to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]. Regards, [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:37, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) This seems like a good idea to me. [[User:Alextejthompson|''Alextejthompson'']] (''Ping me or leave a message on my [[User talk:Alextejthompson|talk page]]'') 17:49, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Pages created by [[User:Sisterian]] == I have checked with AI checkers (GPTZero, ZeroGPT) and they claim that these pages have been made with the use of GenAI. I do not know whether this is correct or not; because yes, AI checkers can and do make mistakes. I have tried reaching out to the person via talk page, to no response. I am asking for input just to see what the future of these pages are. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you for flagging this @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have looked at these pages personally, and there is fairly conclusive evidence that this user has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. I have warned them accordingly. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:50, 22 September 2026 (UTC) qfz66mkcp3qjz0ubc0o9v0rfpnez521 4671918 4671813 2026-09-23T08:10:23Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread (older than 60 days) to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2026/July]] 4671918 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Call for administrators == Any experienced editor who has a good understanding of Wikibooks' policies should consider applying for administrator permissions at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]]. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 August 2026 (UTC) :Is there a page here that describes what admins do? I am curious because I checked [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&group=sysop&wpsubmit=&wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&limit=50 List of admins] and I see that there are already quite a few admins here and wonder which areas have a shortage. :Just curious. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:56, 16 September 2026 (UTC) ::[[Wikibooks:Administrators]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:09, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == August 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25 Next 25] == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in August. Both sessions will focus on [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25 the Next 25 initiative], including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Next_25/A_proposal_to_frame_Next_25 framing the initiative]. Participants may attend either or both Café sessions. #'''29 August 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1788015600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''30 August 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1788058800 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session agenda details] and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 01:32, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks project is not defined by goal == If it is for texbooks why is it called Wikibooks? It should be called Wikitextbooks! If it is for textbooks why does it contain cookbooks? For textbooks it's not supposed to have a [[Wikibooks:Featured books]]. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 09:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :It's "textbooks" broadly construed: guides, manuals, how-tos, etc. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:15, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::So we should change "Wikibooks:Featured books" to "Wikibooks:Featured texts". [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::I disagree and even if I agreed, it would be priority #49,389. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::::It's according to community consensus that says this website contains textbooks not books. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:23, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::::"[[wb:WIW|Simply, Wikibooks is a collection of open-content textbooks.]]" [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:26, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Most textbooks are made by collaboration of some authors, co-authors and editors. Wikibooks help pages and guidelines remain silent when it comes to stages of writing a new texbooks. Even [[Using Wikibooks]] is not complete emough for enthusiasts. --[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 18:13, 3 September 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]], In my opinion this is a good question. I wish more users would chime in. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:10, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == Wishlist 2027, invitation to share feedback == Hi, I’m [[m:User:SPerry-WMF|Sonja]] and I lead some of the [[mw:Contributors|teams]] at the Foundation who will be responsible for picking up wish work under the new wishlist process. As you may know, the [[m:Community_Wishlist|Community Wishlist]] started out as an annual process through which Wikimedia contributors submit and vote on technical improvements they would like the Wikimedia Foundation to work on. The main goal of it is and has been to improve the editing experience by making changes and features the community asks for specifically. In recent years, the process behind the wishlist has changed, and we’ve heard from many of you that it no longer meets many community members’ needs. So now, the Foundation is designing a new process with the community to improve how wishes are triaged, voted on, and prioritized in a way that is transparent, balanced across project families and language editions, and takes into account what the Foundation can deliver. I would like to get community input specifically on these three stages of the Wishlist process: * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#triage|'''triage stage''']], meaning how wishes are fleshed out, organized and filtered prior to voting ** We recommend to have a working group, including volunteers from various wikis and Wikimedia Foundation staff to work through this together * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#vote|'''voting stage''']], including who may vote and how votes are structured * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#postvote|'''post-vote stage''']], including how to bring equity into what work is prioritized ** One way to do this is to rank wishes within 3 categories: Large Wikipedias or covering all wikis, small and medium-sized Wikipedias, and '''sister projects''', so that top-voted wishes from smaller projects also get attention This message is an abstract of the full proposed process. As you [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|read the proposed ideas on Meta]] (available in your language), please speak up about whether you think this will work well or if there are ways to make it stronger. Regarding the timeline, this consultation is open for two weeks. You can post your feedback on Meta (in your preferred language) or in response below. For this year’s cycle, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#timeline|we plan]] to have the wish submission period in late October/early November and the triage process completed by late November. To respect the end-of-year holiday season, voting would happen in early to mid January. This first voting cycle is meant as a first step to try out a new process, and there will be more opportunities to provide feedback along the way, so that we can figure out the best process for future years together. [[oldwikisource:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 13:52, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you to everyone who engaged in the discussion around [[m:Talk:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|the proposal from August 26]]. We've processed your feedback and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027&diff=prev&oldid=31041090 made changes] accordingly. Note that we weren’t able to implement all of it for this cycle, mostly for logistical reasons, but this is merely meant to be a first step and we will continue to improve this process with you all before we run through the next cycle. We plan to use [[m:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#Updated_Community_Wishlist_Process_2027/2028|this updated version]] for the Wishlist 2027, and we look forward to hearing from you all during the submission and voting periods. :[[:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 14:49, 17 September 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:SPerry-WMF|User:SPerry-WMF]],@[[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]: Thank you for posting info regarding the wishlist to the English Wikibooks. I am sure there are many new users here who can benefit. ::I used to participate in those discussions years ago and I know a lot of effort goes into making discussions useful not only for users of wikipedia, but also for the many language versions of the smaller wikimedia projects such as Wikibooks. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == How Do I Get My Book On A Shelf? == Help, I don't know how shelves work. I don't know how to put my book on a shelf. Can anyone help? The book is called''' Art And AI''' [[User:3MMPEYTON|3MMPEYTON]] ([[User talk:3MMPEYTON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/3MMPEYTON|contribs]]) 23:00, 8 September 2026 (UTC) : Which shelf are you referring? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:45, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Who is allowed to delete pages here? == On Aug 14, 2026 a user by the name of Max deleted a page I created in my user space. I don't see max in the list of admins here. Do they have the right to delete pages? Is there any documentation here I can consult? Thanks in advance, [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 22:38, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :We have local admins who have the technical ability to delete pages and virtually all material deleted here would be done by us (I'm one of them). A fairly small amount of users have global rights across all Wikimedia Foundation wikis and they will very rarely make deletions (e.g. if there are some kind of legal implications to material). [[User:Ottawahitech/American politics]] was deleted by [[User:Max]], who has [[Special:UserRights/Max|no special rights here]] but is one of the [[:m:Global sysops|global sysops]] I mentioned earlier. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:55, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : Probably unrelated to the above, but Ottawahitech should do that with their account, unless if they are blocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 23:33, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Agreed and [[User:Ottawahitech]] is not blocked here, so no idea why he's using a temp account. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:43, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :::There may be many reasons registered users are "editing" without logging in. Is it possible that they want to go about peacefully without attracting too much attention? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:01, 16 September 2026 (UTC) :::: We neither have a policy nor a guideline about this, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:12, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Assistance to get page reviewed == My page is a translation page: [[Baiyi Zhuan]] It is a single page, it is translated according to my own ability and familiarity with the language with a disclosure on external tools. I would like it to get reviewed if possible as I do not have the rights. [[User:Taitesena|Taitesena]] ([[User talk:Taitesena|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taitesena|contribs]]) 11:19, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Translation of books == Hello, I would like to translate books from other Wikibooks into English. Are there any guidelines regarding how to do this? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:34, 20 September 2026 (UTC) : This has yet to be expanded, but you might want to take a look at [[Wikibooks:Content translation]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:13, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on Wikibooks redirect == I would like your feedback on my proposal to make [[Wikibooks:Username|this page]] redirect to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]? I would do it myself, but it is not possible due to the fact that [[Wikibooks:Username]] can only be made by admins. This is because [[Wikibooks:Username policy]] also links to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]. Regards, [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:37, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) This seems like a good idea to me. [[User:Alextejthompson|''Alextejthompson'']] (''Ping me or leave a message on my [[User talk:Alextejthompson|talk page]]'') 17:49, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Pages created by [[User:Sisterian]] == I have checked with AI checkers (GPTZero, ZeroGPT) and they claim that these pages have been made with the use of GenAI. I do not know whether this is correct or not; because yes, AI checkers can and do make mistakes. I have tried reaching out to the person via talk page, to no response. I am asking for input just to see what the future of these pages are. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you for flagging this @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have looked at these pages personally, and there is fairly conclusive evidence that this user has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. I have warned them accordingly. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:50, 22 September 2026 (UTC) mp985c94mq1bw465vpf310osmna747v 0 123375 4671929 4671749 2026-09-23T08:36:58Z TechVindicator 3626296 changed top bar to toolbar 4671929 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; width:100%;"><big><big>'''An introduction to'''</big></big> [[File:Scratchlogo.svg|alt=Scratch|100px]] <big><big>'''imagine • program • share'''</big></big> [[/Introduction/]] • [[/Authors/]] • [[/Content License/]] • [[/Planning/]]</div> ==[[/Initial Setup|Initial Setup]]== <!-- under construction --> *[[/Initial Setup/What is Scratch?|What is Scratch?]] *[[/Online and Offline Editors|Online and Offline Editors]] ==[[/Learning Scratch|Learning Scratch]]== === Getting Started === *[[/Lessons/Downloading|Finding and Downloading Scratch]] *[[/Lessons/Resources|Resources available to use in Scratch]] *[[/Lessons/Sharing Projects|Sharing Scratch projects]] *[[/Lessons/Introduction|Introducing Scratch]] === Interface === * [[Introduction to Scratch Interface|Introduction]] * [[/Toolbar/]] * [[/Code Area/]] * [[/Costume Editor/]] * [[/Sound/]] * [[/Project/]] * [[/Sprite and Backdrop/]] * [[/Backpack/]] === Tutorials === *[[/Lessons/Making Sprites|Making Sprites]] *[[/Lessons/Stage Design|Stage Design]] *[[/Lessons/Custom Image Design|Custom Image Design]] *[[/Lessons/Event Triggers|Event Triggers and Blocks]] *[[/Lessons/Basic Animation|Basic Animation]] *[[/Lessons/Movement|Movement]] *[[/Lessons/Scene Changes|Scene and Stage Changes]] ==[[/Block Reference Guide/]]== ==[[/Terminology/]]== ==[[/Programming Concepts/]]== ==[[/Project Examples/]]== {{Shelves|Computer programming languages}} {{alphabetical|S}} {{status|25%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ lcl1cmw1tuxl3itkznbr1wo826xfz5z 3 124252 4671815 2809681 2026-09-22T20:56:01Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* genAI and LLMs */ new section 4671815 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="infobox" width="150" |- align="center" | [[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]] '''[[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]''' ---- |- align="center" | [[/Archive 1|1]] |} == [[How to make a blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test]] == Hi, in the 'book' could you specify the quantity of colour reagent? Thanks in advance. [[Special:Contributions/84.115.145.169|84.115.145.169]] ([[User talk:84.115.145.169|talk]]) 12:09, 29 February 2008 (UTC) :Sad to say I was not the original contributor of that piece of information in that guide. You may request it at its discussion page and hope for answer, if it cannot be found elsewhere on the net. [[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]] ([[User talk:Mikael Häggström|talk]]) 15:30, 6 March 2008 (UTC) == Your account will be renamed == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> Hello, The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|the announcement]] for more information. Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Mortsggah. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Mortsggah~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest|pick out a different name]]. Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in. Sorry for the inconvenience. Yours,<br />[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan Peterzell]]<br />Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation </div> 23:29, 17 March 2015 (UTC) <!-- SUL finalisation notification --> == genAI and LLMs == Hi @[[User:Mikael Häggström|Mikael Häggström]]! I had to delete a recent contribution of yours—please note that use of genAI/LLMs is explicitly [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence|prohibited here at Wikibooks]]. Please feel free to continue contributing here without using those tools. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:56, 22 September 2026 (UTC) fuuaigz6yoa7p0s0c7iwr5u4entzkp3 4 140081 4671770 4671753 2026-09-22T12:19:10Z TechVindicator 3626296 +globally locked&blocked 4671770 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) fspwmiocspiglb8phmuk7xls0nkmari 4671785 4671770 2026-09-22T13:20:57Z MathXplore 3097823 /* Wikibooks:AI For Beginners */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4671785 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 6872wfcxl1xwtyuynqsy9498bsd9d04 4671808 4671785 2026-09-22T20:17:36Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Wikibooks:AI For Beginners */ Reply 4671808 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 7lxic13yhgyip8laf5ra83k81hin6ga 4671814 4671808 2026-09-22T20:51:30Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Wikibooks:AI For Beginners */ Reply 4671814 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 36tvndfk2at3mennsdrpevrhj98wdjr 4671852 4671814 2026-09-23T04:11:05Z MathXplore 3097823 /* CU request */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4671852 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == CU request == {{ping|MarcGarver|Xania}} According to [[Special:Diff/4671813]], User:Sisterian ([[Special:Contributions/Sisterian]]) has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. User:Pamela Talemwa ([[Special:Contributions/Pamela_Talemwa]]) & User:Sisterian overlap at [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&diff=prev&oldid=4671755&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&oldid=4665328]). What do our admins and CUs think about this? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) 8zbyx1s9m7ty9lequn0iwwxsafbvg17 4671860 4671852 2026-09-23T04:45:42Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* CU request */ 4671860 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == CU request == {{ping|MarcGarver|Xania}} According to [[Special:Diff/4671813]], User:Sisterian ([[Special:Contributions/Sisterian]]) has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. User:Pamela Talemwa ([[Special:Contributions/Pamela_Talemwa]]) & User:Sisterian overlap at [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&diff=prev&oldid=4671755&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&oldid=4665328]). What do our admins and CUs think about this? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :[[User:Sisterian]] has also created a page in another person's userspace, [[User:Samah2025/sandbox/A Young Girl’s Guide to Menstrual Health and Wellbeing]], so I will add [[User:Samah2025]] to the list. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:45, 23 September 2026 (UTC) iyiko9ntwjwv91149yfcgdduk8u3ago 4671931 4671860 2026-09-23T08:52:25Z Sisterian 3123918 /* CU request */ Reply 4671931 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Ridhisharma1999 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Ridhisharma1999}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315435]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ridhisharma1999/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:01, 9 September 2026 (UTC) :{{Done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 12:02, 9 September 2026 (UTC) == Thenaoriudaipur reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Thenaoriudaipur}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315473]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Thenaoriudaipur/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:47, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == Networkkingss reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Networkkingss}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315458]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Networkkingss/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:49, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49226-92 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49226-92}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49226-92/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:57, 10 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. I also nuked all pages created by this user and their connected temporary accounts based on their associated IP(s). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:48, 10 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-49632-08 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-49632-08}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-49632-08/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:08, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} [[User:JackPotte|JackPotte]] ([[User talk:JackPotte|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JackPotte|contribs]]) 06:39, 13 September 2026 (UTC) == Happyherbal26 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Happyherbal26}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315518]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Happyherbal26/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Shahadotdl reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Shahadotdl}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315516]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Shahadotdl/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:02, 14 September 2026 (UTC) == Sonarbanglahc reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Sonarbanglahc}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Sonarbanglahc/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:41, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:47, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == Mehedii1234 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mehedii1234}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mehedii1234/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:42, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 15 September 2026 (UTC) == BhardwajGardening reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|BhardwajGardening}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315583]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/BhardwajGardening/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:02, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:36, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Manusheikh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Manusheikh}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315575]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Manusheikh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:03, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Wrankerseo reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wrankerseo}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315564]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315567]], [[Special:AbuseLog/315563]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wrankerseo/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:05, 17 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:35, 17 September 2026 (UTC) == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == CU request == {{ping|MarcGarver|Xania}} According to [[Special:Diff/4671813]], User:Sisterian ([[Special:Contributions/Sisterian]]) has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. User:Pamela Talemwa ([[Special:Contributions/Pamela_Talemwa]]) & User:Sisterian overlap at [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&diff=prev&oldid=4671755&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&oldid=4665328]). What do our admins and CUs think about this? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :[[User:Sisterian]] has also created a page in another person's userspace, [[User:Samah2025/sandbox/A Young Girl’s Guide to Menstrual Health and Wellbeing]], so I will add [[User:Samah2025]] to the list. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:45, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :Hello, @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have been supporting a number of trainees with Wikibooks editing and its looks like a lot more was done outside of the guidance I provided. I am going to look into those contributions and rectify the underlying issues. Thank you. [[User:Sisterian|Sisterian]] ([[User talk:Sisterian|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sisterian|contribs]]) 08:52, 23 September 2026 (UTC) 511ycdfuk13shnv13l4eycc5p7ei44f 0 149436 4671771 4523168 2026-09-22T12:24:45Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671771 wikitext text/x-wiki A role is a group of users who are uniquely identified by the set of privileges they are given. A typical website has three roles: * Administrator * Power User * User An administrator has all privileges over the particular site while power user and ordinary users don't have. == Creation of Roles == Roles can be created in various ways. The typical process of role creation involves using the Role Manager tag in Web.config '''Example''' <pre> <configuration> <connectionStrings> <add name="SqlServices" connectionString="Data Source=localhost;Initial Catalog=aspnetdb;Integrated Security=SSPI;" /> </connectionStrings> <system.web> <authentication mode="Forms" > <forms loginUrl="login.aspx" name=".ASPXFORMSAUTH" /> </authentication> <authorization> <deny users="?" /> <allow roles="Administrators" /> <deny users="*" /> </authorization> <membership defaultProvider="AspNetSqlProvider" userIsOnlineTimeWindow="15"> </membership> <roleManager defaultProvider="SqlProvider" enabled="true" cacheRolesInCookie="true" cookieName=".ASPROLES" cookieTimeout="30" cookiePath="/" cookieRequireSSL="true" cookieSlidingExpiration="true" cookieProtection="All" > <providers> <clear /> <add name="SqlProvider" type="System.Web.Security.SqlRoleProvider" connectionStringName="SqlServices" applicationName="SampleApplication" /> </providers> </roleManager> </system.web> </configuration> </pre> Roles can also be assigned or modified programmatically using the Role class. === Using the Website Administration Tool === Roles can be created in .NET 2.0 using the ASP.NET Website Administration tool. This tool is available in the Solution Explorer toolbar. The tool allows the user to change: * Security settings * Application Configuration * Provider Configuration A few snapshots of the tool are available below. These snapshots are self-explanatory: [[Image:WebSite Admin Home.JPG]] [[Image:Website Admin Security.JPG]] [[Image:Website Admin Security Roles.JPG]] == References == [http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.web.security.roles.aspx Role Class in C#, MSDN site] {{BookCat}} cvb323z0sd0seekabzthvj7ij30gi1q 0 155016 4671920 4671560 2026-09-23T08:11:08Z ~2026-51385-23 3626656 SHARP 4671920 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{Text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Mahjong Tiles''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !width="4%"|U+!!width="6%"|0!!width="6%"|1!!width="6%"|2!!width="6%"|3!!width="6%"|4!!width="6%"|5!!width="6%"|6!!width="6%"|7!!width="6%"|8!!width="6%"|9!!width="6%"|A!!width="6%"|B!!width="6%"|C!!width="6%"|D!!width="6%"|E!!width="6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F00x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EAST WIND|&#x1f000;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SOUTH WIND|&#x1f001;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WEST WIND|&#x1f002;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NORTH WIND|&#x1f003;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE RED DRAGON|&#x1f004;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE GREEN DRAGON|&#x1f005;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WHITE DRAGON|&#x1f006;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f007;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f008;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f009;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F01x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f018;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f019;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F02x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CIRCLES|&#x1f020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f021;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE PLUM|&#x1f022;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ORCHID|&#x1f023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BAMBOO|&#x1f024;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE CHRYSANTHEMUM|&#x1f025;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SPRING|&#x1f026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SUMMER|&#x1f027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE AUTUMN|&#x1f028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WINTER|&#x1f029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE JOKER|&#x1f02a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BACK|&#x1f02b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Domino Tiles''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F03x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL BACK|&#x1f030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-00|&#x1f031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-01|&#x1f032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-02|&#x1f033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-03|&#x1f034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-04|&#x1f035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-05|&#x1f036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-06|&#x1f037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-00|&#x1f038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-01|&#x1f039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-02|&#x1f03a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-03|&#x1f03b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-04|&#x1f03c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-05|&#x1f03d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-06|&#x1f03e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-00|&#x1f03f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F04x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-01|&#x1f040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-02|&#x1f041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-03|&#x1f042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-04|&#x1f043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-05|&#x1f044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-06|&#x1f045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-00|&#x1f046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-01|&#x1f047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-02|&#x1f048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-03|&#x1f049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-04|&#x1f04a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-05|&#x1f04b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-06|&#x1f04c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-00|&#x1f04d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-01|&#x1f04e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-02|&#x1f04f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F05x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-03|&#x1f050;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-04|&#x1f051;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-05|&#x1f052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-06|&#x1f053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-00|&#x1f054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-01|&#x1f055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-02|&#x1f056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-03|&#x1f057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-04|&#x1f058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-05|&#x1f059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-06|&#x1f05a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-00|&#x1f05b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-01|&#x1f05c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-02|&#x1f05d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-03|&#x1f05e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-04|&#x1f05f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F06x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-05|&#x1f060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-06|&#x1f061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL BACK|&#x1f062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-00|&#x1f063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-01|&#x1f064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-02|&#x1f065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-03|&#x1f066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-04|&#x1f067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-05|&#x1f068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-06|&#x1f069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-00|&#x1f06a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-01|&#x1f06b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-02|&#x1f06c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-03|&#x1f06d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-04|&#x1f06e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-05|&#x1f06f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F07x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-06|&#x1f070;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-00|&#x1f071;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-01|&#x1f072;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-02|&#x1f073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-03|&#x1f074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-04|&#x1f075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-05|&#x1f076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-06|&#x1f077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-00|&#x1f078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-01|&#x1f079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-02|&#x1f07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-03|&#x1f07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-04|&#x1f07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-05|&#x1f07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-06|&#x1f07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-00|&#x1f07f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F08x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-01|&#x1f080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-02|&#x1f081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-03|&#x1f082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-04|&#x1f083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-05|&#x1f084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-06|&#x1f085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-00|&#x1f086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-01|&#x1f087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-02|&#x1f088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-03|&#x1f089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-04|&#x1f08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-05|&#x1f08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-06|&#x1f08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-00|&#x1f08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-01|&#x1f08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-02|&#x1f08f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F09x |style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-03|&#x1f090;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-04|&#x1f091;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-05|&#x1f092;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-06|&#x1f093;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Playing Cards''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BACK|&#x1f0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF SPADES|&#x1f0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF SPADES|&#x1f0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF SPADES|&#x1f0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF SPADES|&#x1f0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF SPADES|&#x1f0ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Bx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF HEARTS|&#x1f0be;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD RED JOKER|&#x1f0bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Cx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BLACK JOKER|&#x1f0cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Dx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF CLUBS|&#x1f0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF CLUBS|&#x1f0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD WHITE JOKER|&#x1f0df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOOL|&#x1f0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-1|&#x1f0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-2|&#x1f0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-3|&#x1f0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-4|&#x1f0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-5|&#x1f0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-6|&#x1f0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-7|&#x1f0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-8|&#x1f0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-9|&#x1f0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-10|&#x1f0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-11|&#x1f0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-12|&#x1f0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-13|&#x1f0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-14|&#x1f0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-15|&#x1f0ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Fx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-16|&#x1f0f0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-17|&#x1f0f1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-18|&#x1f0f2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-19|&#x1f0f3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-20|&#x1f0f4;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-21|&#x1f0f5;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F10x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO FULL STOP|&#x1f100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO COMMA|&#x1f101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ONE COMMA|&#x1f102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT TWO COMMA|&#x1f103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT THREE COMMA|&#x1f104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FOUR COMMA|&#x1f105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FIVE COMMA|&#x1f106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SIX COMMA|&#x1f107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SEVEN COMMA|&#x1f108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT EIGHT COMMA|&#x1f109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT NINE COMMA|&#x1f10a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ZERO WITH SLASH|&#x1f10d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ANTICLOCKWISE ARROW|&#x1f10e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED DOLLAR SIGN WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f10f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F11x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f11f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F12x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CD|&#x1f12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED WZ|&#x1f12e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COPYLEFT SYMBOL|&#x1f12f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F13x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f130;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f13c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f13e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f13f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F14x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f141;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f145;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f149;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HV|&#x1f14a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED MV|&#x1f14b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SD|&#x1f14c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SS|&#x1f14d;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED PPV|&#x1f14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED WC|&#x1f14f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F15x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f156;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f158;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f15f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F16x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f169;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MC SIGN|&#x1f16a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MD SIGN|&#x1f16b;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MR SIGN|&#x1f16c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CC|&#x1f16d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED C WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f16e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED HUMAN FIGURE|&#x1f16f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F17x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f172;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f173;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f174;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f175;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f176;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f177;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f178;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f179;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f17a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f17b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f17e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f17f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F18x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f189;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f18a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED IC|&#x1f18b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED PA|&#x1f18c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED SA|&#x1f18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED AB|&#x1f18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED WC|&#x1f18f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F19x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE DJ|&#x1f190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CL|&#x1f191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED COOL|&#x1f192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FREE|&#x1f193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ID|&#x1f194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NEW|&#x1f195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NG|&#x1f196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED OK|&#x1f197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SOS|&#x1f198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UP WITH EXCLAMATION MARK|&#x1f199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VS|&#x1f19a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED THREE D|&#x1f19b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SECOND SCREEN|&#x1f19c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWO K|&#x1f19d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FOUR K|&#x1f19e;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED EIGHT K|&#x1f19f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FIVE POINT ONE|&#x1f1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SEVEN POINT ONE|&#x1f1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWENTY-TWO POINT TWO|&#x1f1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SIXTY P|&#x1f1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ONE HUNDRED TWENTY P|&#x1f1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN SMALL LETTER D|&#x1f1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HC|&#x1f1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HDR|&#x1f1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HI-RES|&#x1f1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LOSSLESS|&#x1f1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SHV|&#x1f1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UHD|&#x1f1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VOD|&#x1f1ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MASK WORK SYMBOL|&#x1f1ad;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMOBIKI SYMBOL|&#x1f1ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ex |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER A|&#x1f1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER B|&#x1f1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER C|&#x1f1e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER D|&#x1f1e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER E|&#x1f1ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER F|&#x1f1eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER G|&#x1f1ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER H|&#x1f1ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER I|&#x1f1ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER J|&#x1f1ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER K|&#x1f1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER L|&#x1f1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER M|&#x1f1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER N|&#x1f1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER O|&#x1f1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER P|&#x1f1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Q|&#x1f1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER R|&#x1f1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER S|&#x1f1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER T|&#x1f1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER U|&#x1f1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER V|&#x1f1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER W|&#x1f1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER X|&#x1f1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Y|&#x1f1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Z|&#x1f1ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F20x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE HIRAGANA HOKA|&#x1f200;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA KOKO|&#x1f201;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA SA|&#x1f202;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F21x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-624B|&#x1f210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B57|&#x1f211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53CC|&#x1f212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA DE|&#x1f213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-591A|&#x1f215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-89E3|&#x1f216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5929|&#x1f217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4EA4|&#x1f218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6620|&#x1f219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7121|&#x1f21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6599|&#x1f21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-524D|&#x1f21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5F8C|&#x1f21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-518D|&#x1f21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-65B0|&#x1f21f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F22x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-521D|&#x1f220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7D42|&#x1f221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-751F|&#x1f222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8CA9|&#x1f223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-58F0|&#x1f224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5439|&#x1f225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6F14|&#x1f226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6295|&#x1f227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6355|&#x1f228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E00|&#x1f229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-904A|&#x1f22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5DE6|&#x1f22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E2D|&#x1f22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53F3|&#x1f22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6307|&#x1f22f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F23x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8D70|&#x1f230;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7981|&#x1f232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7A7A|&#x1f233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5408|&#x1f234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6E80|&#x1f235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6709|&#x1f236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6708|&#x1f237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7533|&#x1f238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5272|&#x1f239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-55B6|&#x1f23a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-914D|&#x1f23b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F24x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-672C|&#x1f240;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f241;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f242;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B89|&#x1f243;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-70B9|&#x1f244;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f245;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-76D7|&#x1f246;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-52DD|&#x1f247;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6557|&#x1f248;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F25x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ADVANTAGE|&#x1f250;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ACCEPT|&#x1f251;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F26x |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR FU|&#x1f260;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR LU|&#x1f261;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHOU|&#x1f262;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR XI|&#x1f263;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHUANGXI|&#x1f264;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR CAI|&#x1f265;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F27x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F28x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F29x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F30x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CYCLONE|&#x1f300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOGGY|&#x1f301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED UMBRELLA|&#x1f302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NIGHT WITH STARS|&#x1f303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE OVER MOUNTAINS|&#x1f304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE|&#x1f305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CITYSCAPE AT DUSK|&#x1f306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNSET OVER BUILDINGS|&#x1f307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAINBOW|&#x1f308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDGE AT NIGHT|&#x1f309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER WAVE|&#x1f30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOLCANO|&#x1f30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILKY WAY|&#x1f30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE EUROPE-AFRICA|&#x1f30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE AMERICAS|&#x1f30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE ASIA-AUSTRALIA|&#x1f30f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F31x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOBE WITH MERIDIANS|&#x1f310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRESCENT MOON|&#x1f319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUN WITH FACE|&#x1f31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOWING STAR|&#x1f31f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F32x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOOTING STAR|&#x1f320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THERMOMETER|&#x1f321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DROPLET|&#x1f322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN|&#x1f323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN WITH SMALL CLOUD|&#x1f324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD|&#x1f325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH SNOW|&#x1f328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH TORNADO|&#x1f32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOG|&#x1f32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND BLOWING FACE|&#x1f32c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT DOG|&#x1f32d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TACO|&#x1f32e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BURRITO|&#x1f32f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F33x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHESTNUT|&#x1f330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEEDLING|&#x1f331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EVERGREEN TREE|&#x1f332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECIDUOUS TREE|&#x1f333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM TREE|&#x1f334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CACTUS|&#x1f335;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT PEPPER|&#x1f336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULIP|&#x1f337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRY BLOSSOM|&#x1f338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROSE|&#x1f339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIBISCUS|&#x1f33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNFLOWER|&#x1f33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOSSOM|&#x1f33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF MAIZE|&#x1f33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF RICE|&#x1f33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HERB|&#x1f33f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F34x 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FACE|&#x1f437;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FROG FACE|&#x1f438;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMSTER FACE|&#x1f439;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOLF FACE|&#x1f43a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAR FACE|&#x1f43b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PANDA FACE|&#x1f43c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PIG NOSE|&#x1f43d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAW PRINTS|&#x1f43e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHIPMUNK|&#x1f43f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F44x |{{H:title|dotted=no|EYES|&#x1f440;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EYE|&#x1f441;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR|&#x1f442;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOSE|&#x1f443;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUTH|&#x1f444;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TONGUE|&#x1f445;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE UP POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f446;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DOWN POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f447;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LEFT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f448;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE RIGHT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f449;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FISTED HAND SIGN|&#x1f44a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAVING HAND SIGN|&#x1f44b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OK HAND SIGN|&#x1f44c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THUMBS UP SIGN|&#x1f44d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THUMBS DOWN SIGN|&#x1f44e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAPPING HANDS SIGN|&#x1f44f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F45x |{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN HANDS SIGN|&#x1f450;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CROWN|&#x1f451;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMANS HAT|&#x1f452;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EYEGLASSES|&#x1f453;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NECKTIE|&#x1f454;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|T-SHIRT|&#x1f455;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JEANS|&#x1f456;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DRESS|&#x1f457;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIMONO|&#x1f458;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BIKINI|&#x1f459;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMANS CLOTHES|&#x1f45a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PURSE|&#x1f45b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDBAG|&#x1f45c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUCH|&#x1f45d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MANS SHOE|&#x1f45e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ATHLETIC SHOE|&#x1f45f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F46x |{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-HEELED SHOE|&#x1f460;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMANS SANDAL|&#x1f461;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMANS BOOTS|&#x1f462;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOOTPRINTS|&#x1f463;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUST IN SILHOUETTE|&#x1f464;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUSTS IN SILHOUETTE|&#x1f465;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOY|&#x1f466;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRL|&#x1f467;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN|&#x1f468;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMAN|&#x1f469;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAMILY|&#x1f46a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN AND WOMAN HOLDING HANDS|&#x1f46b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO MEN HOLDING HANDS|&#x1f46c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO WOMEN HOLDING HANDS|&#x1f46d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE OFFICER|&#x1f46e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMAN WITH BUNNY EARS|&#x1f46f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F47x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDE WITH VEIL|&#x1f470;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH BLOND HAIR|&#x1f471;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN WITH GUA PI MAO|&#x1f472;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN WITH TURBAN|&#x1f473;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER MAN|&#x1f474;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER WOMAN|&#x1f475;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY|&#x1f476;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION WORKER|&#x1f477;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCESS|&#x1f478;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE OGRE|&#x1f479;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE GOBLIN|&#x1f47a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GHOST|&#x1f47b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY ANGEL|&#x1f47c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTRATERRESTRIAL ALIEN|&#x1f47d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALIEN MONSTER|&#x1f47e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IMP|&#x1f47f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F48x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SKULL|&#x1f480;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INFORMATION DESK PERSON|&#x1f481;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUARDSMAN|&#x1f482;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DANCER|&#x1f483;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPSTICK|&#x1f484;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAIL POLISH|&#x1f485;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE MASSAGE|&#x1f486;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIRCUT|&#x1f487;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BARBER POLE|&#x1f488;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYRINGE|&#x1f489;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILL|&#x1f48a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISS MARK|&#x1f48b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOVE LETTER|&#x1f48c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RING|&#x1f48d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GEM STONE|&#x1f48e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISS|&#x1f48f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F49x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOUQUET|&#x1f490;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUPLE WITH HEART|&#x1f491;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEDDING|&#x1f492;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEATING HEART|&#x1f493;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROKEN HEART|&#x1f494;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO HEARTS|&#x1f495;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPARKLING HEART|&#x1f496;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GROWING HEART|&#x1f497;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH ARROW|&#x1f498;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE HEART|&#x1f499;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN HEART|&#x1f49a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|YELLOW HEART|&#x1f49b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PURPLE HEART|&#x1f49c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH RIBBON|&#x1f49d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVOLVING HEARTS|&#x1f49e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART DECORATION|&#x1f49f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND SHAPE WITH A DOT INSIDE|&#x1f4a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC LIGHT BULB|&#x1f4a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGER SYMBOL|&#x1f4a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOMB|&#x1f4a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING SYMBOL|&#x1f4a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COLLISION SYMBOL|&#x1f4a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLASHING SWEAT SYMBOL|&#x1f4a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROPLET|&#x1f4a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DASH SYMBOL|&#x1f4a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILE OF POO|&#x1f4a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLEXED BICEPS|&#x1f4aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY SYMBOL|&#x1f4ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEECH BALLOON|&#x1f4ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THOUGHT BALLOON|&#x1f4ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE FLOWER|&#x1f4ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUNDRED POINTS SYMBOL|&#x1f4af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY BAG|&#x1f4b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRENCY EXCHANGE|&#x1f4b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN|&#x1f4b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CREDIT CARD|&#x1f4b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH YEN SIGN|&#x1f4b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH DOLLAR SIGN|&#x1f4b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH EURO SIGN|&#x1f4b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH POUND SIGN|&#x1f4b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY WITH WINGS|&#x1f4b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND AND YEN SIGN|&#x1f4b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAT|&#x1f4ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSONAL COMPUTER|&#x1f4bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFCASE|&#x1f4bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIDISC|&#x1f4bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f4be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC|&#x1f4bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|DVD|&#x1f4c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE FOLDER|&#x1f4c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FILE FOLDER|&#x1f4c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CURL|&#x1f4c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE FACING UP|&#x1f4c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CALENDAR|&#x1f4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAR-OFF CALENDAR|&#x1f4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX|&#x1f4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH DOWNWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR CHART|&#x1f4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLIPBOARD|&#x1f4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAPERCLIP|&#x1f4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAIGHT RULER|&#x1f4cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR RULER|&#x1f4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK TABS|&#x1f4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEDGER|&#x1f4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK|&#x1f4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK WITH DECORATIVE COVER|&#x1f4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED BOOK|&#x1f4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN BOOK|&#x1f4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN BOOK|&#x1f4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE BOOK|&#x1f4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE BOOK|&#x1f4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKS|&#x1f4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAME BADGE|&#x1f4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCROLL|&#x1f4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEMO|&#x1f4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGER|&#x1f4df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX MACHINE|&#x1f4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE ANTENNA|&#x1f4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUBLIC ADDRESS LOUDSPEAKER|&#x1f4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEERING MEGAPHONE|&#x1f4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OUTBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PACKAGE|&#x1f4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|E-MAIL SYMBOL|&#x1f4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMING ENVELOPE|&#x1f4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH DOWNWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTBOX|&#x1f4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTAL HORN|&#x1f4ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWSPAPER|&#x1f4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW AT LEFT|&#x1f4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIBRATION MODE|&#x1f4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE OFF|&#x1f4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO MOBILE PHONES|&#x1f4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTENNA WITH BARS|&#x1f4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA|&#x1f4f7;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA WITH FLASH|&#x1f4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO CAMERA|&#x1f4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEVISION|&#x1f4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO|&#x1f4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEOCASSETTE|&#x1f4fc;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM PROJECTOR|&#x1f4fd;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PORTABLE STEREO|&#x1f4fe;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PRAYER BEADS|&#x1f4ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F50x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWISTED RIGHTWARDS ARROWS|&#x1f500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS WITH CIRCLED ONE OVERLAY|&#x1f502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTICLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f505;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f506;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER|&#x1f508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f50a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BATTERY|&#x1f50b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC PLUG|&#x1f50c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK WITH INK PEN|&#x1f50f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F51x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED LOCK WITH KEY|&#x1f510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEY|&#x1f511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK|&#x1f512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN LOCK|&#x1f513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL|&#x1f514;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f515;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK|&#x1f516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINK SYMBOL|&#x1f517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO BUTTON|&#x1f518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|END WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ON WITH EXCLAMATION MARK WITH LEFT RIGHT ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOON WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP WITH UPWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ONE UNDER EIGHTEEN SYMBOL|&#x1f51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYCAP TEN|&#x1f51f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F52x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN CAPITAL LETTERS|&#x1f520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN SMALL LETTERS|&#x1f521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR NUMBERS|&#x1f522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR SYMBOLS|&#x1f523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN LETTERS|&#x1f524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE|&#x1f525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC TORCH|&#x1f526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRENCH|&#x1f527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER|&#x1f528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NUT AND BOLT|&#x1f529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOCHO|&#x1f52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PISTOL|&#x1f52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROSCOPE|&#x1f52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELESCOPE|&#x1f52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYSTAL BALL|&#x1f52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED STAR WITH MIDDLE DOT|&#x1f52f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F53x |{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE SYMBOL FOR BEGINNER|&#x1f530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIDENT EMBLEM|&#x1f531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED CIRCLE|&#x1f534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE CIRCLE|&#x1f535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f539;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F54x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f540;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE WITH HALF-CIRCLE BELOW|&#x1f541;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f542;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED LEFT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED RIGHT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f544;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYMBOL FOR MARKS CHAPTER|&#x1f545;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LATIN CROSS|&#x1f546;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LATIN CROSS|&#x1f547;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CELTIC CROSS|&#x1f548;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OM SYMBOL|&#x1f549;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOVE OF PEACE|&#x1f54a;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAABA|&#x1f54b;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUE|&#x1f54c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SYNAGOGUE|&#x1f54d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENORAH WITH NINE BRANCHES|&#x1f54e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL OF HYGIEIA|&#x1f54f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F55x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE OCLOCK|&#x1f550;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO OCLOCK|&#x1f551;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE OCLOCK|&#x1f552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR OCLOCK|&#x1f553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE OCLOCK|&#x1f554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX OCLOCK|&#x1f555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT OCLOCK|&#x1f557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE OCLOCK|&#x1f558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN OCLOCK|&#x1f559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE OCLOCK|&#x1f55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE-THIRTY|&#x1f55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO-THIRTY|&#x1f55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE-THIRTY|&#x1f55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR-THIRTY|&#x1f55f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F56x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE-THIRTY|&#x1f560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX-THIRTY|&#x1f561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT-THIRTY|&#x1f563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE-THIRTY|&#x1f564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN-THIRTY|&#x1f565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE-THIRTY|&#x1f567;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER|&#x1f568;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f569;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN|&#x1f56b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN WITH SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56c;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGING BELL|&#x1f56d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOK|&#x1f56e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDLE|&#x1f56f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F57x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MANTELPIECE CLOCK|&#x1f570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SKULL AND CROSSBONES|&#x1f571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PIRACY|&#x1f572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLE|&#x1f573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN BUSINESS SUIT LEVITATING|&#x1f574;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEUTH OR SPY|&#x1f575;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DARK SUNGLASSES|&#x1f576;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER|&#x1f577;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER WEB|&#x1f578;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JOYSTICK|&#x1f579;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN DANCING|&#x1f57a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f57b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER WITH PAGE|&#x1f57c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f57d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&#x1f57e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&#x1f57f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F58x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE ON TOP OF MODEM|&#x1f580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAMSHELL MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK OF ENVELOPE|&#x1f582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STAMPED ENVELOPE|&#x1f583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING ENVELOPE|&#x1f585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEN OVER STAMPED ENVELOPE|&#x1f586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINKED PAPERCLIPS|&#x1f587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK PUSHPIN|&#x1f588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PENCIL|&#x1f589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BALLPOINT PEN|&#x1f58a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FOUNTAIN PEN|&#x1f58b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PAINTBRUSH|&#x1f58c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT CRAYON|&#x1f58d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT WRITING HAND|&#x1f58e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED OK HAND SIGN|&#x1f58f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F59x |{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&#x1f590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&#x1f591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS UP SIGN|&#x1f592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS DOWN SIGN|&#x1f593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED VICTORY HAND|&#x1f594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED|&#x1f595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH PART BETWEEN MIDDLE AND RING FINGERS|&#x1f596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DOWN POINTING LEFT HAND INDEX|&#x1f597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE LEFT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f598;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f599;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK LEFT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f59c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f59d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HEART|&#x1f5a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP COMPUTER|&#x1f5a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYBOARD AND MOUSE|&#x1f5a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE NETWORKED COMPUTERS|&#x1f5a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER|&#x1f5a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POCKET CALCULATOR|&#x1f5a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAPE CARTRIDGE|&#x1f5ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRED KEYBOARD|&#x1f5ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACKBALL|&#x1f5b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD PERSONAL COMPUTER|&#x1f5b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HARD DISK|&#x1f5b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREEN|&#x1f5b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER ICON|&#x1f5b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX ICON|&#x1f5b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC ICON|&#x1f5b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT|&#x1f5b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT AND PICTURE|&#x1f5ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH TILES|&#x1f5bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH AN X|&#x1f5be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK FOLDER|&#x1f5bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDER|&#x1f5c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FOLDER|&#x1f5c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX DIVIDERS|&#x1f5c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD FILE BOX|&#x1f5c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE CABINET|&#x1f5c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE|&#x1f5c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAD|&#x1f5c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE|&#x1f5c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAD|&#x1f5ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY DOCUMENT|&#x1f5cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGE|&#x1f5cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGES|&#x1f5cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT|&#x1f5ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE|&#x1f5cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGES|&#x1f5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WASTEBASKET|&#x1f5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL NOTE PAD|&#x1f5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL CALENDAR PAD|&#x1f5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP WINDOW|&#x1f5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIMIZE|&#x1f5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAXIMIZE|&#x1f5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERLAP|&#x1f5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHT AND LEFT SEMICIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANCELLATION X|&#x1f5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPRESSION|&#x1f5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD KEY|&#x1f5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLED-UP NEWSPAPER|&#x1f5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CIRCLED TEXT|&#x1f5df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|STOCK CHART|&#x1f5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DAGGER KNIFE|&#x1f5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPS|&#x1f5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKING HEAD IN SILHOUETTE|&#x1f5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS ABOVE|&#x1f5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS BELOW|&#x1f5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS LEFT|&#x1f5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS RIGHT|&#x1f5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD|&#x1f5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BALLOT|&#x1f5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT CHECK MARK|&#x1f5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD CHECK|&#x1f5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WORLD MAP|&#x1f5fa;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNT FUJI|&#x1f5fb;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOKYO TOWER|&#x1f5fc;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STATUE OF LIBERTY|&#x1f5fd;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SILHOUETTE OF JAPAN|&#x1f5fe;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOYAI|&#x1f5ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Emoticons''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F60x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE|&#x1f600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND SMILING EYES|&#x1f604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HALO|&#x1f607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HORNS|&#x1f608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINKING FACE|&#x1f609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f60a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SAVOURING DELICIOUS FOOD|&#x1f60b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f60c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f60d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SUNGLASSES|&#x1f60e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMIRKING FACE|&#x1f60f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F61x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL FACE|&#x1f610;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXPRESSIONLESS FACE|&#x1f611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UNAMUSED FACE|&#x1f612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COLD SWEAT|&#x1f613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PENSIVE FACE|&#x1f614;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFUSED FACE|&#x1f615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFOUNDED FACE|&#x1f616;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE|&#x1f617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE THROWING A KISS|&#x1f618;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE|&#x1f61b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND WINKING EYE|&#x1f61c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED FACE|&#x1f61e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORRIED FACE|&#x1f61f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F62x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGRY FACE|&#x1f620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING FACE|&#x1f621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING FACE|&#x1f622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSEVERING FACE|&#x1f623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH LOOK OF TRIUMPH|&#x1f624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED BUT RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f625;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FROWNING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f626;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGUISHED FACE|&#x1f627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FEARFUL FACE|&#x1f628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY FACE|&#x1f629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPY FACE|&#x1f62a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRED FACE|&#x1f62b;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRIMACING FACE|&#x1f62c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOUDLY CRYING FACE|&#x1f62d;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f62e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUSHED FACE|&#x1f62f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F63x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SCREAMING IN FEAR|&#x1f631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTONISHED FACE|&#x1f632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUSHED FACE|&#x1f633;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING FACE|&#x1f634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY FACE|&#x1f635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITHOUT MOUTH|&#x1f636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MEDICAL MASK|&#x1f637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING CAT FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f63a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f63b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH WRY SMILE|&#x1f63c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING CAT FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f63d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING CAT FACE|&#x1f63e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING CAT FACE|&#x1f63f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F64x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY CAT FACE|&#x1f640;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY FROWNING FACE|&#x1f641;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY SMILING FACE|&#x1f642;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPSIDE-DOWN FACE|&#x1f643;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ROLLING EYES|&#x1f644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH NO GOOD GESTURE|&#x1f645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OK GESTURE|&#x1f646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON BOWING DEEPLY|&#x1f647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEE-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAR-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAK-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAPPY PERSON RAISING ONE HAND|&#x1f64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON RAISING BOTH HANDS IN CELEBRATION|&#x1f64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON FROWNING|&#x1f64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH POUTING FACE|&#x1f64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH FOLDED HANDS|&#x1f64f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Ornamental Dingbats''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F65x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F66x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F67x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE TURNED COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY LOW DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SOLIDUS|&#x1f67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY REVERSE SOLIDUS|&#x1f67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Transport and Map Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F68x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCKET|&#x1f680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HELICOPTER|&#x1f681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAM LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY CAR|&#x1f683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN|&#x1f684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN WITH BULLET NOSE|&#x1f685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAIN|&#x1f686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|METRO|&#x1f687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT RAIL|&#x1f688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STATION|&#x1f689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM|&#x1f68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM CAR|&#x1f68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS|&#x1f68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING BUS|&#x1f68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLLEYBUS|&#x1f68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS STOP|&#x1f68f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F69x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIBUS|&#x1f690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AMBULANCE|&#x1f691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CAR|&#x1f693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING POLICE CAR|&#x1f694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAXI|&#x1f695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING TAXI|&#x1f696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECREATIONAL VEHICLE|&#x1f699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DELIVERY TRUCK|&#x1f69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTICULATED LORRY|&#x1f69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACTOR|&#x1f69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONORAIL|&#x1f69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN RAILWAY|&#x1f69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSPENSION RAILWAY|&#x1f69f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN CABLEWAY|&#x1f6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AERIAL TRAMWAY|&#x1f6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIP|&#x1f6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROWBOAT|&#x1f6a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEEDBOAT|&#x1f6a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION SIGN|&#x1f6a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CARS REVOLVING LIGHT|&#x1f6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR FLAG ON POST|&#x1f6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOOR|&#x1f6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ENTRY SIGN|&#x1f6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUT LITTER IN ITS PLACE SYMBOL|&#x1f6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DO NOT LITTER SYMBOL|&#x1f6af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NON-POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLE|&#x1f6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO BICYCLES|&#x1f6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEDESTRIAN|&#x1f6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PEDESTRIANS|&#x1f6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILDREN CROSSING|&#x1f6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RESTROOM|&#x1f6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY SYMBOL|&#x1f6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOILET|&#x1f6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER CLOSET|&#x1f6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOWER|&#x1f6bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Cx |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATH|&#x1f6c0;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATHTUB|&#x1f6c1;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSPORT CONTROL|&#x1f6c2;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTOMS|&#x1f6c3;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGGAGE CLAIM|&#x1f6c4;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT LUGGAGE|&#x1f6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1f6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROHIBITED SIGN|&#x1f6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED INFORMATION SOURCE|&#x1f6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOYS SYMBOL|&#x1f6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRLS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUCH AND LAMP|&#x1f6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING ACCOMMODATION|&#x1f6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING BAGS|&#x1f6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELLHOP BELL|&#x1f6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BED|&#x1f6cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Dx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACE OF WORSHIP|&#x1f6d0;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OCTAGONAL SIGN|&#x1f6d1;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING TROLLEY|&#x1f6d2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STUPA|&#x1f6d3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGODA|&#x1f6d4;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HINDU TEMPLE|&#x1f6d5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUT|&#x1f6d6;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ELEVATOR|&#x1f6d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LANDSLIDE|&#x1f6d8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTHOUSE|&#x1f6d9;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEATBELT SIGN|&#x1f6da;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NO CARS|&#x1f6db;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRELESS|&#x1f6dc;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYGROUND SLIDE|&#x1f6dd;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHEEL|&#x1f6de;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RING BUOY|&#x1f6df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER AND WRENCH|&#x1f6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIELD|&#x1f6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OIL DRUM|&#x1f6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORWAY|&#x1f6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY TRACK|&#x1f6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR BOAT|&#x1f6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING MILITARY AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTHEAST-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE DEPARTURE|&#x1f6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE ARRIVING|&#x1f6ec;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT AIR BALLOON|&#x1f6ed;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRSHIP|&#x1f6ee;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAPLANE|&#x1f6ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE|&#x1f6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSENGER SHIP|&#x1f6f3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCOOTER|&#x1f6f4;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR SCOOTER|&#x1f6f5;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANOE|&#x1f6f6;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLED|&#x1f6f7;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING SAUCER|&#x1f6f8;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SKATEBOARD|&#x1f6f9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTO RICKSHAW|&#x1f6fa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKUP TRUCK|&#x1f6fb;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER SKATE|&#x1f6fc;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORKLIFT|&#x1f6fd;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXCAVATOR|&#x1f6fe;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUBMARINE|&#x1f6ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Alchemical Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F70x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUINTESSENCE|&#x1f700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AIR|&#x1f701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR FIRE|&#x1f702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR EARTH|&#x1f703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WATER|&#x1f704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUAFORTIS|&#x1f705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA|&#x1f706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA-2|&#x1f707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE|&#x1f708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE-2|&#x1f709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR|&#x1f70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-2|&#x1f70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-3|&#x1f70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SULFUR|&#x1f70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PHILOSOPHERS SULFUR|&#x1f70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BLACK SULFUR|&#x1f70f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F71x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE|&#x1f710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-2|&#x1f711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-3|&#x1f712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CINNABAR|&#x1f713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT|&#x1f714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NITRE|&#x1f715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL|&#x1f716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL-2|&#x1f717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT|&#x1f718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT-2|&#x1f719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GOLD|&#x1f71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SILVER|&#x1f71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE|&#x1f71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE-2|&#x1f71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF IRON|&#x1f71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF IRON|&#x1f71f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F72x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ORE|&#x1f720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON-COPPER ORE|&#x1f721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF COPPER|&#x1f722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER|&#x1f723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER-2|&#x1f724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF COPPER|&#x1f727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VERDIGRIS|&#x1f728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TIN ORE|&#x1f729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LEAD ORE|&#x1f72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ANTIMONY ORE|&#x1f72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F73x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY-2|&#x1f731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS|&#x1f732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-2|&#x1f733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-3|&#x1f734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-4|&#x1f735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI|&#x1f736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI-2|&#x1f737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MARCASITE|&#x1f738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SAL-AMMONIAC|&#x1f739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ARSENIC|&#x1f73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR|&#x1f73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR-2|&#x1f73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AURIPIGMENT|&#x1f73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BISMUTH ORE|&#x1f73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR|&#x1f73f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F74x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR-2|&#x1f740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUICK LIME|&#x1f741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX|&#x1f742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-2|&#x1f743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-3|&#x1f744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALUM|&#x1f745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR OIL|&#x1f746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SPIRIT|&#x1f747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TINCTURE|&#x1f748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GUM|&#x1f749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WAX|&#x1f74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDER|&#x1f74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CALX|&#x1f74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TUTTY|&#x1f74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CAPUT MORTUUM|&#x1f74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SCEPTER OF JOVE|&#x1f74f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F75x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CADUCEUS|&#x1f750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TRIDENT|&#x1f751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STARRED TRIDENT|&#x1f752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LODESTONE|&#x1f753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SOAP|&#x1f754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR URINE|&#x1f755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HORSE DUNG|&#x1f756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ASHES|&#x1f757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POT ASHES|&#x1f758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BRICK|&#x1f759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDERED BRICK|&#x1f75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AMALGAM|&#x1f75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM|&#x1f75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM-2|&#x1f75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATION|&#x1f75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PRECIPITATE|&#x1f75f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F76x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISTILL|&#x1f760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE|&#x1f761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE-2|&#x1f762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PURIFY|&#x1f763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PUTREFACTION|&#x1f764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE|&#x1f765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-2|&#x1f766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-3|&#x1f767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-4|&#x1f768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-5|&#x1f769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALEMBIC|&#x1f76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF MARY|&#x1f76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF VAPOURS|&#x1f76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR RETORT|&#x1f76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HOUR|&#x1f76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NIGHT|&#x1f76f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F77x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DAY-NIGHT|&#x1f770;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MONTH|&#x1f771;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF DRAM|&#x1f772;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF OUNCE|&#x1f773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOT OF FORTUNE|&#x1f774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OCCULTATION|&#x1f775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNAR ECLIPSE|&#x1f776;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VESTA FORM TWO|&#x1f777;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTRAEA FORM TWO|&#x1f778;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYGIEA FORM TWO|&#x1f779;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTHENOPE FORM TWO|&#x1f77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAUMEA|&#x1f77B;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKEMAKE|&#x1f77C;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GONGGONG|&#x1f77D;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|QUAOAR|&#x1f77E;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCUS|&#x1f77F;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Geometric Shapes Extended''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F78x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CIRCLE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND TARGET|&#x1f78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY SQUARE|&#x1f78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F79x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM SQUARE|&#x1f795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE TARGET|&#x1f796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY DIAMOND|&#x1f797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM DIAMOND|&#x1f79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND TARGET|&#x1f79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY LOZENGE|&#x1f79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LOZENGE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN SALTIRE|&#x1f7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SALTIRE|&#x1f7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SALTIRE|&#x1f7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SALTIRE|&#x1f7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE LIGHT FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Dx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d4;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d5;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d6;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d7;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d8;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINE POINTED WHITE STAR|&#x1f7d9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CIRCLE WITH WHITE VERTICAL BAR|&#x1f7da;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLET IN DOUBLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7db;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW CIRCLE|&#x1f7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED SQUARE|&#x1f7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE SQUARE|&#x1f7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE SQUARE|&#x1f7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW SQUARE|&#x1f7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN SQUARE|&#x1f7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE SQUARE|&#x1f7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN SQUARE|&#x1f7eb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NOT EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7ec;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Fx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED BOTTOM RIGHT OBLIQUE HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1f7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRANSPARENT CUBE|&#x1f7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CUBE|&#x1f7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH BOTTOM HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH TOP HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BISECTING LINES|&#x1f7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHOMBUS|&#x1f7ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Arrows-C''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F80x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F81x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F82x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F83x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F84x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f847;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F85x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT RIGHT SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP DOWN SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f859;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F86x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F87x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F88x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f887;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F89x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE HALF|&#x1f89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE THIRD|&#x1f89f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BOTTOM-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BOTTOM SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f8ad;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Bx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING UPWARDS THEN NORTH WEST|&#x1f8b0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING RIGHTWARDS THEN CURVING SOUTH WEST|&#x1f8b1;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LOWER HOOK|&#x1f8b2;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS BLACK ARROW TO BAR|&#x1f8b3;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b4;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED UPWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b5;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED RIGHTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b6;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b7;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b8;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b9;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8ba;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8bb;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Cx |style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c0;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c1;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Dx |style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW OVER LONG LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8d0;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON OVER LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d1;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d2;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d3;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d4;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d5;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW THROUGH X|&#x1f8d6;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH DOUBLE SLASH|&#x1f8d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG LEFT RIGHT ARROW WITH DEPENDENT LOBE|&#x1f8d8;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F90x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE|&#x1f902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH DOT|&#x1f906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE|&#x1f907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK|&#x1f908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK|&#x1f909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90b;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHED FINGERS|&#x1f90c;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEART|&#x1f90d;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BROWN HEART|&#x1f90e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHING HAND|&#x1f90f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F91x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZIPPER-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH THERMOMETER|&#x1f912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NERD FACE|&#x1f913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THINKING FACE|&#x1f914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH HEAD-BANDAGE|&#x1f915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROBOT FACE|&#x1f916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUGGING FACE|&#x1f917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGN OF THE HORNS|&#x1f918;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CALL ME HAND|&#x1f919;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED BACK OF HAND|&#x1f91a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDSHAKE|&#x1f91d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX AND MIDDLE FINGERS CROSSED|&#x1f91e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|I LOVE YOU HAND SIGN|&#x1f91f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F92x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COWBOY HAT|&#x1f920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOWN FACE|&#x1f921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAUSEATED FACE|&#x1f922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLING ON THE FLOOR LAUGHING|&#x1f923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROOLING FACE|&#x1f924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LYING FACE|&#x1f925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE PALM|&#x1f926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SNEEZING FACE|&#x1f927;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ONE EYEBROW RAISED|&#x1f928;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH STAR EYES|&#x1f929;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH ONE LARGE AND ONE SMALL EYE|&#x1f92a;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH FINGER COVERING CLOSED LIPS|&#x1f92b;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SERIOUS FACE WITH SYMBOLS COVERING MOUTH|&#x1f92c;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND HAND COVERING MOUTH|&#x1f92d;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH VOMITING|&#x1f92e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOCKED FACE WITH EXPLODING HEAD|&#x1f92f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F93x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT WOMAN|&#x1f930;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAST-FEEDING|&#x1f931;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALMS UP TOGETHER|&#x1f932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SELFIE|&#x1f933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCE|&#x1f934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN TUXEDO|&#x1f935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTHER CHRISTMAS|&#x1f936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRUG|&#x1f937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON DOING CARTWHEEL|&#x1f938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JUGGLING|&#x1f939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FENCER|&#x1f93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODERN PENTATHLON|&#x1f93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRESTLERS|&#x1f93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER POLO|&#x1f93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDBALL|&#x1f93e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVING MASK|&#x1f93f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F94x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WILTED FLOWER|&#x1f940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DRUM WITH DRUMSTICKS|&#x1f941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLINKING GLASSES|&#x1f942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TUMBLER GLASS|&#x1f943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOON|&#x1f944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOAL NET|&#x1f945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIFLE|&#x1f946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SECOND PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIRD PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOXING GLOVE|&#x1f94a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARTIAL ARTS UNIFORM|&#x1f94b;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CURLING STONE|&#x1f94c;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LACROSSE STICK AND BALL|&#x1f94d;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFTBALL|&#x1f94e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING DISC|&#x1f94f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F95x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CROISSANT|&#x1f950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AVOCADO|&#x1f951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUCUMBER|&#x1f952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACON|&#x1f953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POTATO|&#x1f954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARROT|&#x1f955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGUETTE BREAD|&#x1f956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN SALAD|&#x1f957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHALLOW PAN OF FOOD|&#x1f958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STUFFED FLATBREAD|&#x1f959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EGG|&#x1f95a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLASS OF MILK|&#x1f95b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEANUTS|&#x1f95c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWIFRUIT|&#x1f95d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PANCAKES|&#x1f95e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DUMPLING|&#x1f95f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F96x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FORTUNE COOKIE|&#x1f960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKEOUT BOX|&#x1f961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOPSTICKS|&#x1f962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL WITH SPOON|&#x1f963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUP WITH STRAW|&#x1f964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COCONUT|&#x1f965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROCCOLI|&#x1f966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PIE|&#x1f967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRETZEL|&#x1f968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUT OF MEAT|&#x1f969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANDWICH|&#x1f96a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANNED FOOD|&#x1f96b;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFY GREEN|&#x1f96c;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANGO|&#x1f96d;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOON CAKE|&#x1f96e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGEL|&#x1f96f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F97x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND THREE HEARTS|&#x1f970;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YAWNING FACE|&#x1f971;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH TEAR|&#x1f972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PARTY HORN AND PARTY HAT|&#x1f973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH UNEVEN EYES AND WAVY MOUTH|&#x1f974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERHEATED FACE|&#x1f975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FREEZING FACE|&#x1f976;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINJA|&#x1f977;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISGUISED FACE|&#x1f978;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE HOLDING BACK TEARS|&#x1f979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PLEADING EYES|&#x1f97a;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SARI|&#x1f97b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAB COAT|&#x1f97c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOGGLES|&#x1f97d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIKING BOOT|&#x1f97e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT SHOE|&#x1f97f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F98x |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRAB|&#x1f980;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LION FACE|&#x1f981;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCORPION|&#x1f982;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TURKEY|&#x1f983;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UNICORN FACE|&#x1f984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAGLE|&#x1f985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DUCK|&#x1f986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAT|&#x1f987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARK|&#x1f988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OWL|&#x1f989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOX FACE|&#x1f98a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTERFLY|&#x1f98b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEER|&#x1f98c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GORILLA|&#x1f98d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIZARD|&#x1f98e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHINOCEROS|&#x1f98f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F99x |style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRIMP|&#x1f990;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUID|&#x1f991;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRAFFE FACE|&#x1f992;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ZEBRA FACE|&#x1f993;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEDGEHOG|&#x1f994;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAUROPOD|&#x1f995;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|T-REX|&#x1f996;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRICKET|&#x1f997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KANGAROO|&#x1f998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LLAMA|&#x1f999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACOCK|&#x1f99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIPPOPOTAMUS|&#x1f99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARROT|&#x1f99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RACCOON|&#x1f99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOBSTER|&#x1f99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUITO|&#x1f99f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Ax |style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROBE|&#x1f9a0;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BADGER|&#x1f9a1;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SWAN|&#x1f9a2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAMMOTH|&#x1f9a3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DODO|&#x1f9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLOTH|&#x1f9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTER|&#x1f9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGUTAN|&#x1f9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SKUNK|&#x1f9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAMINGO|&#x1f9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OYSTER|&#x1f9aa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAVER|&#x1f9ab;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BISON|&#x1f9ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAL|&#x1f9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUIDE DOG|&#x1f9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROBING CANE|&#x1f9af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT RED HAIR|&#x1f9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT CURLY HAIR|&#x1f9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT BALD|&#x1f9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT WHITE HAIR|&#x1f9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BONE|&#x1f9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG|&#x1f9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOOT|&#x1f9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTH|&#x1f9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERHERO|&#x1f9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERVILLAIN|&#x1f9b9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY VEST|&#x1f9ba;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR WITH HEARING AID|&#x1f9bb;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORIZED WHEELCHAIR|&#x1f9bc;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANUAL WHEELCHAIR|&#x1f9bd;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MECHANICAL ARM|&#x1f9be;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MECHANICAL LEG|&#x1f9bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Cx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEESE WEDGE|&#x1f9c0;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUPCAKE|&#x1f9c1;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SALT SHAKER|&#x1f9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEVERAGE BOX|&#x1f9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GARLIC|&#x1f9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONION|&#x1f9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALAFEL|&#x1f9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAFFLE|&#x1f9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTER|&#x1f9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATE DRINK|&#x1f9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CUBE|&#x1f9ca;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLE TEA|&#x1f9cb;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLL|&#x1f9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STANDING PERSON|&#x1f9cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNEELING PERSON|&#x1f9ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEAF PERSON|&#x1f9cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MONOCLE|&#x1f9d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADULT|&#x1f9d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILD|&#x1f9d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER ADULT|&#x1f9d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEARDED PERSON|&#x1f9d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH HEADSCARF|&#x1f9d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON IN STEAMY ROOM|&#x1f9d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON CLIMBING|&#x1f9d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON IN LOTUS POSITION|&#x1f9d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGE|&#x1f9d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAIRY|&#x1f9da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VAMPIRE|&#x1f9db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MERPERSON|&#x1f9dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELF|&#x1f9dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GENIE|&#x1f9de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZOMBIE|&#x1f9df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Ex |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAIN|&#x1f9e0;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE HEART|&#x1f9e1;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BILLED CAP|&#x1f9e2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCARF|&#x1f9e3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOVES|&#x1f9e4;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COAT|&#x1f9e5;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOCKS|&#x1f9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED GIFT ENVELOPE|&#x1f9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRECRACKER|&#x1f9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JIGSAW PUZZLE PIECE|&#x1f9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEST TUBE|&#x1f9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PETRI DISH|&#x1f9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DNA DOUBLE HELIX|&#x1f9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPASS|&#x1f9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ABACUS|&#x1f9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE EXTINGUISHER|&#x1f9ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOLBOX|&#x1f9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRICK|&#x1f9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGNET|&#x1f9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUGGAGE|&#x1f9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTION BOTTLE|&#x1f9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOOL OF THREAD|&#x1f9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALL OF YARN|&#x1f9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY PIN|&#x1f9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEDDY BEAR|&#x1f9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROOM|&#x1f9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASKET|&#x1f9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLL OF PAPER|&#x1f9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR OF SOAP|&#x1f9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPONGE|&#x1f9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECEIPT|&#x1f9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAZAR AMULET|&#x1f9ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Chess Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING|&#x1fa00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN|&#x1fa01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK|&#x1fa02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP|&#x1fa03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT|&#x1fa04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN|&#x1fa05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREE|&#x1fa06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa2f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA5x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa50;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa51;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa52;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa53;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa54;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa55;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa56;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa57;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa58;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa59;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5a;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5b;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5d;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5e;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED GENERAL|&#x1fa60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED MANDARIN|&#x1fa61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED ELEPHANT|&#x1fa62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED HORSE|&#x1fa63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CHARIOT|&#x1fa64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CANNON|&#x1fa65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED SOLDIER|&#x1fa66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK GENERAL|&#x1fa67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK MANDARIN|&#x1fa68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK ELEPHANT|&#x1fa69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK HORSE|&#x1fa6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CHARIOT|&#x1fa6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CANNON|&#x1fa6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK SOLDIER|&#x1fa6d;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA7x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLET SHOES|&#x1fa70;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE-PIECE SWIMSUIT|&#x1fa71;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFS|&#x1fa72;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTS|&#x1fa73;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THONG SANDAL|&#x1fa74;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT BLUE HEART|&#x1fa75;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREY HEART|&#x1fa76;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINK HEART|&#x1fa77;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DROP OF BLOOD|&#x1fa78;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADHESIVE BANDAGE|&#x1fa79;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STETHOSCOPE|&#x1fa7a;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|X-RAY|&#x1fa7b;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRUTCH|&#x1fa7c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOOD BAG|&#x1fa7d;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INHALER|&#x1fa7e;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX OF PILLS|&#x1fa7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA8x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YO-YO|&#x1fa80;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KITE|&#x1fa81;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARACHUTE|&#x1fa82;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOMERANG|&#x1fa83;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGIC WAND|&#x1fa84;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINATA|&#x1fa85;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NESTING DOLLS|&#x1fa86;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARACAS|&#x1fa87;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUTE|&#x1fa88;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HARP|&#x1fa89;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROMBONE|&#x1fa8a;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|METEOR|&#x1fa8b;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ERASER|&#x1fa8c;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NET WITH HANDLE|&#x1fa8d;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TREASURE CHEST|&#x1fa8e;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOVEL|&#x1fa8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA9x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGED PLANET|&#x1fa90;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAIR|&#x1fa91;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAZOR|&#x1fa92;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AXE|&#x1fa93;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIYA LAMP|&#x1fa94;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BANJO|&#x1fa95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY HELMET|&#x1fa96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ACCORDION|&#x1fa97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG DRUM|&#x1fa98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COIN|&#x1fa99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARPENTRY SAW|&#x1fa9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREWDRIVER|&#x1fa9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LADDER|&#x1fa9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOOK|&#x1fa9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR|&#x1fa9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINDOW|&#x1fa9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLUNGER|&#x1faa0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING NEEDLE|&#x1faa1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNOT|&#x1faa2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUCKET|&#x1faa3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUSE TRAP|&#x1faa4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHBRUSH|&#x1faa5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADSTONE|&#x1faa6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACARD|&#x1faa7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCK|&#x1faa8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR BALL|&#x1faa9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|IDENTIFICATION CARD|&#x1faaa;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BATTERY|&#x1faab;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMSA|&#x1faac;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDING HAND FAN|&#x1faad;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIR PICK|&#x1faae;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHANDA|&#x1faaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FABx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLY|&#x1fab0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORM|&#x1fab1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEETLE|&#x1fab2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKROACH|&#x1fab3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POTTED PLANT|&#x1fab4;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOOD|&#x1fab5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FEATHER|&#x1fab6;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTUS|&#x1fab7;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CORAL|&#x1fab8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NEST|&#x1fab9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEST WITH EGGS|&#x1faba;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYACINTH|&#x1fabb;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JELLYFISH|&#x1fabc;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WING|&#x1fabd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFLESS TREE|&#x1fabe;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOOSE|&#x1fabf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FACx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANATOMICAL HEART|&#x1fac0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNGS|&#x1fac1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEOPLE HUGGING|&#x1fac2;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT MAN|&#x1fac3;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT PERSON|&#x1fac4;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH CROWN|&#x1fac5;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FINGERPRINT|&#x1fac6;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIVER|&#x1fac7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIRY CREATURE|&#x1fac8;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CENTAUR|&#x1fac9;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRAGONFLY|&#x1faca;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWI BIRD|&#x1facb;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MONARCH BUTTERFLY|&#x1facc;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCA|&#x1facd;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOSE|&#x1face;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DONKEY|&#x1facf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FADx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUEBERRIES|&#x1fad0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL PEPPER|&#x1fad1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OLIVE|&#x1fad2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLATBREAD|&#x1fad3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMALE|&#x1fad4;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FONDUE|&#x1fad5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAPOT|&#x1fad6;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POURING LIQUID|&#x1fad7;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEANS|&#x1fad8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JAR|&#x1fad9;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GINGER ROOT|&#x1fada;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEA POD|&#x1fadb;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROOT VEGETABLE|&#x1fadc;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKLE|&#x1fadd;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RASPBERRY|&#x1fade;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLATTER|&#x1fadf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MELTING FACE|&#x1fae0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SALUTING FACE|&#x1fae1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN EYES AND HAND OVER MOUTH|&#x1fae2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PEEKING EYE|&#x1fae3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH DIAGONAL MOUTH|&#x1fae4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOTTED LINE FACE|&#x1fae5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BITING LIP|&#x1fae6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLES|&#x1fae7;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHAKING FACE|&#x1fae8;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH BAGS UNDER EYES|&#x1fae9;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISTORTED FACE|&#x1faea;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRACKING FACE|&#x1faeb;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH SQUINTING EYES|&#x1faec;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLEVER FACE|&#x1faed;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PALM ON CHEEK|&#x1faee;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FIGHT CLOUD|&#x1faef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAFx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB CROSSED|&#x1faf0;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf1;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf2;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM DOWN HAND|&#x1faf3;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM UP HAND|&#x1faf4;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDEX POINTING AT THE VIEWER|&#x1faf5;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART HANDS|&#x1faf6;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf7;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1faf9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1fafa;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE FINGER SALUTE|&#x1fafb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND SNAPPING FINGERS|&#x1fafc;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB FORMING CIRCLE|&#x1fafd;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG KICKING|&#x1fafe;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMP|&#x1faff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols for Legacy Computing''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1|&#x1fb00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2|&#x1fb01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12|&#x1fb02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3|&#x1fb03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13|&#x1fb04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23|&#x1fb05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-123|&#x1fb06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-4|&#x1fb07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-14|&#x1fb08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-24|&#x1fb09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-124|&#x1fb0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-34|&#x1fb0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-134|&#x1fb0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-234|&#x1fb0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1234|&#x1fb0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-5|&#x1fb0f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-15|&#x1fb10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-25|&#x1fb11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-125|&#x1fb12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-35|&#x1fb13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-235|&#x1fb14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1235|&#x1fb15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-45|&#x1fb16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-145|&#x1fb17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-245|&#x1fb18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1245|&#x1fb19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-345|&#x1fb1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1345|&#x1fb1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2345|&#x1fb1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12345|&#x1fb1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-6|&#x1fb1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-16|&#x1fb1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-26|&#x1fb20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-126|&#x1fb21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-36|&#x1fb22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-136|&#x1fb23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-236|&#x1fb24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1236|&#x1fb25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-46|&#x1fb26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-146|&#x1fb27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1246|&#x1fb28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-346|&#x1fb29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1346|&#x1fb2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2346|&#x1fb2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12346|&#x1fb2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-56|&#x1fb2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-156|&#x1fb2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-256|&#x1fb2f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1256|&#x1fb30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-356|&#x1fb31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1356|&#x1fb32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2356|&#x1fb33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12356|&#x1fb34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-456|&#x1fb35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1456|&#x1fb36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2456|&#x1fb37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12456|&#x1fb38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3456|&#x1fb39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13456|&#x1fb3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23456|&#x1fb3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb3f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND RIGHT AND LOWER TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND LOWER AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LEFT AND LOWER TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND UPPER AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-2|&#x1fb70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-3|&#x1fb71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-4|&#x1fb72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-5|&#x1fb73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-6|&#x1fb74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-7|&#x1fb75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-2|&#x1fb76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-3|&#x1fb77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-4|&#x1fb78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-5|&#x1fb79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-6|&#x1fb7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-7|&#x1fb7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND UPPER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT AND UPPER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-1358|&#x1fb81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF BLOCK AND LOWER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND LOWER HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb92;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND RIGHT HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD FILL|&#x1fb95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECKER BOARD FILL|&#x1fb96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY HORIZONTAL FILL|&#x1fb97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT FILL|&#x1fb98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT FILL|&#x1fb99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fba0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT AND MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT AND MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT HORIZONTAL WITH VERTICAL STROKE|&#x1fbaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBBx |{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROWHEAD-SHAPED POINTER|&#x1fbb0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECK MARK|&#x1fbb1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH TIP LEFTWARDS|&#x1fbb4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbb9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOIDED GREEK CROSS|&#x1fbbb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT OPEN SQUARED DOT|&#x1fbbc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL CROSS|&#x1fbbd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbbe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbbf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBCx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEAVY SALTIRE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1fbc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED QUESTION MARK|&#x1fbc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE|&#x1fbc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH ARMS RAISED|&#x1fbc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING LEFT|&#x1fbc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING RIGHT|&#x1fbc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH DRESS|&#x1fbc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbca;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CROSS MARK|&#x1fbcb;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED SMALL LEFT SQUARE BRACKET|&#x1fbcc;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SMALL UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbcd;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TWO THIRDS BLOCK|&#x1fbce;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ONE THIRD BLOCK|&#x1fbcf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fbd8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbda;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fbdc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbdd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbde;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE LEFT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP RIGHT JUSTIFIED LOWER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM LEFT JUSTIFIED UPPER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM RIGHT JUSTIFIED UPPER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP LEFT JUSTIFIED LOWER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBFx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ZERO|&#x1fbf0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ONE|&#x1fbf1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT TWO|&#x1fbf2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT THREE|&#x1fbf3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FOUR|&#x1fbf4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FIVE|&#x1fbf5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SIX|&#x1fbf6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1fbf7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1fbf8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT NINE|&#x1fbf9;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALARM BELL SYMBOL|&#x1fbfa;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Technical Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD0x |style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RECTANGULAR TABLE|&#x1fd00;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ESCALATOR|&#x1fd01;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLDOZER|&#x1fd02;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT TYRE|&#x1fd03;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTHQUAKE|&#x1fd04;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TRICYCLE|&#x1fd05;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD1x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NAIL CLIPPER|&#x1fd10;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHPASTE|&#x1fd11;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLIER|&#x1fd12;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KNIFE WITH CUTTING BOARD|&#x1fd13;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAKE|&#x1fd14;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TISSUE BOX|&#x1fd15;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOTHES HANGER|&#x1fd16;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRILL|&#x1fd17;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING BUTTON|&#x1fd18;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKING POT|&#x1fd19;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|APRON|&#x1fd1a;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BINOCULARS|&#x1fd1b;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INCENSE|&#x1fd1c;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PIGGY BANK|&#x1fd1d;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPRAY CAN|&#x1fd1e;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PERFUME GLASS BOTTLE|&#x1fd1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD2x |style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOLD BAR|&#x1fd20;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CYMBALS|&#x1fd21;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|XYLOPHONE|&#x1fd22;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONCRETE BLOCK|&#x1fd23;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD4x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPRING ONION|&#x1fd40;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRAPEFRUIT|&#x1fd41;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE POP|&#x1fd42;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CINNAMON STICKS|&#x1fd43;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUGAR CUBES|&#x1fd44;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POMEGRANATE|&#x1fd45;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRAGON FRUIT|&#x1fd46;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOFFEE|&#x1fd47;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD5x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCHID|&#x1fd50;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAMELEON|&#x1fd51;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OSTRICH|&#x1fd52;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOLE|&#x1fd53;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARIGOLD|&#x1fd54;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMBAT|&#x1fd55;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAHORSE|&#x1fd56;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOUCAN|&#x1fd57;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD7x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMACH|&#x1fd70;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INTESTINE|&#x1fd71;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD8x |style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE REVEALING FACE|&#x1fd80;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FECx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white"|&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white;"|&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} h5v2u972bu3wey3wslw8owoajjkxz3k 4671922 4671920 2026-09-23T08:15:32Z ~2026-51385-23 3626656 4671922 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{Text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Mahjong Tiles''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !width="4%"|U+!!width="6%"|0!!width="6%"|1!!width="6%"|2!!width="6%"|3!!width="6%"|4!!width="6%"|5!!width="6%"|6!!width="6%"|7!!width="6%"|8!!width="6%"|9!!width="6%"|A!!width="6%"|B!!width="6%"|C!!width="6%"|D!!width="6%"|E!!width="6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F00x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EAST WIND|&#x1f000;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SOUTH WIND|&#x1f001;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WEST WIND|&#x1f002;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NORTH WIND|&#x1f003;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE RED DRAGON|&#x1f004;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE GREEN DRAGON|&#x1f005;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WHITE DRAGON|&#x1f006;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f007;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f008;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f009;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F01x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f018;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f019;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F02x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CIRCLES|&#x1f020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f021;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE PLUM|&#x1f022;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ORCHID|&#x1f023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BAMBOO|&#x1f024;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE CHRYSANTHEMUM|&#x1f025;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SPRING|&#x1f026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SUMMER|&#x1f027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE AUTUMN|&#x1f028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WINTER|&#x1f029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE JOKER|&#x1f02a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BACK|&#x1f02b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Domino Tiles''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F03x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL BACK|&#x1f030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-00|&#x1f031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-01|&#x1f032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-02|&#x1f033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-03|&#x1f034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-04|&#x1f035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-05|&#x1f036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-06|&#x1f037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-00|&#x1f038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-01|&#x1f039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-02|&#x1f03a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-03|&#x1f03b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-04|&#x1f03c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-05|&#x1f03d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-06|&#x1f03e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-00|&#x1f03f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F04x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-01|&#x1f040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-02|&#x1f041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-03|&#x1f042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-04|&#x1f043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-05|&#x1f044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-06|&#x1f045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-00|&#x1f046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-01|&#x1f047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-02|&#x1f048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-03|&#x1f049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-04|&#x1f04a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-05|&#x1f04b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-06|&#x1f04c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-00|&#x1f04d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-01|&#x1f04e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-02|&#x1f04f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F05x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-03|&#x1f050;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-04|&#x1f051;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-05|&#x1f052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-06|&#x1f053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-00|&#x1f054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-01|&#x1f055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-02|&#x1f056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-03|&#x1f057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-04|&#x1f058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-05|&#x1f059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-06|&#x1f05a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-00|&#x1f05b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-01|&#x1f05c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-02|&#x1f05d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-03|&#x1f05e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-04|&#x1f05f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F06x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-05|&#x1f060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-06|&#x1f061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL BACK|&#x1f062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-00|&#x1f063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-01|&#x1f064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-02|&#x1f065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-03|&#x1f066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-04|&#x1f067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-05|&#x1f068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-06|&#x1f069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-00|&#x1f06a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-01|&#x1f06b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-02|&#x1f06c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-03|&#x1f06d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-04|&#x1f06e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-05|&#x1f06f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F07x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-06|&#x1f070;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-00|&#x1f071;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-01|&#x1f072;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-02|&#x1f073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-03|&#x1f074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-04|&#x1f075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-05|&#x1f076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-06|&#x1f077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-00|&#x1f078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-01|&#x1f079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-02|&#x1f07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-03|&#x1f07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-04|&#x1f07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-05|&#x1f07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-06|&#x1f07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-00|&#x1f07f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F08x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-01|&#x1f080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-02|&#x1f081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-03|&#x1f082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-04|&#x1f083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-05|&#x1f084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-06|&#x1f085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-00|&#x1f086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-01|&#x1f087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-02|&#x1f088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-03|&#x1f089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-04|&#x1f08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-05|&#x1f08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-06|&#x1f08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-00|&#x1f08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-01|&#x1f08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-02|&#x1f08f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F09x |style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-03|&#x1f090;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-04|&#x1f091;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-05|&#x1f092;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-06|&#x1f093;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Playing Cards''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BACK|&#x1f0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF SPADES|&#x1f0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF SPADES|&#x1f0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF SPADES|&#x1f0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF SPADES|&#x1f0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF SPADES|&#x1f0ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Bx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF HEARTS|&#x1f0be;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD RED JOKER|&#x1f0bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Cx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BLACK JOKER|&#x1f0cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Dx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF CLUBS|&#x1f0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF CLUBS|&#x1f0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD WHITE JOKER|&#x1f0df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOOL|&#x1f0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-1|&#x1f0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-2|&#x1f0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-3|&#x1f0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-4|&#x1f0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-5|&#x1f0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-6|&#x1f0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-7|&#x1f0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-8|&#x1f0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-9|&#x1f0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-10|&#x1f0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-11|&#x1f0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-12|&#x1f0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-13|&#x1f0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-14|&#x1f0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-15|&#x1f0ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Fx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-16|&#x1f0f0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-17|&#x1f0f1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-18|&#x1f0f2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-19|&#x1f0f3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-20|&#x1f0f4;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-21|&#x1f0f5;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F10x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO FULL STOP|&#x1f100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO COMMA|&#x1f101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ONE COMMA|&#x1f102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT TWO COMMA|&#x1f103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT THREE COMMA|&#x1f104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FOUR COMMA|&#x1f105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FIVE COMMA|&#x1f106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SIX COMMA|&#x1f107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SEVEN COMMA|&#x1f108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT EIGHT COMMA|&#x1f109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT NINE COMMA|&#x1f10a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ZERO WITH SLASH|&#x1f10d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ANTICLOCKWISE ARROW|&#x1f10e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED DOLLAR SIGN WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f10f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F11x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f11f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F12x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CD|&#x1f12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED WZ|&#x1f12e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COPYLEFT SYMBOL|&#x1f12f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F13x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f130;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f13c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f13e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f13f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F14x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f141;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f145;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f149;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HV|&#x1f14a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED MV|&#x1f14b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SD|&#x1f14c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SS|&#x1f14d;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED PPV|&#x1f14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED WC|&#x1f14f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F15x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f156;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f158;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f15f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F16x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f169;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MC SIGN|&#x1f16a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MD SIGN|&#x1f16b;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MR SIGN|&#x1f16c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CC|&#x1f16d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED C WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f16e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED HUMAN FIGURE|&#x1f16f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F17x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f172;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f173;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f174;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f175;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f176;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f177;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f178;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f179;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f17a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f17b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f17e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f17f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F18x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f189;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f18a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED IC|&#x1f18b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED PA|&#x1f18c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED SA|&#x1f18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED AB|&#x1f18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED WC|&#x1f18f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F19x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE DJ|&#x1f190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CL|&#x1f191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED COOL|&#x1f192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FREE|&#x1f193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ID|&#x1f194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NEW|&#x1f195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NG|&#x1f196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED OK|&#x1f197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SOS|&#x1f198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UP WITH EXCLAMATION MARK|&#x1f199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VS|&#x1f19a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED THREE D|&#x1f19b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SECOND SCREEN|&#x1f19c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWO K|&#x1f19d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FOUR K|&#x1f19e;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED EIGHT K|&#x1f19f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FIVE POINT ONE|&#x1f1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SEVEN POINT ONE|&#x1f1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWENTY-TWO POINT TWO|&#x1f1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SIXTY P|&#x1f1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ONE HUNDRED TWENTY P|&#x1f1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN SMALL LETTER D|&#x1f1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HC|&#x1f1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HDR|&#x1f1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HI-RES|&#x1f1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LOSSLESS|&#x1f1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SHV|&#x1f1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UHD|&#x1f1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VOD|&#x1f1ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MASK WORK SYMBOL|&#x1f1ad;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMOBIKI SYMBOL|&#x1f1ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ex |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER A|&#x1f1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER B|&#x1f1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER C|&#x1f1e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER D|&#x1f1e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER E|&#x1f1ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER F|&#x1f1eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER G|&#x1f1ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER H|&#x1f1ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER I|&#x1f1ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER J|&#x1f1ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER K|&#x1f1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER L|&#x1f1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER M|&#x1f1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER N|&#x1f1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER O|&#x1f1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER P|&#x1f1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Q|&#x1f1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER R|&#x1f1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER S|&#x1f1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER T|&#x1f1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER U|&#x1f1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER V|&#x1f1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER W|&#x1f1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER X|&#x1f1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Y|&#x1f1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Z|&#x1f1ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F20x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE HIRAGANA HOKA|&#x1f200;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA KOKO|&#x1f201;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA SA|&#x1f202;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F21x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-624B|&#x1f210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B57|&#x1f211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53CC|&#x1f212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA DE|&#x1f213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-591A|&#x1f215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-89E3|&#x1f216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5929|&#x1f217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4EA4|&#x1f218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6620|&#x1f219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7121|&#x1f21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6599|&#x1f21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-524D|&#x1f21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5F8C|&#x1f21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-518D|&#x1f21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-65B0|&#x1f21f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F22x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-521D|&#x1f220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7D42|&#x1f221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-751F|&#x1f222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8CA9|&#x1f223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-58F0|&#x1f224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5439|&#x1f225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6F14|&#x1f226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6295|&#x1f227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6355|&#x1f228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E00|&#x1f229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-904A|&#x1f22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5DE6|&#x1f22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E2D|&#x1f22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53F3|&#x1f22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6307|&#x1f22f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F23x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8D70|&#x1f230;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7981|&#x1f232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7A7A|&#x1f233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5408|&#x1f234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6E80|&#x1f235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6709|&#x1f236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6708|&#x1f237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7533|&#x1f238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5272|&#x1f239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-55B6|&#x1f23a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-914D|&#x1f23b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F24x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-672C|&#x1f240;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f241;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f242;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B89|&#x1f243;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-70B9|&#x1f244;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f245;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-76D7|&#x1f246;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-52DD|&#x1f247;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6557|&#x1f248;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F25x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ADVANTAGE|&#x1f250;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ACCEPT|&#x1f251;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F26x |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR FU|&#x1f260;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR LU|&#x1f261;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHOU|&#x1f262;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR XI|&#x1f263;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHUANGXI|&#x1f264;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR CAI|&#x1f265;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F27x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F28x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F29x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F30x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CYCLONE|&#x1f300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOGGY|&#x1f301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED UMBRELLA|&#x1f302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NIGHT WITH STARS|&#x1f303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE OVER MOUNTAINS|&#x1f304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE|&#x1f305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CITYSCAPE AT DUSK|&#x1f306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNSET OVER BUILDINGS|&#x1f307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAINBOW|&#x1f308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDGE AT NIGHT|&#x1f309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER WAVE|&#x1f30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOLCANO|&#x1f30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILKY WAY|&#x1f30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE EUROPE-AFRICA|&#x1f30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE AMERICAS|&#x1f30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE ASIA-AUSTRALIA|&#x1f30f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F31x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOBE WITH MERIDIANS|&#x1f310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRESCENT MOON|&#x1f319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUN WITH FACE|&#x1f31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOWING STAR|&#x1f31f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F32x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOOTING STAR|&#x1f320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THERMOMETER|&#x1f321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DROPLET|&#x1f322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN|&#x1f323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN WITH SMALL CLOUD|&#x1f324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD|&#x1f325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH SNOW|&#x1f328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH TORNADO|&#x1f32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOG|&#x1f32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND BLOWING FACE|&#x1f32c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT DOG|&#x1f32d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TACO|&#x1f32e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BURRITO|&#x1f32f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F33x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHESTNUT|&#x1f330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEEDLING|&#x1f331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EVERGREEN TREE|&#x1f332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECIDUOUS TREE|&#x1f333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM TREE|&#x1f334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CACTUS|&#x1f335;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT PEPPER|&#x1f336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULIP|&#x1f337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRY BLOSSOM|&#x1f338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROSE|&#x1f339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIBISCUS|&#x1f33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNFLOWER|&#x1f33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOSSOM|&#x1f33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF MAIZE|&#x1f33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF RICE|&#x1f33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HERB|&#x1f33f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F34x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR LEAF CLOVER|&#x1f340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAPLE LEAF|&#x1f341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALLEN LEAF|&#x1f342;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAF FLUTTERING IN WIND|&#x1f343;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSHROOM|&#x1f344;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMATO|&#x1f345;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUBERGINE|&#x1f346;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRAPES|&#x1f347;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MELON|&#x1f348;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATERMELON|&#x1f349;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGERINE|&#x1f34a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEMON|&#x1f34b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANANA|&#x1f34c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PINEAPPLE|&#x1f34d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED APPLE|&#x1f34e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN APPLE|&#x1f34f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F35x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PEAR|&#x1f350;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACH|&#x1f351;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRIES|&#x1f352;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAWBERRY|&#x1f353;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMBURGER|&#x1f354;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLICE OF PIZZA|&#x1f355;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEAT ON BONE|&#x1f356;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POULTRY LEG|&#x1f357;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RICE CRACKER|&#x1f358;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RICE BALL|&#x1f359;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKED RICE|&#x1f35a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRY AND RICE|&#x1f35b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAMING BOWL|&#x1f35c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPAGHETTI|&#x1f35d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAD|&#x1f35e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRENCH FRIES|&#x1f35f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F36x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ROASTED SWEET POTATO|&#x1f360;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DANGO|&#x1f361;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ODEN|&#x1f362;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSHI|&#x1f363;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRIED SHRIMP|&#x1f364;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FISH CAKE WITH SWIRL DESIGN|&#x1f365;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT ICE CREAM|&#x1f366;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHAVED ICE|&#x1f367;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CREAM|&#x1f368;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUGHNUT|&#x1f369;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKIE|&#x1f36a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOCOLATE BAR|&#x1f36b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDY|&#x1f36c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOLLIPOP|&#x1f36d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTARD|&#x1f36e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HONEY POT|&#x1f36f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F37x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTCAKE|&#x1f370;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BENTO BOX|&#x1f371;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POT OF FOOD|&#x1f372;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKING|&#x1f373;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FORK AND KNIFE|&#x1f374;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEACUP WITHOUT HANDLE|&#x1f375;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAKE BOTTLE AND CUP|&#x1f376;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINE GLASS|&#x1f377;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKTAIL GLASS|&#x1f378;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROPICAL DRINK|&#x1f379;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEER MUG|&#x1f37a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLINKING BEER MUGS|&#x1f37b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY BOTTLE|&#x1f37c;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORK AND KNIFE WITH PLATE|&#x1f37d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTLE WITH POPPING CORK|&#x1f37e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POPCORN|&#x1f37f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F38x |{{H:title|dotted=no|RIBBON|&#x1f380;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRAPPED PRESENT|&#x1f381;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BIRTHDAY CAKE|&#x1f382;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JACK-O-LANTERN|&#x1f383;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHRISTMAS TREE|&#x1f384;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FATHER CHRISTMAS|&#x1f385;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIREWORKS|&#x1f386;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIREWORK SPARKLER|&#x1f387;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOON|&#x1f388;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTY POPPER|&#x1f389;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFETTI BALL|&#x1f38a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANABATA TREE|&#x1f38b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED FLAGS|&#x1f38c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PINE DECORATION|&#x1f38d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE DOLLS|&#x1f38e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARP STREAMER|&#x1f38f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F39x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND CHIME|&#x1f390;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOON VIEWING CEREMONY|&#x1f391;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCHOOL SATCHEL|&#x1f392;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRADUATION CAP|&#x1f393;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH TIP ON THE LEFT|&#x1f394;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOUQUET OF FLOWERS|&#x1f395;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY MEDAL|&#x1f396;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REMINDER RIBBON|&#x1f397;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL KEYBOARD WITH JACKS|&#x1f398;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STUDIO MICROPHONE|&#x1f399;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEVEL SLIDER|&#x1f39a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONTROL KNOBS|&#x1f39b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAMED ASCENDING MUSICAL NOTES|&#x1f39c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAMED DESCENDING MUSICAL NOTES|&#x1f39d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM FRAMES|&#x1f39e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADMISSION TICKETS|&#x1f39f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F3Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|CAROUSEL HORSE|&#x1f3a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FERRIS WHEEL|&#x1f3a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER COASTER|&#x1f3a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FISHING POLE AND FISH|&#x1f3a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROPHONE|&#x1f3a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOVIE CAMERA|&#x1f3a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CINEMA|&#x1f3a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADPHONE|&#x1f3a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTIST PALETTE|&#x1f3a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP HAT|&#x1f3a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCUS TENT|&#x1f3aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TICKET|&#x1f3ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAPPER BOARD|&#x1f3ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERFORMING ARTS|&#x1f3ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO GAME|&#x1f3ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIRECT HIT|&#x1f3af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F3Bx 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BULB|&#x1f4a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGER SYMBOL|&#x1f4a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOMB|&#x1f4a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING SYMBOL|&#x1f4a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COLLISION SYMBOL|&#x1f4a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLASHING SWEAT SYMBOL|&#x1f4a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROPLET|&#x1f4a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DASH SYMBOL|&#x1f4a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILE OF POO|&#x1f4a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLEXED BICEPS|&#x1f4aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY SYMBOL|&#x1f4ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEECH BALLOON|&#x1f4ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THOUGHT BALLOON|&#x1f4ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE FLOWER|&#x1f4ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUNDRED POINTS SYMBOL|&#x1f4af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY BAG|&#x1f4b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRENCY EXCHANGE|&#x1f4b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN|&#x1f4b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CREDIT 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UP|&#x1f4c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CALENDAR|&#x1f4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAR-OFF CALENDAR|&#x1f4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX|&#x1f4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH DOWNWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR CHART|&#x1f4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLIPBOARD|&#x1f4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAPERCLIP|&#x1f4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAIGHT RULER|&#x1f4cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR RULER|&#x1f4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK TABS|&#x1f4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEDGER|&#x1f4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK|&#x1f4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK WITH DECORATIVE COVER|&#x1f4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED BOOK|&#x1f4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN BOOK|&#x1f4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN BOOK|&#x1f4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE BOOK|&#x1f4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE BOOK|&#x1f4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKS|&#x1f4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAME BADGE|&#x1f4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCROLL|&#x1f4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEMO|&#x1f4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGER|&#x1f4df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX MACHINE|&#x1f4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE ANTENNA|&#x1f4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUBLIC ADDRESS LOUDSPEAKER|&#x1f4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEERING MEGAPHONE|&#x1f4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OUTBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PACKAGE|&#x1f4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|E-MAIL SYMBOL|&#x1f4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMING ENVELOPE|&#x1f4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH DOWNWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTBOX|&#x1f4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTAL HORN|&#x1f4ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWSPAPER|&#x1f4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW AT LEFT|&#x1f4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIBRATION MODE|&#x1f4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE OFF|&#x1f4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO MOBILE PHONES|&#x1f4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTENNA WITH BARS|&#x1f4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA|&#x1f4f7;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA WITH FLASH|&#x1f4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO CAMERA|&#x1f4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEVISION|&#x1f4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO|&#x1f4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEOCASSETTE|&#x1f4fc;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM PROJECTOR|&#x1f4fd;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PORTABLE STEREO|&#x1f4fe;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PRAYER BEADS|&#x1f4ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F50x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWISTED RIGHTWARDS ARROWS|&#x1f500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS WITH CIRCLED ONE OVERLAY|&#x1f502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTICLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f505;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f506;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER|&#x1f508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f50a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BATTERY|&#x1f50b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC PLUG|&#x1f50c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK WITH INK PEN|&#x1f50f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F51x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED LOCK WITH KEY|&#x1f510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEY|&#x1f511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK|&#x1f512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN LOCK|&#x1f513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL|&#x1f514;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f515;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK|&#x1f516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINK SYMBOL|&#x1f517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO BUTTON|&#x1f518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|END WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ON WITH EXCLAMATION MARK WITH LEFT RIGHT ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOON WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP WITH UPWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ONE UNDER EIGHTEEN SYMBOL|&#x1f51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYCAP TEN|&#x1f51f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F52x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN CAPITAL LETTERS|&#x1f520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN SMALL LETTERS|&#x1f521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR NUMBERS|&#x1f522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR SYMBOLS|&#x1f523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN LETTERS|&#x1f524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE|&#x1f525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC TORCH|&#x1f526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRENCH|&#x1f527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER|&#x1f528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NUT AND BOLT|&#x1f529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOCHO|&#x1f52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PISTOL|&#x1f52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROSCOPE|&#x1f52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELESCOPE|&#x1f52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYSTAL BALL|&#x1f52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED STAR WITH MIDDLE DOT|&#x1f52f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F53x |{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE SYMBOL FOR BEGINNER|&#x1f530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIDENT EMBLEM|&#x1f531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED CIRCLE|&#x1f534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE CIRCLE|&#x1f535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f539;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F54x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f540;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE WITH HALF-CIRCLE BELOW|&#x1f541;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f542;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED LEFT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED RIGHT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f544;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYMBOL FOR MARKS CHAPTER|&#x1f545;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LATIN CROSS|&#x1f546;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LATIN CROSS|&#x1f547;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CELTIC CROSS|&#x1f548;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OM SYMBOL|&#x1f549;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOVE OF PEACE|&#x1f54a;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAABA|&#x1f54b;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUE|&#x1f54c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SYNAGOGUE|&#x1f54d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENORAH WITH NINE BRANCHES|&#x1f54e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL OF HYGIEIA|&#x1f54f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F55x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE OCLOCK|&#x1f550;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO OCLOCK|&#x1f551;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE OCLOCK|&#x1f552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR OCLOCK|&#x1f553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE OCLOCK|&#x1f554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX OCLOCK|&#x1f555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT OCLOCK|&#x1f557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE OCLOCK|&#x1f558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN OCLOCK|&#x1f559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE OCLOCK|&#x1f55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE-THIRTY|&#x1f55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO-THIRTY|&#x1f55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE-THIRTY|&#x1f55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR-THIRTY|&#x1f55f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F56x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE-THIRTY|&#x1f560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX-THIRTY|&#x1f561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT-THIRTY|&#x1f563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE-THIRTY|&#x1f564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN-THIRTY|&#x1f565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE-THIRTY|&#x1f567;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER|&#x1f568;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f569;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN|&#x1f56b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN WITH SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56c;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGING BELL|&#x1f56d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOK|&#x1f56e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDLE|&#x1f56f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F57x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MANTELPIECE CLOCK|&#x1f570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SKULL AND CROSSBONES|&#x1f571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PIRACY|&#x1f572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLE|&#x1f573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN BUSINESS SUIT LEVITATING|&#x1f574;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEUTH OR SPY|&#x1f575;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DARK SUNGLASSES|&#x1f576;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER|&#x1f577;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER WEB|&#x1f578;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JOYSTICK|&#x1f579;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN DANCING|&#x1f57a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f57b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER WITH PAGE|&#x1f57c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f57d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&#x1f57e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&#x1f57f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F58x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE ON TOP OF MODEM|&#x1f580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAMSHELL MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK OF ENVELOPE|&#x1f582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STAMPED ENVELOPE|&#x1f583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING ENVELOPE|&#x1f585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEN OVER STAMPED ENVELOPE|&#x1f586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINKED PAPERCLIPS|&#x1f587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK PUSHPIN|&#x1f588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PENCIL|&#x1f589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BALLPOINT PEN|&#x1f58a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FOUNTAIN PEN|&#x1f58b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PAINTBRUSH|&#x1f58c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT CRAYON|&#x1f58d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT WRITING HAND|&#x1f58e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED OK HAND SIGN|&#x1f58f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F59x |{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&#x1f590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&#x1f591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS UP SIGN|&#x1f592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS DOWN SIGN|&#x1f593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED VICTORY HAND|&#x1f594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED|&#x1f595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH PART BETWEEN MIDDLE AND RING FINGERS|&#x1f596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DOWN POINTING LEFT HAND INDEX|&#x1f597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE LEFT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f598;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f599;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK LEFT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f59c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f59d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HEART|&#x1f5a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP COMPUTER|&#x1f5a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYBOARD AND MOUSE|&#x1f5a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE NETWORKED COMPUTERS|&#x1f5a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER|&#x1f5a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POCKET CALCULATOR|&#x1f5a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAPE CARTRIDGE|&#x1f5ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRED KEYBOARD|&#x1f5ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACKBALL|&#x1f5b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD PERSONAL COMPUTER|&#x1f5b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HARD DISK|&#x1f5b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREEN|&#x1f5b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER ICON|&#x1f5b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX ICON|&#x1f5b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC ICON|&#x1f5b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT|&#x1f5b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT AND PICTURE|&#x1f5ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH TILES|&#x1f5bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH AN X|&#x1f5be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK FOLDER|&#x1f5bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDER|&#x1f5c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FOLDER|&#x1f5c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX DIVIDERS|&#x1f5c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD FILE BOX|&#x1f5c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE CABINET|&#x1f5c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE|&#x1f5c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAD|&#x1f5c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE|&#x1f5c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAD|&#x1f5ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY DOCUMENT|&#x1f5cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGE|&#x1f5cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGES|&#x1f5cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT|&#x1f5ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE|&#x1f5cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGES|&#x1f5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WASTEBASKET|&#x1f5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL NOTE PAD|&#x1f5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL CALENDAR PAD|&#x1f5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP WINDOW|&#x1f5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIMIZE|&#x1f5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAXIMIZE|&#x1f5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERLAP|&#x1f5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHT AND LEFT SEMICIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANCELLATION X|&#x1f5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPRESSION|&#x1f5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD KEY|&#x1f5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLED-UP NEWSPAPER|&#x1f5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CIRCLED TEXT|&#x1f5df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|STOCK CHART|&#x1f5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DAGGER KNIFE|&#x1f5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPS|&#x1f5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKING HEAD IN SILHOUETTE|&#x1f5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS ABOVE|&#x1f5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS BELOW|&#x1f5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS LEFT|&#x1f5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS RIGHT|&#x1f5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD|&#x1f5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BALLOT|&#x1f5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT CHECK MARK|&#x1f5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD CHECK|&#x1f5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WORLD MAP|&#x1f5fa;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNT FUJI|&#x1f5fb;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOKYO TOWER|&#x1f5fc;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STATUE OF LIBERTY|&#x1f5fd;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SILHOUETTE OF JAPAN|&#x1f5fe;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOYAI|&#x1f5ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Emoticons''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F60x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE|&#x1f600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND SMILING EYES|&#x1f604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HALO|&#x1f607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HORNS|&#x1f608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINKING FACE|&#x1f609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f60a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SAVOURING DELICIOUS FOOD|&#x1f60b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f60c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f60d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SUNGLASSES|&#x1f60e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMIRKING FACE|&#x1f60f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F61x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL FACE|&#x1f610;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXPRESSIONLESS FACE|&#x1f611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UNAMUSED FACE|&#x1f612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COLD SWEAT|&#x1f613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PENSIVE FACE|&#x1f614;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFUSED FACE|&#x1f615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFOUNDED FACE|&#x1f616;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE|&#x1f617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE THROWING A KISS|&#x1f618;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE|&#x1f61b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND WINKING EYE|&#x1f61c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED FACE|&#x1f61e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORRIED FACE|&#x1f61f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F62x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGRY FACE|&#x1f620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING FACE|&#x1f621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING FACE|&#x1f622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSEVERING FACE|&#x1f623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH LOOK OF TRIUMPH|&#x1f624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED BUT RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f625;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FROWNING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f626;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGUISHED FACE|&#x1f627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FEARFUL FACE|&#x1f628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY FACE|&#x1f629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPY FACE|&#x1f62a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRED FACE|&#x1f62b;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRIMACING FACE|&#x1f62c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOUDLY CRYING FACE|&#x1f62d;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f62e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUSHED FACE|&#x1f62f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F63x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SCREAMING IN FEAR|&#x1f631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTONISHED FACE|&#x1f632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUSHED FACE|&#x1f633;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING FACE|&#x1f634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY FACE|&#x1f635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITHOUT MOUTH|&#x1f636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MEDICAL MASK|&#x1f637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING CAT FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f63a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f63b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH WRY SMILE|&#x1f63c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING CAT FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f63d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING CAT FACE|&#x1f63e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING CAT FACE|&#x1f63f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F64x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY CAT FACE|&#x1f640;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY FROWNING FACE|&#x1f641;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY SMILING FACE|&#x1f642;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPSIDE-DOWN FACE|&#x1f643;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ROLLING EYES|&#x1f644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH NO GOOD GESTURE|&#x1f645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OK GESTURE|&#x1f646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON BOWING DEEPLY|&#x1f647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEE-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAR-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAK-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAPPY PERSON RAISING ONE HAND|&#x1f64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON RAISING BOTH HANDS IN CELEBRATION|&#x1f64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON FROWNING|&#x1f64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH POUTING FACE|&#x1f64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH FOLDED HANDS|&#x1f64f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Ornamental Dingbats''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F65x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F66x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F67x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE TURNED COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY LOW DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SOLIDUS|&#x1f67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY REVERSE SOLIDUS|&#x1f67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Transport and Map Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F68x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCKET|&#x1f680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HELICOPTER|&#x1f681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAM LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY CAR|&#x1f683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN|&#x1f684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN WITH BULLET NOSE|&#x1f685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAIN|&#x1f686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|METRO|&#x1f687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT RAIL|&#x1f688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STATION|&#x1f689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM|&#x1f68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM CAR|&#x1f68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS|&#x1f68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING BUS|&#x1f68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLLEYBUS|&#x1f68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS STOP|&#x1f68f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F69x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIBUS|&#x1f690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AMBULANCE|&#x1f691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CAR|&#x1f693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING POLICE CAR|&#x1f694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAXI|&#x1f695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING TAXI|&#x1f696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECREATIONAL VEHICLE|&#x1f699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DELIVERY TRUCK|&#x1f69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTICULATED LORRY|&#x1f69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACTOR|&#x1f69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONORAIL|&#x1f69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN RAILWAY|&#x1f69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSPENSION RAILWAY|&#x1f69f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN CABLEWAY|&#x1f6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AERIAL TRAMWAY|&#x1f6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIP|&#x1f6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROWBOAT|&#x1f6a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEEDBOAT|&#x1f6a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION SIGN|&#x1f6a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CARS REVOLVING LIGHT|&#x1f6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR FLAG ON POST|&#x1f6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOOR|&#x1f6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ENTRY SIGN|&#x1f6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUT LITTER IN ITS PLACE SYMBOL|&#x1f6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DO NOT LITTER SYMBOL|&#x1f6af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NON-POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLE|&#x1f6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO BICYCLES|&#x1f6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEDESTRIAN|&#x1f6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PEDESTRIANS|&#x1f6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILDREN CROSSING|&#x1f6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RESTROOM|&#x1f6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY SYMBOL|&#x1f6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOILET|&#x1f6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER CLOSET|&#x1f6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOWER|&#x1f6bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Cx |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATH|&#x1f6c0;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATHTUB|&#x1f6c1;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSPORT CONTROL|&#x1f6c2;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTOMS|&#x1f6c3;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGGAGE CLAIM|&#x1f6c4;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT LUGGAGE|&#x1f6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1f6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROHIBITED SIGN|&#x1f6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED INFORMATION SOURCE|&#x1f6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOYS SYMBOL|&#x1f6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRLS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUCH AND LAMP|&#x1f6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING ACCOMMODATION|&#x1f6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING BAGS|&#x1f6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELLHOP BELL|&#x1f6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BED|&#x1f6cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Dx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACE OF WORSHIP|&#x1f6d0;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OCTAGONAL SIGN|&#x1f6d1;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING TROLLEY|&#x1f6d2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STUPA|&#x1f6d3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGODA|&#x1f6d4;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HINDU TEMPLE|&#x1f6d5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUT|&#x1f6d6;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ELEVATOR|&#x1f6d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LANDSLIDE|&#x1f6d8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTHOUSE|&#x1f6d9;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEATBELT SIGN|&#x1f6da;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NO CARS|&#x1f6db;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRELESS|&#x1f6dc;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYGROUND SLIDE|&#x1f6dd;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHEEL|&#x1f6de;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RING BUOY|&#x1f6df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER AND WRENCH|&#x1f6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIELD|&#x1f6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OIL DRUM|&#x1f6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORWAY|&#x1f6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY TRACK|&#x1f6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR BOAT|&#x1f6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING MILITARY AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTHEAST-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE DEPARTURE|&#x1f6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE ARRIVING|&#x1f6ec;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT AIR BALLOON|&#x1f6ed;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRSHIP|&#x1f6ee;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAPLANE|&#x1f6ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE|&#x1f6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSENGER SHIP|&#x1f6f3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCOOTER|&#x1f6f4;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR SCOOTER|&#x1f6f5;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANOE|&#x1f6f6;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLED|&#x1f6f7;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING SAUCER|&#x1f6f8;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SKATEBOARD|&#x1f6f9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTO RICKSHAW|&#x1f6fa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKUP TRUCK|&#x1f6fb;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER SKATE|&#x1f6fc;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORKLIFT|&#x1f6fd;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXCAVATOR|&#x1f6fe;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUBMARINE|&#x1f6ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Alchemical Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F70x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUINTESSENCE|&#x1f700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AIR|&#x1f701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR FIRE|&#x1f702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR EARTH|&#x1f703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WATER|&#x1f704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUAFORTIS|&#x1f705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA|&#x1f706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA-2|&#x1f707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE|&#x1f708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE-2|&#x1f709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR|&#x1f70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-2|&#x1f70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-3|&#x1f70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SULFUR|&#x1f70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PHILOSOPHERS SULFUR|&#x1f70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BLACK SULFUR|&#x1f70f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F71x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE|&#x1f710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-2|&#x1f711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-3|&#x1f712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CINNABAR|&#x1f713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT|&#x1f714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NITRE|&#x1f715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL|&#x1f716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL-2|&#x1f717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT|&#x1f718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT-2|&#x1f719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GOLD|&#x1f71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SILVER|&#x1f71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE|&#x1f71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE-2|&#x1f71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF IRON|&#x1f71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF IRON|&#x1f71f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F72x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ORE|&#x1f720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON-COPPER ORE|&#x1f721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF COPPER|&#x1f722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER|&#x1f723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER-2|&#x1f724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF COPPER|&#x1f727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VERDIGRIS|&#x1f728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TIN ORE|&#x1f729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LEAD ORE|&#x1f72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ANTIMONY ORE|&#x1f72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F73x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY-2|&#x1f731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS|&#x1f732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-2|&#x1f733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-3|&#x1f734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-4|&#x1f735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI|&#x1f736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI-2|&#x1f737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MARCASITE|&#x1f738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SAL-AMMONIAC|&#x1f739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ARSENIC|&#x1f73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR|&#x1f73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR-2|&#x1f73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AURIPIGMENT|&#x1f73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BISMUTH ORE|&#x1f73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR|&#x1f73f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F74x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR-2|&#x1f740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUICK LIME|&#x1f741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX|&#x1f742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-2|&#x1f743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-3|&#x1f744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALUM|&#x1f745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR OIL|&#x1f746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SPIRIT|&#x1f747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TINCTURE|&#x1f748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GUM|&#x1f749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WAX|&#x1f74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDER|&#x1f74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CALX|&#x1f74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TUTTY|&#x1f74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CAPUT MORTUUM|&#x1f74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SCEPTER OF JOVE|&#x1f74f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F75x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CADUCEUS|&#x1f750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TRIDENT|&#x1f751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STARRED TRIDENT|&#x1f752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LODESTONE|&#x1f753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SOAP|&#x1f754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR URINE|&#x1f755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HORSE DUNG|&#x1f756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ASHES|&#x1f757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POT ASHES|&#x1f758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BRICK|&#x1f759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDERED BRICK|&#x1f75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AMALGAM|&#x1f75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM|&#x1f75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM-2|&#x1f75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATION|&#x1f75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PRECIPITATE|&#x1f75f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F76x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISTILL|&#x1f760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE|&#x1f761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE-2|&#x1f762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PURIFY|&#x1f763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PUTREFACTION|&#x1f764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE|&#x1f765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-2|&#x1f766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-3|&#x1f767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-4|&#x1f768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-5|&#x1f769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALEMBIC|&#x1f76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF MARY|&#x1f76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF VAPOURS|&#x1f76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR RETORT|&#x1f76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HOUR|&#x1f76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NIGHT|&#x1f76f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F77x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DAY-NIGHT|&#x1f770;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MONTH|&#x1f771;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF DRAM|&#x1f772;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF OUNCE|&#x1f773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOT OF FORTUNE|&#x1f774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OCCULTATION|&#x1f775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNAR ECLIPSE|&#x1f776;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VESTA FORM TWO|&#x1f777;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTRAEA FORM TWO|&#x1f778;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYGIEA FORM TWO|&#x1f779;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTHENOPE FORM TWO|&#x1f77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAUMEA|&#x1f77B;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKEMAKE|&#x1f77C;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GONGGONG|&#x1f77D;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|QUAOAR|&#x1f77E;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCUS|&#x1f77F;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Geometric Shapes Extended''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F78x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CIRCLE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND TARGET|&#x1f78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY SQUARE|&#x1f78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F79x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM SQUARE|&#x1f795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE TARGET|&#x1f796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY DIAMOND|&#x1f797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM DIAMOND|&#x1f79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND TARGET|&#x1f79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY LOZENGE|&#x1f79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LOZENGE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN SALTIRE|&#x1f7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SALTIRE|&#x1f7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SALTIRE|&#x1f7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SALTIRE|&#x1f7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE LIGHT FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Dx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d4;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d5;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d6;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d7;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d8;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINE POINTED WHITE STAR|&#x1f7d9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CIRCLE WITH WHITE VERTICAL BAR|&#x1f7da;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLET IN DOUBLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7db;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW CIRCLE|&#x1f7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED SQUARE|&#x1f7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE SQUARE|&#x1f7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE SQUARE|&#x1f7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW SQUARE|&#x1f7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN SQUARE|&#x1f7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE SQUARE|&#x1f7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN SQUARE|&#x1f7eb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NOT EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7ec;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Fx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED BOTTOM RIGHT OBLIQUE HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1f7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRANSPARENT CUBE|&#x1f7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CUBE|&#x1f7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH BOTTOM HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH TOP HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BISECTING LINES|&#x1f7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHOMBUS|&#x1f7ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Arrows-C''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F80x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F81x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F82x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F83x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SQUARED 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color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F85x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT RIGHT SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP DOWN SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f859;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F86x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F87x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F88x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f887;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F89x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE HALF|&#x1f89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE THIRD|&#x1f89f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BOTTOM-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BOTTOM SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f8ad;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Bx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING UPWARDS THEN NORTH WEST|&#x1f8b0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING RIGHTWARDS THEN CURVING SOUTH WEST|&#x1f8b1;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LOWER HOOK|&#x1f8b2;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS BLACK ARROW TO BAR|&#x1f8b3;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b4;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED UPWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b5;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED RIGHTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b6;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b7;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b8;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b9;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8ba;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8bb;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Cx |style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c0;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c1;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Dx |style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW OVER LONG LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8d0;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON OVER LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d1;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d2;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d3;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d4;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d5;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW THROUGH X|&#x1f8d6;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH DOUBLE SLASH|&#x1f8d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG LEFT RIGHT ARROW WITH DEPENDENT LOBE|&#x1f8d8;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F90x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE|&#x1f902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH DOT|&#x1f906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE|&#x1f907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK|&#x1f908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK|&#x1f909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90b;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHED FINGERS|&#x1f90c;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEART|&#x1f90d;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BROWN HEART|&#x1f90e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHING HAND|&#x1f90f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F91x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZIPPER-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH THERMOMETER|&#x1f912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NERD FACE|&#x1f913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THINKING FACE|&#x1f914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH HEAD-BANDAGE|&#x1f915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROBOT FACE|&#x1f916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUGGING FACE|&#x1f917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGN OF THE HORNS|&#x1f918;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CALL ME HAND|&#x1f919;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED BACK OF HAND|&#x1f91a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDSHAKE|&#x1f91d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX AND MIDDLE FINGERS CROSSED|&#x1f91e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|I LOVE YOU HAND SIGN|&#x1f91f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F92x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COWBOY HAT|&#x1f920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOWN FACE|&#x1f921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAUSEATED FACE|&#x1f922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLING ON THE FLOOR LAUGHING|&#x1f923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROOLING FACE|&#x1f924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LYING FACE|&#x1f925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE PALM|&#x1f926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SNEEZING FACE|&#x1f927;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ONE EYEBROW RAISED|&#x1f928;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH STAR EYES|&#x1f929;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH ONE LARGE AND ONE SMALL EYE|&#x1f92a;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH FINGER COVERING CLOSED LIPS|&#x1f92b;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SERIOUS FACE WITH SYMBOLS COVERING MOUTH|&#x1f92c;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND HAND COVERING MOUTH|&#x1f92d;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH VOMITING|&#x1f92e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOCKED FACE WITH EXPLODING HEAD|&#x1f92f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F93x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT WOMAN|&#x1f930;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAST-FEEDING|&#x1f931;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALMS UP TOGETHER|&#x1f932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SELFIE|&#x1f933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCE|&#x1f934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN TUXEDO|&#x1f935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTHER CHRISTMAS|&#x1f936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRUG|&#x1f937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON DOING CARTWHEEL|&#x1f938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JUGGLING|&#x1f939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FENCER|&#x1f93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODERN PENTATHLON|&#x1f93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRESTLERS|&#x1f93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER POLO|&#x1f93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDBALL|&#x1f93e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVING MASK|&#x1f93f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F94x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WILTED FLOWER|&#x1f940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DRUM WITH DRUMSTICKS|&#x1f941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLINKING GLASSES|&#x1f942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TUMBLER GLASS|&#x1f943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOON|&#x1f944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOAL NET|&#x1f945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIFLE|&#x1f946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SECOND PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIRD PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOXING GLOVE|&#x1f94a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARTIAL ARTS UNIFORM|&#x1f94b;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CURLING STONE|&#x1f94c;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LACROSSE STICK AND BALL|&#x1f94d;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFTBALL|&#x1f94e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING DISC|&#x1f94f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F95x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CROISSANT|&#x1f950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AVOCADO|&#x1f951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUCUMBER|&#x1f952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACON|&#x1f953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POTATO|&#x1f954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARROT|&#x1f955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGUETTE BREAD|&#x1f956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN SALAD|&#x1f957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHALLOW PAN OF FOOD|&#x1f958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STUFFED FLATBREAD|&#x1f959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EGG|&#x1f95a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLASS OF MILK|&#x1f95b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEANUTS|&#x1f95c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWIFRUIT|&#x1f95d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PANCAKES|&#x1f95e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DUMPLING|&#x1f95f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F96x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FORTUNE COOKIE|&#x1f960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKEOUT BOX|&#x1f961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOPSTICKS|&#x1f962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL WITH SPOON|&#x1f963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUP WITH STRAW|&#x1f964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COCONUT|&#x1f965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROCCOLI|&#x1f966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PIE|&#x1f967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRETZEL|&#x1f968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUT OF MEAT|&#x1f969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANDWICH|&#x1f96a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANNED FOOD|&#x1f96b;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFY GREEN|&#x1f96c;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANGO|&#x1f96d;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOON CAKE|&#x1f96e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGEL|&#x1f96f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F97x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND THREE HEARTS|&#x1f970;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YAWNING FACE|&#x1f971;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH TEAR|&#x1f972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PARTY HORN AND PARTY HAT|&#x1f973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH UNEVEN EYES AND WAVY MOUTH|&#x1f974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERHEATED FACE|&#x1f975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FREEZING FACE|&#x1f976;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINJA|&#x1f977;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISGUISED FACE|&#x1f978;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE HOLDING BACK TEARS|&#x1f979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PLEADING EYES|&#x1f97a;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SARI|&#x1f97b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAB COAT|&#x1f97c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOGGLES|&#x1f97d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIKING BOOT|&#x1f97e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT SHOE|&#x1f97f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F98x |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRAB|&#x1f980;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LION FACE|&#x1f981;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCORPION|&#x1f982;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TURKEY|&#x1f983;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UNICORN FACE|&#x1f984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAGLE|&#x1f985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DUCK|&#x1f986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAT|&#x1f987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARK|&#x1f988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OWL|&#x1f989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOX FACE|&#x1f98a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTERFLY|&#x1f98b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEER|&#x1f98c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GORILLA|&#x1f98d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIZARD|&#x1f98e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHINOCEROS|&#x1f98f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F99x |style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRIMP|&#x1f990;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUID|&#x1f991;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRAFFE FACE|&#x1f992;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ZEBRA FACE|&#x1f993;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEDGEHOG|&#x1f994;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAUROPOD|&#x1f995;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|T-REX|&#x1f996;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRICKET|&#x1f997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KANGAROO|&#x1f998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LLAMA|&#x1f999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACOCK|&#x1f99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIPPOPOTAMUS|&#x1f99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARROT|&#x1f99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RACCOON|&#x1f99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOBSTER|&#x1f99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUITO|&#x1f99f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Ax |style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROBE|&#x1f9a0;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BADGER|&#x1f9a1;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SWAN|&#x1f9a2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAMMOTH|&#x1f9a3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DODO|&#x1f9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLOTH|&#x1f9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTER|&#x1f9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGUTAN|&#x1f9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SKUNK|&#x1f9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAMINGO|&#x1f9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OYSTER|&#x1f9aa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAVER|&#x1f9ab;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BISON|&#x1f9ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAL|&#x1f9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUIDE DOG|&#x1f9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROBING CANE|&#x1f9af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT RED HAIR|&#x1f9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT CURLY 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style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Cx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEESE WEDGE|&#x1f9c0;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUPCAKE|&#x1f9c1;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SALT SHAKER|&#x1f9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEVERAGE BOX|&#x1f9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GARLIC|&#x1f9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONION|&#x1f9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALAFEL|&#x1f9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAFFLE|&#x1f9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTER|&#x1f9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATE DRINK|&#x1f9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CUBE|&#x1f9ca;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLE TEA|&#x1f9cb;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLL|&#x1f9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STANDING 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style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Ex |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAIN|&#x1f9e0;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE HEART|&#x1f9e1;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BILLED CAP|&#x1f9e2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCARF|&#x1f9e3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOVES|&#x1f9e4;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COAT|&#x1f9e5;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOCKS|&#x1f9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED GIFT ENVELOPE|&#x1f9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRECRACKER|&#x1f9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JIGSAW PUZZLE PIECE|&#x1f9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEST TUBE|&#x1f9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PETRI DISH|&#x1f9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DNA DOUBLE HELIX|&#x1f9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPASS|&#x1f9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ABACUS|&#x1f9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE EXTINGUISHER|&#x1f9ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOLBOX|&#x1f9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRICK|&#x1f9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGNET|&#x1f9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUGGAGE|&#x1f9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTION BOTTLE|&#x1f9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOOL OF THREAD|&#x1f9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALL OF YARN|&#x1f9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY PIN|&#x1f9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEDDY BEAR|&#x1f9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROOM|&#x1f9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASKET|&#x1f9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLL OF PAPER|&#x1f9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR OF SOAP|&#x1f9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPONGE|&#x1f9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECEIPT|&#x1f9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAZAR AMULET|&#x1f9ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Chess Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING|&#x1fa00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN|&#x1fa01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK|&#x1fa02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP|&#x1fa03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT|&#x1fa04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN|&#x1fa05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREE|&#x1fa06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa2f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA5x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa50;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa51;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa52;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa53;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa54;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa55;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa56;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa57;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa58;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa59;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5a;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5b;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5d;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5e;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED GENERAL|&#x1fa60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED MANDARIN|&#x1fa61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED ELEPHANT|&#x1fa62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED HORSE|&#x1fa63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CHARIOT|&#x1fa64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CANNON|&#x1fa65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED SOLDIER|&#x1fa66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK GENERAL|&#x1fa67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK MANDARIN|&#x1fa68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK ELEPHANT|&#x1fa69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK HORSE|&#x1fa6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CHARIOT|&#x1fa6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CANNON|&#x1fa6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK SOLDIER|&#x1fa6d;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA7x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLET SHOES|&#x1fa70;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE-PIECE SWIMSUIT|&#x1fa71;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFS|&#x1fa72;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTS|&#x1fa73;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THONG SANDAL|&#x1fa74;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT BLUE HEART|&#x1fa75;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREY HEART|&#x1fa76;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINK HEART|&#x1fa77;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DROP OF BLOOD|&#x1fa78;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADHESIVE BANDAGE|&#x1fa79;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STETHOSCOPE|&#x1fa7a;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|X-RAY|&#x1fa7b;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRUTCH|&#x1fa7c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOOD BAG|&#x1fa7d;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INHALER|&#x1fa7e;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX OF PILLS|&#x1fa7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA8x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YO-YO|&#x1fa80;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KITE|&#x1fa81;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARACHUTE|&#x1fa82;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOMERANG|&#x1fa83;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGIC WAND|&#x1fa84;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINATA|&#x1fa85;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NESTING DOLLS|&#x1fa86;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARACAS|&#x1fa87;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUTE|&#x1fa88;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HARP|&#x1fa89;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROMBONE|&#x1fa8a;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|METEOR|&#x1fa8b;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ERASER|&#x1fa8c;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NET WITH HANDLE|&#x1fa8d;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TREASURE CHEST|&#x1fa8e;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOVEL|&#x1fa8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA9x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGED PLANET|&#x1fa90;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAIR|&#x1fa91;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAZOR|&#x1fa92;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AXE|&#x1fa93;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIYA LAMP|&#x1fa94;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BANJO|&#x1fa95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY HELMET|&#x1fa96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ACCORDION|&#x1fa97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG DRUM|&#x1fa98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COIN|&#x1fa99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARPENTRY SAW|&#x1fa9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREWDRIVER|&#x1fa9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LADDER|&#x1fa9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOOK|&#x1fa9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR|&#x1fa9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINDOW|&#x1fa9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLUNGER|&#x1faa0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING NEEDLE|&#x1faa1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNOT|&#x1faa2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUCKET|&#x1faa3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUSE TRAP|&#x1faa4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHBRUSH|&#x1faa5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADSTONE|&#x1faa6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACARD|&#x1faa7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCK|&#x1faa8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR BALL|&#x1faa9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|IDENTIFICATION CARD|&#x1faaa;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BATTERY|&#x1faab;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMSA|&#x1faac;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDING HAND FAN|&#x1faad;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIR PICK|&#x1faae;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHANDA|&#x1faaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FABx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLY|&#x1fab0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORM|&#x1fab1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEETLE|&#x1fab2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKROACH|&#x1fab3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POTTED PLANT|&#x1fab4;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOOD|&#x1fab5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FEATHER|&#x1fab6;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTUS|&#x1fab7;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CORAL|&#x1fab8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NEST|&#x1fab9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEST WITH 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FACE|&#x1faed;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PALM ON CHEEK|&#x1faee;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FIGHT CLOUD|&#x1faef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAFx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB CROSSED|&#x1faf0;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf1;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf2;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM DOWN HAND|&#x1faf3;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM UP HAND|&#x1faf4;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDEX POINTING AT THE VIEWER|&#x1faf5;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART HANDS|&#x1faf6;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf7;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1faf9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1fafa;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE FINGER SALUTE|&#x1fafb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND SNAPPING FINGERS|&#x1fafc;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB FORMING CIRCLE|&#x1fafd;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG KICKING|&#x1fafe;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMP|&#x1faff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols for Legacy Computing''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1|&#x1fb00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2|&#x1fb01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12|&#x1fb02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3|&#x1fb03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13|&#x1fb04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23|&#x1fb05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-123|&#x1fb06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-4|&#x1fb07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-14|&#x1fb08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-24|&#x1fb09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK 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QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF BLOCK AND LOWER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND LOWER HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb92;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND RIGHT HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD FILL|&#x1fb95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECKER BOARD FILL|&#x1fb96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY HORIZONTAL FILL|&#x1fb97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT FILL|&#x1fb98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT FILL|&#x1fb99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fba0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT AND MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT AND MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT HORIZONTAL WITH VERTICAL STROKE|&#x1fbaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBBx |{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROWHEAD-SHAPED POINTER|&#x1fbb0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECK MARK|&#x1fbb1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH TIP LEFTWARDS|&#x1fbb4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbb9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOIDED GREEK CROSS|&#x1fbbb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT OPEN SQUARED DOT|&#x1fbbc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL CROSS|&#x1fbbd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbbe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbbf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBCx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEAVY SALTIRE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1fbc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED QUESTION MARK|&#x1fbc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE|&#x1fbc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH ARMS RAISED|&#x1fbc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING LEFT|&#x1fbc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING RIGHT|&#x1fbc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH DRESS|&#x1fbc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbca;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CROSS MARK|&#x1fbcb;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED SMALL LEFT SQUARE BRACKET|&#x1fbcc;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SMALL UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbcd;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TWO THIRDS BLOCK|&#x1fbce;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ONE THIRD BLOCK|&#x1fbcf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fbd8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbda;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fbdc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbdd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbde;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE LEFT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP RIGHT JUSTIFIED LOWER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM LEFT JUSTIFIED UPPER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM RIGHT JUSTIFIED UPPER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP LEFT JUSTIFIED LOWER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBFx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ZERO|&#x1fbf0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ONE|&#x1fbf1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT TWO|&#x1fbf2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT THREE|&#x1fbf3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FOUR|&#x1fbf4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FIVE|&#x1fbf5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SIX|&#x1fbf6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1fbf7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1fbf8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT NINE|&#x1fbf9;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALARM BELL SYMBOL|&#x1fbfa;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Technical Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- 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Henrik Nilsson 3395618 alway > always 4671795 wikitext text/x-wiki ==AM Receivers== The most common receivers in use today are the super heterodyne type. They consist of: ::*Antenna ::*RF amplifier ::*Local Oscillator and Mixer ::*IF Section ::*Detector and Amplifier The need for these subsystems can be seen when one considers the much simpler and inadequate TRF or tuned radio frequency amplifier. ===TRF Amplifier=== It is possible to design an RF amplifier to accept only a narrow range of frequencies, such as one radio station on the AM band. ::::[[Image:TRF_amplifier.gif]] By adjusting the center frequency of the tuned circuit, all other input signals can be excluded. ::::[[Image:Channel_selection.gif]] The AM band ranges from about 500&nbsp;kHz to 1600&nbsp;kHz. Each station requires 10&nbsp;kHz of this spectrum, although the baseband signal is only 5&nbsp;kHz. Recall that for a tuned circuit: <math>Q = \frac{{f_c }}{B}</math>. The center or resonant frequency in an RLC network is most often adjusted by varying the capacitor value. However, the Q remains approximately constant as the center frequency is adjusted. This suggests that as the bandwidth varies as the circuit is tuned. ::For example, the Q required at the lower end of the AM band to select only one radio station would be approximately: ::::<math>Q = \frac{{f_c }}{B} = \frac{{500\;kHz}}{{10\;kHz}} = 50</math> ::As the tuned circuit is adjusted to the higher end of the AM band, the resulting bandwidth is: ::::<math>B = \frac{{f_c }}{Q} = \frac{{1600\;kHz}}{{50}} = 30\;kHz</math> A bandwidth this high could conceivably pass three adjacent stations, thus making meaningful reception impossible. To prevent this, the incoming RF signal is heterodyned to a fixed IF or intermediate frequency and passed through a constant bandwidth circuit. ===Superheterodyne Receiver=== ::::[[Image:Heterodyne.gif]] The RF amplifier boosts the RF signal into the mixer. It has broad tuning and amplifies not just one RF station, but many of them simultaneously. It also amplifies any input noise and even contributes some of its own. The other mixer input is a high frequency sine wave created by a local oscillator. In AM receivers, it is always 455&nbsp;kHz above the desired station carrier frequency. An ideal mixer will combine the incoming carrier with the local oscillator to create sum and difference frequencies. . A real mixer combines two signals and creates a host of new frequencies: ::• A dc level ::• The original two frequencies ::• The sum and difference of the two input frequencies ::• Harmonics of the two input frequencies ::• Sums and differences of all of the harmonics Since the RF amplifier passes several radio stations at once, the mixer output can be very complex. However, the only signal of real interest is the difference between the desired station carrier frequency and the local oscillator frequency. This difference frequency, also called the IF (intermediate frequency) will always be 455&nbsp;kHz. By passing this through a 10&nbsp;kHz BPF (band pass filter) centered at 455&nbsp;kHz, the bulk of the unwanted signals can be eliminated. ====Local Oscillator Frequency==== Since the mixer generates sum and difference frequencies, it is possible to generate the 455&nbsp;kHz IF signal if the local oscillator is either above or below the IF. The inevitable question is which is preferable. ::'''Case I The local Oscillator is above the IF.''' This would require that the oscillator tune from (500 + 455) kHz to (1600 + 455) kHz or approximately 1 to 2 MHz. It is normally the capacitor in a tuned RLC circuit, which is varied to adjust the center frequency while the inductor is left fixed. ::Since <math>f_c = \frac{1}{{2\pi \sqrt {LC} }}</math> ::solving for ''C'' we obtain <math>C = \frac{1}{{L\left( {2\pi f_c } \right)^2 }}</math> ::When the tuning frequency is a maximum, the tuning capacitor is a minimum and vice versa. Since we know the range of frequencies to be created, we can deduce the range of capacitance required. ::::<math>\frac{{C_{\max } }}{{C_{\min } }} = \frac{{L\left( {2\pi f_{\max } } \right)^2 }}{{L\left( {2\pi f_{\min } } \right)^2 }} = \left( {\frac{{2\;MHz}}{{1\;MHz}}} \right)^2 = 4</math> Making a capacitor with a 4:1 value change is well within the realm of possibility. ::'''Case II The local Oscillator is below the IF'''. This would require that the oscillator tune from (500 - 455) kHz to (1600 - 455) kHz or approximately 45 kHz to 1145 kHz, in which case: ::::<math>\frac{{C_{\max } }}{{C_{\min } }} = \left( {\frac{{1145\;kHz}}{{45\;kHz}}} \right)^2 \approx 648</math> It is not practical to make a tunable capacitor with this type of range. Therefore the local oscillator in a standard AM receiver is above the radio band. ====Image Frequency==== Just as there are two oscillator frequencies, which can create the same IF, two different station frequencies can create the IF. The undesired station frequency is known as the image frequency. ;;;;[[Image:Image_frequency.gif]] If any circuit in the radio front end exhibits non-linearities, there is a possibility that other combinations may create the intermediate frequency. Once the image frequency is in the mixer, there is no way to remove it since it is now heterodyned into the same IF band as the desired station. ===AM Detection=== There are two basic types of AM detection, coherent and non-coherent. Of these two, the non-coherent is the simpler method. ::*Non-coherent detection does not rely on regenerating the carrier signal. The information or modulation envelope can be removed or detected by a diode followed by an audio filter. ::*Coherent detection relies on regenerating the carrier and mixing it with the AM signal. This creates sum and difference frequencies. The difference frequency corresponds to the original modulation signal. Both of these detection techniques have certain drawbacks. Consequently, most radio receivers use a combination of both. ====Envelope Detector==== ::::[[Image:Envelope_detector.gif]] An envelope detector is simply a half wave rectifier followed by a low pass filter. In the case of commercial AM radio receivers, the detector is placed after the IF section. The carrier at this point is 455&nbsp;kHz while the maximum envelope frequency is only 5&nbsp;kHz. Since the ripple component is nearly 100 times the frequency of the highest baseband signal and does not pass through any subsequent audio amplifiers. ::An AM signal where the carrier frequency is only 10 times the envelope frequency would have considerable ripple: ::::[[Image:Exagerated_am_ripple.gif|300px]] ====Synchronous Detector==== In a synchronous or coherent detector, the incoming AM signal is mixed with the original carrier frequency. ::::[[Image:Synchronous_detector.gif]] If you think this looks suspiciously like a mixer, you are absolutely right! A synchronous detector is one where the difference frequency between the two inputs is zero Hz. Of in other words, the two input frequencies are the same. Let's check the math. Recall that the AM input is mathematically defined by: ::::<math>e_{am} = \underbrace {\sin \omega _c t}_{{\rm{Carrier}}} + \underbrace {\frac{m}{2}\sin \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t}_{{\rm{Lower}}\;{\rm{Sideband}}} - \underbrace {\frac{m}{2}\sin \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t}_{{\rm{Upper}}\;{\rm{Sideband}}}</math> ::At the multiplier output, we obtain: ::::<math>{\rm{mixer}}\;{\rm{out = }}e_{am} \times \sin \omega _c t = \underbrace { - \frac{m}{2}\sin \omega _m t}_{{\rm{Original}}\;{\rm{Modulation}}\;{\rm{Signal}}}\underbrace { - \frac{1}{2}\sin 2\omega _c t - \frac{m}{4}\sin \left( {2\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t + \frac{m}{4}\sin \left( {2\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t}_{{\rm{AM}}\;{\rm{signal}}\;{\rm{centered}}\;{\rm{at}}\;{\rm{2}}\;{\rm{times}}\;{\rm{the}}\;{\rm{carrier}}\;{\rm{frequency}}}</math> ::The high frequency component can be filtered off leaving only the original modulation signal. ::This technique has one serious drawback. The problem is how to create the exact carrier frequency. If the frequency is not exact, the entire baseband signal will be shifted by the difference. A shift of only 50 Hz will make the human voice unrecognizable. It is possible to use a PLL (phase locked loop), but making one tunable for the entire AM band is not trivial. As a result, most radio receivers use an oscillator to create a fixed intermediate frequency. This is then followed by an envelope detector or a fixed frequency PLL. ====Squaring Detector==== The squaring detector is also a synchronous or coherent detector. It avoids the problem of having to recreate the carrier by simply squaring the input signal. It essentially uses the AM signal itself as a sort of wideband carrier. ::::[[Image:Squaring_detector.gif]] ::The output of the multiplier is the square of the input AM signal: ::::<math>\left( {e_{am} } \right)^2 = \left( {\sin \omega _c t + \frac{m}{2}\sin \left( {\omega _c - \omega _m } \right)t - \frac{m}{2}\sin \left( {\omega _c + \omega _m } \right)t} \right)^2 </math> Since the input is being multiplied by the <math>{\sin \omega _c t}</math> component, one of the resulting difference terms is the original modulation signal. The principle difficulty with this approach is trying to create a linear, high frequency multiplier. {{BookCat}} skw9a9iwfts7py0smriotyjko870ibi 0 222810 4671797 3687826 2026-09-22T14:10:51Z R. Henrik Nilsson 3395618 alway > always 4671797 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Introduction== For coding a driver you first need to understand Exec signals, messages, iorequests and lists. For a driver (device normally) there are only a few "functions" DoIO, SendIO etc. The details are in the IO request fields. Take a look at the VUSBHCI driver. There's no hw stuff, only high level code for Poseidon driver and libusb. VUSBHCI is also much more readable as everything is in plain sight in structures. You will recognize usb spec things in it and how things are passed around. Poseidon is the main USB code, it doesn't know by itself anything about the hardware. Driver code is attached to it. Poseidon takes care of all the preferences, classes and drivers. Drivers only try to satisfy higher level requests from Poseidon or it's classes more specifically. Every driver has to have a roothub as per usb spec. Roothub represents your hw. Roothub has ports, these are the physical ports that the host controller has (doesn't have to be... You could also implement a virtual port and have virtual devices attach) hub.class calls your roothub and your driver has to respond to roothub requests. It's all in the usb specs. Poseidon doesn't yet know anything about usb 3.x requests. Driver also responds to requests to the physical device and conveys messages between the host and device. EHCI host controller has to have it's companion controller on corresponding PCI slot otherwise it doesn't know which port is it's companion port and can't release it's port (it needs to know beforehand if that port has a companion port...). On poseidon there's just one PCIUSB driver and all those hosts are on a single driver and some quirks are used for the port forwarding but they doesn't need to be on the same driver. The chipset is able to detect when a port is released and the companion host controller will automaticly take over the port. The current AROS XHCI driver code can find the USB3 and USB2 ports from the host controller and create a port list for them as well corresponding roothubs. On some motherboards the XHCI might only have USB3 ports on it's controller and a real EHCI chip and the usb data lines are directed via a digital MUX. The function BOOL PCIXHCI_FindPorts(struct PCIXHCIUnit *unit) from pcixhci_controller.c should be able to detect the usb3.0 and usb2.0 ports from the XHCI controller. * suggested to use his sata driver's slab memory allocator. Memory allocations are bad in XHCI. That is one issue. * coded the init routine such that it uses PCI INT (event handler 0 only) With PCI-X other event rings can also be used. * removal of huge switch statement and adding all the usb3 commands (not all of them are needed at start) and coding the hubss.class to use them. * the hardware ring buffers need to be implemented correctly. The driver needs to present two units per controller if the XHCI has both usb3 and usb2 ports. That's because we need to give Poseidon the correct roothub (hub or hubss) and one driver unit can only present one roothub per unit. There's already code present in the VUSBHCI to sort of implement this but there's no code for the usb3 part. Higher level usb3 code can be coded with the VUSBHCI driver even before we have a native XHCI driver via the said hosted driver. One benefit would be that we should get ISOC transfers as the XHCI takes care of lining them up and there's no need to make an scheduler for the different packets. <pre> CPU ---------------- Device Side Controller ---------------- Peripherals Controller Bus Bridge Peripheral Bus PCI, etc USB, etc </pre> ==Hosted== These are the steps needed to get hosted usb "working" # build the hosted version of AROS (It now needs to be build with --enable_usb30_code) # cd into the build directory # issue make kernel-usb (if it doesn't build everything then just make the rest) # issue make kernel-usb-vusbhci # issue make kernel-fs-fat (if intending to use fat usb sticks) # issue make kernel-partition (otherwise AROS will crash as it tries to use the partition.library, bug? it should know it hasn't opened it) # issue make kernel-usb-classes-hubss Some Linux distribution do not allow the user to access usb devices, so a rule may need to be added in /etc/udev/rules.d <pre> # Allow user to access all usb devices SUBSYSTEMS=="usb", \ MODE:="0666" </pre> And saved it as "49-all-usb-devices.rules" * Start hosted AROS and go to prefs and open Trident. * Go to "Controllers" and press "New" and select "vusbhci.device" as unit number 0. press "Online" and press "Save" * Go again to "Controllers" and press "New" and select "vusbhci.device", as unit number 1. press "Online" and press "Save" Unit 0 is now USB2 roothub and unit 1 is USB3 roothub. (hardcoded, the order isn't significant) Trident needs to be opened everytime you boot into the hosted version of AROS. There's no usbrombootstrap for the hosted version so Trident is used to setup the USB stack. VUSBHCI.device depends on libusb so it will need the includes for it on Linux side (libusb-dev or something...) VUSBHCI may output a lot of debug messages at the moment. Those go of course to the console if started from it. VUSBHCI just means (V)irtual (USB) (H)ost (C)ontroller (I)nterface There's only one virtual port per virtual host controller (usb2/usb3 (usb3 not implemented yet)). AROS will see the usb device when Trident is started and the device plugged in after. AROS can't take a device already plugged in as the driver uses libusb's plug in event. Linux has already enumerated and reset the device so a bit of hackery is needed on AROS side. VUSHCI driver will not reset the device nor issue it a new address. Otherwise it would confuse Linux. AROS will then own the device and use it as it will. To start coding for the USB3 (vusbhci.device now doesn't build without it) then AROS build needs to be configured with the "--enable-usb30-code" switch. This will alter the Poseidon USB stack quite a bit to be USB3 aware. There's a lot of work to do to make sure it's solid. ==Classes== ===How to create new POSEIDON classes for new hardware=== class sources are kept in rom/usb/classes in their own drawers (folders) <pre> rom/usb/classes/rndis/rndis.h rom/usb/classes/mmakefile.src rom/usb/classes/rndis/LEGAL rom/usb/classes/rndis/common.h rom/usb/classes/rndis/debug.c rom/usb/classes/rndis/debug.h rom/usb/classes/rndis/dev.c rom/usb/classes/rndis/dev.h rom/usb/classes/rndis/if_urndis.c rom/usb/classes/rndis/if_urndisreg.h rom/usb/classes/rndis/mmakefile.src rom/usb/classes/rndis/rndis.class.c rom/usb/classes/rndis/rndis.class.h rom/usb/classes/rndis/rndis.conf </pre> ====rndis.h==== <pre> /* * $Id$ */ #ifndef RNDIS_H #define RNDIS_H #include <intuition/intuition.h> #include <intuition/intuitionbase.h> #include <libraries/mui.h> #include <libraries/gadtools.h> #include <devices/sana2.h> #include <devices/sana2specialstats.h> #include <exec/devices.h> #include <stdint.h> #if defined(__GNUC__) # pragma pack(2) #endif #define DDF_CONFIGURED (1<<2) /* station address is configured */ #define DDF_ONLINE (1<<3) /* device is online */ #define DDF_OFFLINE (1<<4) /* device was put offline */ #define DROPPED (1<<0) /* Did the packet get dropped? */ #define PACKETFILTER (1<<1) /* Use the packet filter? */ /* Ethernet address bytesize */ #define ETHER_ADDR_SIZE 6 #define ETHER_MIN_LEN 60 /* smallest amount that nic will accept */ #define ETHER_MAX_LEN 1536 /* largest legal amount for Ethernet */ /* Ethernet packet data sizes (maximum) */ #define ETHERPKT_SIZE 1500 #define RAWPKT_SIZE 1514 #define ID_ABOUT 0x55555555 #define ID_STORE_CONFIG 0xaaaaaaaa #define ID_DEF_CONFIG 0xaaaaaaab struct ClsDevCfg { ULONG cdc_ChunkID; ULONG cdc_Length; ULONG cdc_DefaultUnit; UBYTE cdc_MACAddress[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; }; #if defined(__GNUC__) # pragma pack() #endif /* Structure of an ethernet packet - internal */ struct EtherPacketHeader { UBYTE eph_Dest[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; /* 0 destination address */ UBYTE eph_Src[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; /* 6 originator address */ UWORD eph_Type; /* 12 packet type */ }; /* Buffer management node - private */ struct BufMan { struct Node bm_Node; APTR bm_DMACopyFromBuf32; APTR bm_CopyFromBuf; APTR bm_DMACopyToBuf32; APTR bm_CopyToBuf; APTR bm_PacketFilter; struct List bm_RXQueue; /* read requests */ }; /* Multicast address range record - private */ struct MulticastAddressRange { struct Node mar_Node; /* 0 list node */ ULONG mar_UseCount; /* 8 number of times used */ UBYTE mar_LowerAddr[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; /* 12 multicast address lower bound */ UBYTE mar_UpperAddr[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; /* 18 multicast address upper bound */ }; struct PacketTypeStats { struct Node pts_Node; ULONG pts_PacketType; struct Sana2PacketTypeStats pts_Stats; }; struct NepEthDevBase { struct Library np_Library; /* standard */ UWORD np_Flags; /* various flags */ BPTR np_SegList; /* device seglist */ struct NepEthBase *np_ClsBase; /* pointer to class base */ struct Library *np_UtilityBase; /* cached utilitybase */ }; struct NepClassEth { struct Unit ncp_Unit; /* Unit structure */ ULONG ncp_UnitNo; /* Unit number */ ULONG ncp_OpenFlags; /* Flags used to open the device */ struct NepEthBase *ncp_ClsBase; /* Up linkage */ struct NepEthDevBase *ncp_DevBase; /* Device base */ struct Library *ncp_Base; /* Poseidon base */ struct PsdDevice *ncp_Device; /* Up linkage */ struct PsdConfig *ncp_Config; /* Up linkage */ struct PsdInterface *ncp_Interface; /* Up linkage */ struct Task *ncp_ReadySigTask; /* Task to send ready signal to */ LONG ncp_ReadySignal; /* Signal to send when ready */ struct Task *ncp_Task; /* Subtask */ struct MsgPort *ncp_TaskMsgPort; /* Message Port of Subtask */ struct PsdPipe *ncp_EP0Pipe; /* Endpoint 0 pipe */ struct PsdEndpoint *ncp_EPOut; /* Endpoint 1 */ struct PsdPipe *ncp_EPOutPipe[2]; /* Endpoint 1 pipes */ struct PsdEndpoint *ncp_EPIn; /* Endpoint 2 */ struct PsdPipe *ncp_EPInPipe; /* Endpoint 2 pipe */ struct MsgPort *ncp_DevMsgPort; /* Message Port for IOParReq */ UWORD ncp_UnitProdID; /* ProductID of unit */ UWORD ncp_UnitVendorID; /* VendorID of unit */ //BOOL ncp_DenyRequests; /* Do not accept further IO requests */ struct List ncp_BufManList; /* Buffer Managers */ struct List ncp_EventList; /* List for DoEvent */ struct List ncp_TrackList; /* List of trackables */ struct List ncp_Multicasts; /* List of multicast addresses */ UBYTE ncp_MacAddress[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; /* Current Mac Address */ UBYTE ncp_ROMAddress[ETHER_ADDR_SIZE]; /* ROM Mac Address */ UBYTE ncp_MulticastArray[8]; /* array for the multicast hashes */ ULONG ncp_StateFlags; /* State of the unit */ ULONG ncp_Retries; /* tx collision count */ ULONG ncp_BadMulticasts; /* bad multicast count */ UBYTE *ncp_ReadBuffer[2]; /* Packet Double Buffered Read Buffer */ UBYTE *ncp_WriteBuffer[2]; /* Packet Write Buffer */ UWORD ncp_ReadBufNum; /* Next Read Buffer to use */ UWORD ncp_WriteBufNum; /* Next Write Buffer to use */ struct Sana2DeviceStats ncp_DeviceStats; /* SANA Stats */ struct Sana2PacketTypeStats *ncp_TypeStats2048; /* IP protocol stats ptr, or NULL */ struct Sana2PacketTypeStats *ncp_TypeStats2054; /* ARP protocol stats ptr, or NULL */ UBYTE *ncp_ReadPending; /* read IORequest pending */ struct IOSana2Req *ncp_WritePending[2]; /* write IORequest pending */ struct List ncp_OrphanQueue; /* List of orphan read requests */ struct List ncp_WriteQueue; /* List of write requests */ UBYTE ncp_DevIDString[128]; /* Device ID String */ BOOL ncp_UsingDefaultCfg; struct ClsDevCfg *ncp_CDC; uint32_t sc_filter; /* rndis stuff */ uint32_t sc_lim_pktsz; struct Library *ncp_MUIBase; /* MUI master base */ struct Library *ncp_PsdBase; /* Poseidon base */ struct Library *ncp_IntBase; /* Intuition base */ }; struct NepEthBase { struct Library nh_Library; /* standard */ UWORD nh_Flags; /* various flags */ struct Library *nh_UtilityBase; /* utility base */ struct NepEthDevBase *nh_DevBase; /* base of device created */ struct List nh_Units; /* List of units available */ struct NepClassEth nh_DummyNCP; /* Dummy ncp for default config */ }; #endif /* RNDIS_H */ </pre> ====common.h==== <pre> #include LC_LIBDEFS_FILE #include <aros/libcall.h> #include <aros/asmcall.h> #include <aros/symbolsets.h> #include <exec/types.h> #include <exec/lists.h> #include <exec/alerts.h> #include <exec/memory.h> #include <exec/libraries.h> #include <exec/interrupts.h> #include <exec/semaphores.h> #include <exec/execbase.h> #include <exec/devices.h> #include <exec/io.h> #include <exec/ports.h> #include <exec/errors.h> #include <exec/resident.h> #include <exec/initializers.h> #include <devices/timer.h> #include <devices/input.h> #include <utility/utility.h> #include <dos/dos.h> #include <intuition/intuition.h> #include <devices/usb.h> #include <devices/usbhardware.h> #include <libraries/usbclass.h> #include <string.h> #include <stddef.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <proto/dos.h> #include <proto/commodities.h> #include <proto/intuition.h> #include <proto/poseidon.h> #include <proto/utility.h> #include <proto/keymap.h> #include <proto/layers.h> #include <proto/input.h> #include <proto/expansion.h> #include <proto/exec.h> #include <proto/muimaster.h> #define NewList NEWLIST #include <stdarg.h> #define min(x,y) (((x) < (y)) ? (x) : (y)) #define max(x,y) (((x) > (y)) ? (x) : (y)) </pre> ====rndis.class.c==== <pre> /* * $Id$ */ #include "debug.h" #include "rndis.class.h" /* /// "Lib Stuff" */ static const STRPTR libname = MOD_NAME_STRING; static const APTR DevFuncTable[] = { &AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(devOpen, dev), &AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(devClose, dev), &AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(devExpunge, dev), &AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(devReserved, dev), &AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(devBeginIO, dev), &AROS_SLIB_ENTRY(devAbortIO, dev), (APTR) -1, }; static int libInit(LIBBASETYPEPTR nh) { struct NepClassEth *ncp; struct NepEthBase *ret = NULL; KPRINTF(10, ("libInit nh: 0x%08lx SysBase: 0x%08lx\n", nh, SysBase)); nh->nh_UtilityBase = OpenLibrary("utility.library", 39); #define UtilityBase nh->nh_UtilityBase if(UtilityBase) { NewList(&nh->nh_Units); if((nh->nh_DevBase = (struct NepEthDevBase *) MakeLibrary((APTR) DevFuncTable, NULL, (APTR) devInit, sizeof(struct NepEthDevBase), NULL))) { ncp = &nh->nh_DummyNCP; ncp->ncp_ClsBase = nh; ncp->ncp_Interface = NULL; ncp->ncp_CDC = AllocVec(sizeof(struct ClsDevCfg), MEMF_PUBLIC|MEMF_CLEAR); if(ncp->ncp_CDC) { nh->nh_DevBase->np_ClsBase = nh; Forbid(); AddDevice((struct Device *) nh->nh_DevBase); nh->nh_DevBase->np_Library.lib_OpenCnt++; Permit(); ret = nh; } } else { KPRINTF(20, ("failed to create usbrndis.device\n")); } if(!ret) { CloseLibrary(UtilityBase); } } else { KPRINTF(20, ("libInit: OpenLibrary(\"utility.library\", 39) failed!\n")); } KPRINTF(10, ("libInit: Ok\n")); return(ret ? TRUE : FALSE); } static int libExpunge(LIBBASETYPEPTR nh) { struct NepClassEth *ncp; KPRINTF(10, ("libExpunge nh: 0x%08lx\n", nh)); if(nh->nh_DevBase->np_Library.lib_OpenCnt == 1) { KPRINTF(1, ("libExpunge: closelibrary utilitybase 0x%08lx\n", UtilityBase)); CloseLibrary((struct Library *) UtilityBase); ncp = (struct NepClassEth *) nh->nh_Units.lh_Head; while(ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node.ln_Succ) { Remove((struct Node *) ncp); FreeVec(ncp->ncp_CDC); FreeVec(ncp); ncp = (struct NepClassEth *) nh->nh_Units.lh_Head; } nh->nh_DevBase->np_Library.lib_OpenCnt--; RemDevice((struct Device *) nh->nh_DevBase); KPRINTF(5, ("libExpunge: Unloading done! rndis.class expunged!\n\n")); } else { KPRINTF(5, ("libExpunge: Could not expunge, LIBF_DELEXP set!\n")); return(FALSE); } return(TRUE); } ADD2INITLIB(libInit, 0) ADD2EXPUNGELIB(libExpunge, 0) /* \\\ */ /* * *********************************************************************** * * Library functions * * *********************************************************************** */ struct AutoBindData { UWORD abd_VendID; UWORD abd_ProdID; }; struct AutoBindData ClassBinds[] = { //{ 0x12d1, 0x1039 }, // Huawei u8800 { 0, 0 } }; /* /// "usbAttemptDeviceBinding()" */ struct NepClassEth * usbAttemptDeviceBinding(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct PsdDevice *pd) { struct Library *ps; struct AutoBindData *abd = ClassBinds; struct PsdInterface *pif; IPTR prodid; IPTR vendid; IPTR ifclass; IPTR subclass; IPTR proto; KPRINTF(1, ("nepEthAttemptDeviceBinding(%08lx)\n", pd)); if((ps = OpenLibrary("poseidon.library", 4))) { psdGetAttrs(PGA_DEVICE, pd, DA_VendorID, &vendid, DA_ProductID, &prodid, TAG_END); if( (pif = psdFindInterface(pd, NULL,TAG_END)) ){ psdGetAttrs(PGA_INTERFACE, pif, IFA_Class, &ifclass, IFA_SubClass, &subclass, IFA_Protocol, &proto, TAG_DONE); if (ifclass == 224 && // WIRELESS subclass == 1 && // RF proto == 3) // RNDIS { CloseLibrary(ps); return(usbForceDeviceBinding(nh, pd)); } } while(abd->abd_VendID) { if((vendid == abd->abd_VendID) && (prodid == abd->abd_ProdID)) { CloseLibrary(ps); return(usbForceDeviceBinding(nh, pd)); } abd++; } } return(NULL); } /* \\\ */ /* /// "usbForceDeviceBinding()" */ struct NepClassEth * usbForceDeviceBinding(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct PsdDevice *pd) { struct Library *ps; struct NepClassEth *ncp; struct NepClassEth *tmpncp; struct ClsDevCfg *cdc; STRPTR devname; STRPTR devidstr; IPTR prodid; IPTR vendid; ULONG unitno; BOOL unitfound; UBYTE buf[64]; KPRINTF(1, ("nepEthForceDeviceBinding(%08lx)\n", pd)); if((ps = OpenLibrary("poseidon.library", 4))) { psdGetAttrs(PGA_DEVICE, pd, DA_ProductID, &prodid, DA_VendorID, &vendid, DA_ProductName, &devname, DA_IDString, &devidstr, TAG_END); Forbid(); unitfound = FALSE; unitno = (ULONG) -1; ncp = (struct NepClassEth *) nh->nh_Units.lh_Head; while(ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node.ln_Succ) { if(!strcmp(ncp->ncp_DevIDString, devidstr)) { unitno = ncp->ncp_UnitNo; unitfound = TRUE; break; } ncp = (struct NepClassEth *) ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node.ln_Succ; } if(!unitfound) { /* as units are freed in the expunge-vector, the memory is outside the scope of the poseidon library */ if(!(ncp = AllocVec(sizeof(struct NepClassEth), MEMF_PUBLIC|MEMF_CLEAR))) { Permit(); CloseLibrary(ps); return(NULL); } ncp->ncp_CDC = cdc = AllocVec(sizeof(struct ClsDevCfg), MEMF_PUBLIC|MEMF_CLEAR); if(!cdc) { Permit(); FreeVec(ncp); CloseLibrary(ps); return(NULL); } /* IORequests may be queued even if the task is gone. */ ncp->ncp_UnitNo = (ULONG) -1; NewList(&ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_MsgList); NewList(&ncp->ncp_OrphanQueue); NewList(&ncp->ncp_WriteQueue); NewList(&ncp->ncp_BufManList); NewList(&ncp->ncp_EventList); NewList(&ncp->ncp_TrackList); NewList(&ncp->ncp_Multicasts); strncpy(ncp->ncp_DevIDString, devidstr, 127); AddTail(&nh->nh_Units, &ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node); } ncp->ncp_ClsBase = nh; ncp->ncp_Device = pd; ncp->ncp_UnitProdID = prodid; ncp->ncp_UnitVendorID = vendid; //nLoadBindingConfig(ncp); /* Find next free unit number */ if(unitno == (ULONG) -1) { unitno = ncp->ncp_CDC->cdc_DefaultUnit; tmpncp = (struct NepClassEth *) nh->nh_Units.lh_Head; while(tmpncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node.ln_Succ) { if(tmpncp->ncp_UnitNo == unitno) { unitno++; tmpncp = (struct NepClassEth *) nh->nh_Units.lh_Head; } else { tmpncp = (struct NepClassEth *) tmpncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node.ln_Succ; } } } ncp->ncp_UnitNo = unitno; Permit(); psdSafeRawDoFmt(buf, 64, "rndis.class<%08lx>", ncp); ncp->ncp_ReadySignal = SIGB_SINGLE; ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask = FindTask(NULL); SetSignal(0, SIGF_SINGLE); if(psdSpawnSubTask(buf, nEthTask, ncp)) { Wait(1L<<ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); if(ncp->ncp_Task) { ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask = NULL; //FreeSignal(ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_OK, (STRPTR) libname, "Mr. Data linked '%s' to %s unit %ld!", devname, nh->nh_DevBase->np_Library.lib_Node.ln_Name, ncp->ncp_UnitNo); CloseLibrary(ps); return(ncp); } } ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask = NULL; //FreeSignal(ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); /* Get rid of unit structure */ /*Forbid(); Remove((struct Node *) ncp); FreeVec(ncp->ncp_CDC); FreeVec(ncp); Permit();*/ CloseLibrary(ps); } return(NULL); } /* \\\ */ /* /// "usbReleaseDeviceBinding()" */ void usbReleaseDeviceBinding(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct NepClassEth *ncp) { struct Library *ps; STRPTR devname; KPRINTF(1, ("nepEthReleaseDeviceBinding(%08lx)\n", ncp)); if((ps = OpenLibrary("poseidon.library", 4))) { Forbid(); ncp->ncp_ReadySignal = SIGB_SINGLE; ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask = FindTask(NULL); if(ncp->ncp_Task) { Signal(ncp->ncp_Task, SIGBREAKF_CTRL_C); } Permit(); while(ncp->ncp_Task) { Wait(1L<<ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); } //FreeSignal(ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); psdGetAttrs(PGA_DEVICE, ncp->ncp_Device, DA_ProductName, &devname, TAG_END); psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_OK, (STRPTR) libname, "Shrinkwrapped and wasted '%s'.", devname); /*psdFreeVec(ncp);*/ CloseLibrary(ps); } } /* \\\ */ /* /// "usbGetAttrsA()" */ AROS_LH3(LONG, usbGetAttrsA, AROS_LHA(ULONG, type, D0), AROS_LHA(APTR, usbstruct, A0), AROS_LHA(struct TagItem *, tags, A1), LIBBASETYPEPTR, nh, 5, nep) { AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT struct TagItem *ti; LONG count = 0; KPRINTF(1, ("nepEthGetAttrsA(%ld, %08lx, %08lx)\n", type, usbstruct, tags)); switch(type) { case UGA_CLASS: if((ti = FindTagItem(UCCA_Priority, tags))) { *((SIPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = -100; count++; } if((ti = FindTagItem(UCCA_Description, tags))) { *((STRPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = "Ethernet SANA wrapper for RNDIS devices via usbrndis.device"; count++; } if((ti = FindTagItem(UCCA_HasClassCfgGUI, tags))) { *((IPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = TRUE; count++; } if((ti = FindTagItem(UCCA_HasBindingCfgGUI, tags))) { *((IPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = TRUE; count++; } if((ti = FindTagItem(UCCA_AfterDOSRestart, tags))) { *((IPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = FALSE; count++; } if((ti = FindTagItem(UCCA_UsingDefaultCfg, tags))) { *((IPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = nh->nh_DummyNCP.ncp_UsingDefaultCfg; count++; } break; case UGA_BINDING: if((ti = FindTagItem(UCBA_UsingDefaultCfg, tags))) { *((IPTR *) ti->ti_Data) = ((struct NepClassEth *) usbstruct)->ncp_UsingDefaultCfg; count++; } break; } return(count); AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT } /* \\\ */ /* /// "usbSetAttrsA()" */ AROS_LH3(LONG, usbSetAttrsA, AROS_LHA(ULONG, type, D0), AROS_LHA(APTR, usbstruct, A0), AROS_LHA(struct TagItem *, tags, A1), LIBBASETYPEPTR, nh, 6, nep) { AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT return(0); AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT } /* \\\ */ /* /// "usbDoMethodA()" */ AROS_LH2(IPTR, usbDoMethodA, AROS_LHA(ULONG, methodid, D0), AROS_LHA(IPTR *, methoddata, A1), LIBBASETYPEPTR, nh, 7, nep) { AROS_LIBFUNC_INIT KPRINTF(10, ("Do Method %ld\n", methodid)); switch(methodid) { case UCM_AttemptDeviceBinding: return((IPTR) usbAttemptDeviceBinding(nh, (struct PsdDevice *) methoddata[0])); case UCM_ForceDeviceBinding: return((IPTR) usbForceDeviceBinding(nh, (struct PsdDevice *) methoddata[0])); case UCM_ReleaseDeviceBinding: usbReleaseDeviceBinding(nh, (struct NepClassEth *) methoddata[0]); return(TRUE); default: break; } return(0); AROS_LIBFUNC_EXIT } /* \\\ */ /**************************************************************************/ #undef ps #define ps ncp->ncp_Base /* /// "nEthTask()" */ AROS_UFH0(void, nEthTask) { AROS_USERFUNC_INIT struct NepClassEth *ncp; struct PsdPipe *pp; ULONG sigmask; ULONG sigs; LONG ioerr; UBYTE *pktptr; ULONG pktlen; UWORD cnt; LONG lastioerr = 0; ULONG errcount = 0; struct IOSana2Req *ioreq; if((ncp = nAllocEth())) { urndis_attach(ncp); Forbid(); if(ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask) { Signal(ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask, 1L<<ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); } Permit(); { /* Record start time_of_day */ //GetSysTime(&ncp->ncp_DeviceStats.LastStart); /* Now online */ ncp->ncp_StateFlags |= DDF_ONLINE; ncp->ncp_StateFlags &= ~DDF_OFFLINE; /* Trigger any ONLINE events */ nDoEvent(ncp, S2EVENT_ONLINE); } /* Main task */ sigmask = (1L<<ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_SigBit)|(1L<<ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort->mp_SigBit)|SIGBREAKF_CTRL_C; do { // start transmitting read request if online... if((ncp->ncp_StateFlags & DDF_ONLINE) && (ncp->ncp_ReadPending == NULL)) { ncp->ncp_ReadPending = ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[ncp->ncp_ReadBufNum]; psdSendPipe(ncp->ncp_EPInPipe, ncp->ncp_ReadPending, RNDIS_BUFSZ ); ncp->ncp_ReadBufNum ^= 1; } while((pp = (struct PsdPipe *) GetMsg(ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort))) { KPRINTF(1, ("Pipe back %08lx\n", pp)); for(cnt = 0; cnt < 2; cnt++) { if(pp == ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[cnt]) { if((ioreq = ncp->ncp_WritePending[cnt])) { ioerr = psdGetPipeError(pp); if(ioerr) { psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_WARN, (STRPTR) libname, "Eth transmit failed: %s (%ld)", psdNumToStr(NTS_IOERR, ioerr, "unknown"), ioerr); /* Trigger any tx or generic error events */ nDoEvent(ncp, S2EVENT_ERROR|S2EVENT_TX); /* Set error code and terminate the iorequest. NOTE: Can't use RC_* or deverror() this is not called from devBeginIO()! */ ioreq->ios2_DataLength = 0; ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Error = S2ERR_TX_FAILURE; ioreq->ios2_WireError = S2WERR_GENERIC_ERROR; psdDelayMS(50); } ReplyMsg((struct Message *) ioreq); ncp->ncp_WritePending[cnt] = NULL; } break; } } if(pp == ncp->ncp_EPInPipe) { if((pktptr = ncp->ncp_ReadPending)) { ioerr = psdGetPipeError(pp); pktlen = psdGetPipeActual(pp); KPRINTF(1, ("ReadBack with %ld bytes.\n", pktlen)); // interleave next packet reading ASAP. if(ncp->ncp_StateFlags & DDF_ONLINE) { ncp->ncp_ReadPending = ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[ncp->ncp_ReadBufNum]; psdSendPipe(ncp->ncp_EPInPipe, ncp->ncp_ReadPending, RNDIS_BUFSZ ); ncp->ncp_ReadBufNum ^= 1; } else { ncp->ncp_ReadPending = NULL; } if(ioerr) { if(lastioerr != ioerr) { psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_WARN, (STRPTR) libname, "Eth receive failed: %s (%ld)", psdNumToStr(NTS_IOERR, ioerr, "unknown"), ioerr); errcount = 0; } else { errcount++; if(errcount > 20) { psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_FAIL, (STRPTR) libname, "That's it, that device pissed me off long enough!"); Signal(ncp->ncp_Task, SIGBREAKF_CTRL_C); } } lastioerr = ioerr; psdDelayMS(50); break; } else { KPRINTF(1, ("Pkt %ld received\n", pktlen)); nReadPacket(ncp, pktptr, pktlen); } } } } Forbid(); while((!ncp->ncp_WritePending[ncp->ncp_WriteBufNum]) && ncp->ncp_WriteQueue.lh_Head->ln_Succ) { ioreq = (struct IOSana2Req *) RemHead(&ncp->ncp_WriteQueue); Permit(); nWritePacket(ncp, ioreq); Forbid(); } Permit(); sigs = Wait(sigmask); } while(!(sigs & SIGBREAKF_CTRL_C)); Forbid(); /* Now remove all requests still pending *anywhere* */ //ncp->ncp_DenyRequests = TRUE; /* Current transfers */ for(cnt = 0; cnt < 2; cnt++) { if((ioreq = ncp->ncp_WritePending[cnt])) { KPRINTF(1, ("Aborting pending write...\n")); psdAbortPipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[cnt]); psdWaitPipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[cnt]); ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Error = IOERR_ABORTED; ReplyMsg((struct Message *) ioreq); ncp->ncp_WritePending[cnt] = NULL; } } if(ncp->ncp_ReadPending) { KPRINTF(1, ("Aborting pending read...\n")); psdAbortPipe(ncp->ncp_EPInPipe); psdWaitPipe(ncp->ncp_EPInPipe); ncp->ncp_ReadPending = NULL; } Permit(); nDoEvent(ncp, S2EVENT_OFFLINE); KPRINTF(20, ("Going down the river!\n")); nFreeEth(ncp); } AROS_USERFUNC_EXIT } /* \\\ */ /* /// "nAllocEth()" */ struct NepClassEth * nAllocEth(void) { struct Task *thistask; struct NepClassEth *ncp; thistask = FindTask(NULL); do { ncp = thistask->tc_UserData; if(!(ncp->ncp_Base = OpenLibrary("poseidon.library", 4))) { Alert(AG_OpenLib); break; } ncp->ncp_Interface = NULL; do { ncp->ncp_Interface = psdFindInterface(ncp->ncp_Device, ncp->ncp_Interface, TAG_END); if(!ncp->ncp_Interface) { break; } ncp->ncp_EPIn = psdFindEndpoint(ncp->ncp_Interface, NULL, EA_IsIn, TRUE, EA_TransferType, USEAF_BULK, TAG_END); ncp->ncp_EPOut = psdFindEndpoint(ncp->ncp_Interface, NULL, EA_IsIn, FALSE, EA_TransferType, USEAF_BULK, TAG_END); } while(!(ncp->ncp_EPOut && ncp->ncp_EPIn)); if(!ncp->ncp_Interface) { psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_FAIL, (STRPTR) libname, "No interface?"); break; } if(!(ncp->ncp_EPIn && ncp->ncp_EPOut)) { psdAddErrorMsg(RETURN_FAIL, (STRPTR) libname, "IN or OUT endpoint missing!"); break; } ncp->ncp_ReadPending = NULL; ncp->ncp_WritePending[0] = NULL; ncp->ncp_WritePending[1] = NULL; if(!(ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0] = AllocVec(ETHER_MAX_LEN * 4, MEMF_PUBLIC|MEMF_CLEAR))) { KPRINTF(1, ("Out of memory for read buffer\n")); break; } ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[1] = ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0] + ETHER_MAX_LEN; ncp->ncp_WriteBuffer[0] = ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[1] + ETHER_MAX_LEN; ncp->ncp_WriteBuffer[1] = ncp->ncp_WriteBuffer[0] + ETHER_MAX_LEN; ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_SigBit = AllocSignal(-1); ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_SigTask = thistask; ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Node.ln_Type = NT_MSGPORT; ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Flags = PA_SIGNAL; if((ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort = CreateMsgPort())) { if((ncp->ncp_EP0Pipe = psdAllocPipe(ncp->ncp_Device, ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort, NULL))) { if((ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[0] = psdAllocPipe(ncp->ncp_Device, ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort, ncp->ncp_EPOut))) { /* Turn off short packets */ psdSetAttrs(PGA_PIPE, ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[0], PPA_NoShortPackets, FALSE, PPA_NakTimeout, TRUE, PPA_NakTimeoutTime, 5000, TAG_END); if((ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[1] = psdAllocPipe(ncp->ncp_Device, ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort, ncp->ncp_EPOut))) { /* Turn off short packets */ psdSetAttrs(PGA_PIPE, ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[1], PPA_NoShortPackets, FALSE, PPA_NakTimeout, TRUE, PPA_NakTimeoutTime, 5000, TAG_END); if((ncp->ncp_EPInPipe = psdAllocPipe(ncp->ncp_Device, ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort, ncp->ncp_EPIn))) { /* Turn off short packets */ psdSetAttrs(PGA_PIPE, ncp->ncp_EPInPipe, PPA_NakTimeout, FALSE, PPA_NakTimeoutTime, 5000, PPA_AllowRuntPackets, TRUE, TAG_END); ncp->ncp_Task = thistask; return(ncp); } psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[1]); } psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[0]); } psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EP0Pipe); } DeleteMsgPort(ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort); } FreeSignal((LONG) ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_SigBit); } while(FALSE); if(ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0]) { FreeVec(ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0]); ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0] = NULL; } CloseLibrary(ncp->ncp_Base); Forbid(); ncp->ncp_Task = NULL; if(ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask) { Signal(ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask, 1L<<ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); } return(NULL); } /* \\\ */ /* /// "nFreeEth()" */ void nFreeEth(struct NepClassEth *ncp) { struct IOSana2Req *ioreq; Forbid(); /* Disable the message port, messages may still be queued */ ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_SigTask = NULL; ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_Flags = PA_IGNORE; FreeSignal((LONG) ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort.mp_SigBit); // get rid of all messages that still have appeared here while((ioreq = (struct IOSana2Req *) GetMsg(&ncp->ncp_Unit.unit_MsgPort))) { ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Error = IOERR_ABORTED; ReplyMsg((struct Message *) ioreq); } Permit(); psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EPInPipe); psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[0]); psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[1]); psdFreePipe(ncp->ncp_EP0Pipe); if(ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0]) { FreeVec(ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0]); ncp->ncp_ReadBuffer[0] = NULL; } DeleteMsgPort(ncp->ncp_TaskMsgPort); CloseLibrary(ncp->ncp_Base); Forbid(); ncp->ncp_Task = NULL; if(ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask) { Signal(ncp->ncp_ReadySigTask, 1L<<ncp->ncp_ReadySignal); } } /* \\\ */ /* /// "nDoEvent()" */ void nDoEvent(struct NepClassEth *ncp, ULONG events) { struct IOSana2Req *worknode, *nextnode; KPRINTF(1, ("DoEvent events: 0x%08lx\n", events)); Forbid(); /* Process pending S2_ONEVENT requests */ worknode = (struct IOSana2Req *) ncp->ncp_EventList.lh_Head; while((nextnode = (struct IOSana2Req *) (((struct Node *) worknode)->ln_Succ))) { if(worknode->ios2_WireError & events) { Remove(&worknode->ios2_Req.io_Message.mn_Node); worknode->ios2_Req.io_Message.mn_Node.ln_Type = NT_REPLYMSG; KPRINTF(1, ("DoEvent: returned eventreq 0x%08lx\n", worknode)); ReplyMsg(&worknode->ios2_Req.io_Message); } worknode = nextnode; } Permit(); } /* \\\ */ /* /// "support routines" */ static inline void *callcopy(void *routine, void *from, void *to, ULONG len) { void * (*call) (APTR, APTR, ULONG) = routine; return (*call) (from, to, len); } #define callfilter CallHookPkt /* \\\ */ /* /// "nWritePacket()" */ BOOL nWritePacket(struct NepClassEth *ncp, struct IOSana2Req *ioreq) { ULONG packettype; struct EtherPacketHeader *eph; // UBYTE *packetdata; UBYTE *copydest; UWORD writelen; struct BufMan *bufman; struct Sana2PacketTypeStats *stats; UBYTE *buf = ncp->ncp_WriteBuffer[ncp->ncp_WriteBufNum]; LONG encaplen; packettype = ioreq->ios2_PacketType; copydest = buf; writelen = ioreq->ios2_DataLength; bufman = ioreq->ios2_BufferManagement; // remove RNDIS header encaplen = urndis_encap(ncp, buf ,writelen + (!(ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags & SANA2IOF_RAW) ? sizeof(struct EtherPacketHeader) : 0) ); copydest += encaplen; writelen += encaplen; eph = (struct EtherPacketHeader *)copydest; /* Not a raw packet? */ if(!(ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags & SANA2IOF_RAW)) { UWORD cnt; KPRINTF(10, ("RAW WRITE!\n")); /* The ethernet header isn't included in the data */ /* Build ethernet packet header */ for(cnt = 0; cnt < ETHER_ADDR_SIZE; cnt++) { eph->eph_Dest[cnt] = ioreq->ios2_DstAddr[cnt]; eph->eph_Src[cnt] = ncp->ncp_MacAddress[cnt]; } eph->eph_Type = AROS_BE2WORD(packettype); /* Packet data is at txbuffer */ copydest += sizeof(struct EtherPacketHeader); writelen += sizeof(struct EtherPacketHeader); } /* Dma not available, fallback to regular copy */ if(callcopy(bufman->bm_CopyFromBuf, copydest, ioreq->ios2_Data, ioreq->ios2_DataLength) == NULL) { KPRINTF(10, ("writepacket: copyfrom returned failure!\n")); /* Trigger any tx, buff or generic error events */ nDoEvent(ncp, S2EVENT_ERROR|S2EVENT_TX|S2EVENT_BUFF); /* Set error code and terminate the iorequest. NOTE: Can't use RC_* or deverror() this is not called from devBeginIO()! */ ioreq->ios2_DataLength = 0; ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Error = S2ERR_NO_RESOURCES; ioreq->ios2_WireError = S2WERR_BUFF_ERROR; return FALSE; } //bug("out %d\n",writelen); KPRINTF(20, ("PktOut[%ld] %ld\n", ncp->ncp_WriteBufNum, writelen)); //dumpmem(buf, writelen); ncp->ncp_WritePending[ncp->ncp_WriteBufNum] = ioreq; psdSendPipe(ncp->ncp_EPOutPipe[ncp->ncp_WriteBufNum], buf, (ULONG) writelen); ncp->ncp_WriteBufNum ^= 1; DB( if(AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type) < 1500) { KPRINTF(5, ("writepacket: %04lx%08lx > %04lx%08lx (IEEE802.3) len %lu, %lu bytes\n", *((UWORD *) eph->eph_Src), *((ULONG *) (eph->eph_Src + 2)), *((UWORD *) eph->eph_Dest), *((ULONG *) (eph->eph_Dest + 2)), AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type), writelen)); } else { KPRINTF(5, ("writepacket: %04lx%08lx > %04lx%08lx type %lu, %lu bytes\n", *((UWORD *) eph->eph_Src), *((ULONG *) (eph->eph_Src + 2)), *((UWORD *) eph->eph_Dest), *((ULONG *) (eph->eph_Dest + 2)), AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type), writelen)); } //dumpmem(buf, (ULONG) writelen); ) /* Update statistics */ stats = FindPacketTypeStats(ncp, packettype); if(stats) { stats->PacketsSent++; stats->BytesSent += writelen; } ncp->ncp_DeviceStats.PacketsSent++; return TRUE; } /* \\\ */ /* /// "nReadIOReq()" */ UWORD nReadIOReq(struct NepClassEth *ncp, struct EtherPacketHeader *eph, UWORD datasize, struct IOSana2Req *ioreq, UWORD flags) { LIBBASETYPEPTR nh = ncp->ncp_ClsBase; UBYTE *copyfrom; UWORD cnt; /* Handle RAW read */ if(ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags & SANA2IOF_RAW) { /* ShapeShifter won't work with `sizeof(struct etherpacket_hdr)' here. This is most likely because it want the RAW ethernet packet checksum size (4) added to the packet size. */ copyfrom = (UBYTE *) eph; datasize += sizeof(struct EtherPacketHeader) + 4; } else { copyfrom = (UBYTE *) (eph + 1); } /* Build up the ios2 structure enough so we can call the packet filter. */ ioreq->ios2_PacketType = AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type); for(cnt = 0; cnt < ETHER_ADDR_SIZE; cnt++) { ioreq->ios2_SrcAddr[cnt] = eph->eph_Src[cnt]; ioreq->ios2_DstAddr[cnt] = eph->eph_Dest[cnt]; } ioreq->ios2_DataLength = datasize; /* Call the packet filter, if available. */ if((flags & PACKETFILTER) && (((struct BufMan *) ioreq->ios2_BufferManagement)->bm_PacketFilter) && (!callfilter(((struct BufMan *) ioreq->ios2_BufferManagement)->bm_PacketFilter, ioreq, copyfrom))) { /* This packet got dropped! */ KPRINTF(7, ("readioreq: packet type %lu for ioreq 0x%08lx dropped\n", AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type), ioreq)); return flags; } /* Ok, the packet didn't get dropped, set the BCAST and MCAST flags according to dstaddr. */ /* Address == Multicast? */ if(ioreq->ios2_DstAddr[0] & 1) { /* Address == Broadcast? */ if((*((ULONG *) ioreq->ios2_DstAddr) == 0xffffffff) && (*((UWORD *) (ioreq->ios2_DstAddr + 4)) == 0xffff)) { ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags |= SANA2IOF_BCAST; } else { ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags |= SANA2IOF_MCAST; } } /* Finally copy the packet data! */ if(callcopy(((struct BufMan *) ioreq->ios2_BufferManagement)->bm_CopyToBuf, ioreq->ios2_Data, copyfrom, ioreq->ios2_DataLength)) { DB( KPRINTF(5, ("readioreq: copytobuffed packet ior 0x%08lx, %04lx%08lx < %04lx%08lx, type %lu, %lu bytes, %s%s%s\n", ioreq, *((UWORD *) ioreq->ios2_DstAddr), *((ULONG *) (ioreq->ios2_DstAddr + 2)), *((UWORD *) ioreq->ios2_SrcAddr), *((ULONG *) (ioreq->ios2_SrcAddr + 2)), ioreq->ios2_PacketType, ioreq->ios2_DataLength, (ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags & SANA2IOF_RAW) ? "RAW " : "", (ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags & SANA2IOF_BCAST) ? "BCAST " : "", (ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Flags & SANA2IOF_MCAST) ? "MCAST " : "")); //dumpmem(copyfrom, ioreq->ios2_DataLength); ) /* Clear the dropped flag */ flags &= ~DROPPED; } else { KPRINTF(10, ("readioreq: copyto returned failure!\n")); /* Trigger any rx, buff or generic error events */ nDoEvent(ncp, S2EVENT_ERROR|S2EVENT_RX|S2EVENT_BUFF); /* Set error code. NOTE: Can't use RC_* or deverror() this is not called from devBeginIO()! */ ioreq->ios2_DataLength = 0; ioreq->ios2_Req.io_Error = S2ERR_NO_RESOURCES; ioreq->ios2_WireError = S2WERR_BUFF_ERROR; } /* Pull the ioreq off the list & terminate it */ Forbid(); Remove((struct Node *) ioreq); Permit(); ReplyMsg((struct Message *) ioreq); return flags; } /* \\\ */ /* /// "nReadPacket()" */ BOOL nReadPacket(struct NepClassEth *ncp, UBYTE *pktptr, ULONG pktlen) { struct EtherPacketHeader *eph; UBYTE *packetdata; struct BufMan *bufman; struct IOSana2Req *worknode, *nextnode; struct Sana2PacketTypeStats *stats; UWORD flags; UWORD datasize; KPRINTF(20, ("PktIn [%ld] %ld\n", ncp->ncp_ReadBufNum, pktlen)); //bug("in %d\n",pktlen); // add RNDIS header urndis_decap(ncp, (BYTE **)&pktptr, (LONG *)&pktlen); //dumpmem(pktptr, pktlen); if(pktlen < 14) { ncp->ncp_DeviceStats.BadData++; return FALSE; } ncp->ncp_DeviceStats.PacketsReceived++; eph = (struct EtherPacketHeader *) pktptr; packetdata = (UBYTE *) (eph + 1); stats = FindPacketTypeStats(ncp, (ULONG) AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type)); flags = DROPPED|PACKETFILTER; /* Calculate size of the actual data */ datasize = pktlen - sizeof(struct EtherPacketHeader); /* Is the packet datasize valid? */ if(pktlen <= ETHER_MAX_LEN) { /* Update the packet statistics */ if(stats) { stats->PacketsReceived++; stats->BytesReceived += datasize; /* NOTE: don't include headers */ } /* For each device user (bufman) NOTE: We absolutely *MUST* try to offer the packet to *all* different device users (SANA-II V2 spec requirement). */ Forbid(); bufman = (struct BufMan *) ncp->ncp_BufManList.lh_Head; while(((struct Node *) bufman)->ln_Succ) { /* For each queued read request (ioreq) */ worknode = (struct IOSana2Req *) bufman->bm_RXQueue.lh_Head; while((nextnode = (struct IOSana2Req *) (((struct Node *) worknode)->ln_Succ))) { /* Check the packet type. Also handles 802.3 packets. */ if((worknode->ios2_PacketType == AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type)) || ((AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type) < 1500) && (worknode->ios2_PacketType < 1500))) { flags = nReadIOReq(ncp, eph, datasize, worknode, flags); /* Break out - let other callers get the packet too */ break; } worknode = nextnode; } bufman = (struct BufMan *) (((struct Node *) bufman)->ln_Succ); } Permit(); /* Now we've tried to give the packet to every CMD_READ caller. If DROPPED is set at this point no-one wanted this packet. */ if(flags & DROPPED) { /* So there were no outstanding CMD_READs or the packet wasn't accepted by any of them. Okay, check if we have any pending S2_READORPHAN ioreq in list and if we have return this packet with it. Note that packet filter must not be used for this time! NOTE: orphanlist is global, ie. only one caller will get the packet if multiple users have pending S2_READORPHANs. */ /* Process pending orphanread iorequs */ Forbid(); worknode = (struct IOSana2Req *) ncp->ncp_OrphanQueue.lh_Head; while((nextnode = (struct IOSana2Req *) (((struct Node *) worknode)->ln_Succ))) { nReadIOReq(ncp, eph, datasize, worknode, 0); worknode = nextnode; } Permit(); } else { /* Packet not dropped - return ok */ return TRUE; } } else { KPRINTF(20, ("Pktlen %ld invalid!\n", pktlen)); ncp->ncp_DeviceStats.BadData++; } /* Update global dropped packet counter. */ ncp->ncp_DeviceStats.UnknownTypesReceived++; /* Update dropped packet statistics. */ if(stats) { stats->PacketsDropped++; } KPRINTF(9, ("readpacket: packet type %lu dropped\n", AROS_BE2WORD(eph->eph_Type))); /* Trigger any rx or generic error events */ nDoEvent(ncp, S2EVENT_ERROR|S2EVENT_RX); return FALSE; } /* \\\ */ /**************************************************************************/ </pre> ====rndis.class.h==== <pre> /* * $Id$ */ #ifndef RNDIS_CLASS_H #define RNDIS_CLASS_H /* *---------------------------------------------------------------------------- * Includes for rndis class *---------------------------------------------------------------------------- */ #include "common.h" #include <devices/sana2.h> #include <devices/sana2specialstats.h> #include <libraries/gadtools.h> #include <devices/newstyle.h> #include <string.h> #include <stddef.h> #include <stdio.h> #include "if_urndisreg.h" #include "rndis.h" #include "dev.h" /* Protos */ struct NepClassEth * usbAttemptDeviceBinding(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct PsdDevice *pd); struct NepClassEth * usbForceDeviceBinding(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct PsdDevice *pd); void usbReleaseDeviceBinding(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct NepClassEth *ncp); struct NepClassEth * nAllocEth(void); void nFreeEth(struct NepClassEth *ncp); void nSetOnline(struct NepClassEth *ncp); void nDoEvent(struct NepClassEth *ncp, ULONG events); BOOL nWritePacket(struct NepClassEth *ncp, struct IOSana2Req *ioreq); BOOL nReadPacket(struct NepClassEth *ncp, UBYTE *pktptr, ULONG len); BOOL nLoadClassConfig(struct NepEthBase *nh); BOOL nLoadBindingConfig(struct NepClassEth *ncp); LONG nOpenBindingCfgWindow(struct NepEthBase *nh, struct NepClassEth *ncp); void nGUITaskCleanup(struct NepClassEth *nh); uint32_t urndis_ctrl_init(struct NepClassEth *ncp); uint32_t urndis_ctrl_handle(struct NepClassEth *ncp, struct urndis_comp_hdr *hdr,void **buf, size_t *bufsz); void urndis_attach(struct NepClassEth *ncp); long urndis_encap(struct NepClassEth *ncp, BYTE *m,LONG len ); void urndis_decap(struct NepClassEth *ncp, BYTE **buf, LONG *len); AROS_UFP0(void, nEthTask); AROS_UFP0(void, nGUITask); #endif /* RNDIS_CLASS_H */ </pre> === UVC webcam=== Only thing then left to do is to define the uvc api on Aros and code the driver (not like to see v4l(2) on Aros). Should the uvc.class expose a device or a library? I would like it to expose a library that one can query for attached devices and control the camera(s). It would also need some kind of event handler if some buttons are present on the thing. A device with a fifo like Webcam:cam1 would be nice of course. Leaving all the decoding to ffmpeg or mplayer or whatever... Library is more amiga'ish whilst we can always write a new webcam tool app with mui using library + lib264. Proposal for video capturing from web cams: * Only support web cams and a test pattern. Input only -> webcam.library which one registers different drivers * webcam.library provides the test pattern itself On the other hand there is no use for a web cam if its output cannot be tossed around at will. It would need all sort of interfaces and the frame format would also need conversions. MJPEG to RGB etc. Some sort of common video stack is needed. <pre> void bayer2rgb24(unsigned char *dst, unsigned char *src, long int WIDTH, long int HEIGHT) { long int i; unsigned char *rawpt, *scanpt; long int size; rawpt = src; scanpt = dst; size = WIDTH*HEIGHT; for ( i = 0; i < size; i++ ) { if ( (i/WIDTH) % 2 == 0 ) { if ( (i % 2) == 0 ) { /* B */ if ( (i > WIDTH) && ((i % WIDTH) > 0) ) { *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-WIDTH-1)+*(rawpt-WIDTH+1)+ *(rawpt+WIDTH-1)+*(rawpt+WIDTH+1))/4; /* R */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-1)+*(rawpt+1)+ *(rawpt+WIDTH)+*(rawpt-WIDTH))/4; /* G */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* B */ } else { /* first line or left column */ *scanpt++ = *(rawpt+WIDTH+1); /* R */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt+1)+*(rawpt+WIDTH))/2; /* G */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* B */ } } else { /* (B)G */ if ( (i > WIDTH) && ((i % WIDTH) < (WIDTH-1)) ) { *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt+WIDTH)+*(rawpt-WIDTH))/2; /* R */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* G */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-1)+*(rawpt+1))/2; /* B */ } else { /* first line or right column */ *scanpt++ = *(rawpt+WIDTH); /* R */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* G */ *scanpt++ = *(rawpt-1); /* B */ } } } else { if ( (i % 2) == 0 ) { /* G(R) */ if ( (i < (WIDTH*(HEIGHT-1))) && ((i % WIDTH) > 0) ) { *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-1)+*(rawpt+1))/2; /* R */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* G */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt+WIDTH)+*(rawpt-WIDTH))/2; /* B */ } else { /* bottom line or left column */ *scanpt++ = *(rawpt+1); /* R */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* G */ *scanpt++ = *(rawpt-WIDTH); /* B */ } } else { /* R */ if ( i < (WIDTH*(HEIGHT-1)) && ((i % WIDTH) < (WIDTH-1)) ) { *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* R */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-1)+*(rawpt+1)+ *(rawpt-WIDTH)+*(rawpt+WIDTH))/4; /* G */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-WIDTH-1)+*(rawpt-WIDTH+1)+ *(rawpt+WIDTH-1)+*(rawpt+WIDTH+1))/4; /* B */ } else { /* bottom line or right column */ *scanpt++ = *rawpt; /* R */ *scanpt++ = (*(rawpt-1)+*(rawpt-WIDTH))/2; /* G */ *scanpt++ = *(rawpt-WIDTH-1); /* B */ } } } rawpt++; } } </pre> PS3-eye camera and it uses BULK transfers. Using that camera would be the quickest path capturing video on Aros. PS3 camera has also a extremely high framerate, it could be used for all sort of things like 3D scanning etc. Managed to open the BULK endpoint. Camera outputs YUV and I just write it ARGB on the window. Needs some conversion between. Some artifacts are from the frame header (12 bytes every now and then). It takes some time until camera shows anything and that's just because I wait for the last frame to arrive before capturing, sometimes it doesn't catch it. Removed uvc header bytes and it all starts to look something recognizable. There's a sweet spot on the payload size, once you hit it there is no need to sync the frames for raw pixelwrites to rastport. ====Misc==== some or all of the public Poseidon includes are packed with these directives: <pre> #if defined(__GNUC__) # pragma pack(1) #endif </pre> Any objections to removing this for ABIv1? in AROS we use native packing where possible. That would mean code would stop being interchangeable between AROS/OS3/MorphOS/OS4 and would also affect binary compatibility with m68k on PPC. Not a good move IMHO. Perhaps adding some kind of #define or macro to only add the packing if M68K_COMPATIBILITY is enabled would allow better performance in platforms where no m68k transparent emulator would be possible. There's no point in having binary compatibility for USB only. None of the other system structures are packed. These are raw USB packets. Don't do this, or Poseidon will stop working. MorphOS uses pack(2). Sorry, you're right about the pack(1) instances. However, there are other system structures packed with pack(2), which should be unpacked. ==How to create new sub-classes== {{BookCat}} sv0tu9g06wr55qn464e40bkeb0cvu1o 0 237399 4671802 4671620 2026-09-22T18:33:14Z Jeff1138 301139 4671802 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== [[#Graphical Image Editing Art]] [[#Office Application]] [[#Audio]] [[#Misc Application]] [[#Games & Emulation]] [[#Application Guides]] [[#top|...to the top]] [[#top|...to the top]] Most apps can be opened on the Workbench (aka publicscreen pubscreen) which is the default display option but can offer a custom one set to your configurations (aka custom screen mode promotion). These custom ones tend to stack so the possible use of A-M/A-N method of switching between full screens and the ability to pull down screens as well If you are interested in creating or porting new software, see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/Docs here] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Internet Applications !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Web Online Browser [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Amelinium], Odyssey 2.0, [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1175&highlight=odyssey&rowstart=100 Odyssey 3.0], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://juen.in/ Amelinium], [https://blog.alb42.de/programs/amifox/ amifox] with [https://github.com/alb42/wrp wrp server], IBrowse*, [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager], [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ AWeb 3.6 src], [https://github.com/matjam/aweb AWeb Src], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/www/NetSurf-m68k-sources Netsurf], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ Odyssey OWB], [ Timberwolf (Firefox port 2011)], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?forum=32&topic_id=32847 OWB-mui], [http://strohmayer.org/owb/ OWB-Reaction], IBrowse*, [http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=network/browser/aweb.lha AWeb], Voyager, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Netsurf], |<!--MorphOS-->Wayfarer, [http://fabportnawak.free.fr/owb/ Odyssey OWB], [ Netsurf], IBrowse*, AWeb, [], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->YouTube, Dailymotion website downloading videos audio [https://github.com/yt-dlp/yt-dlp yt-dlp], [https://clipgrab.org/ clipgrab], |<!--AROS-->[], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [ smtube], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], getVideo, Tubexx, [https://github.com/walkero-gr/aiostreams aiostreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ytsearch], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 getVideo], Tubexx |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Old style E-mailing SMTP POP3 IMAP based |<!--AROS-->Emailinium, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/email SimpleMail], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ src], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--Amiga OS-->Emailinium, [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ SimpleMail], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--AmigaOS4-->SimpleMail, YAM, |<!--MorphOS--> SimpleMail, YAM |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IRC, ICB, |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat WookieChat], [https://sourceforge.net/projects/wookiechat/ Wookiechat src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat AiRcOS], Jabberwocky, |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/charabaruk/WookieChat Wookiechat], AmIRC |<!--AmigaOS4-->Wookiechat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Wookiechat], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 AmIRC], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Instant Messaging IM like [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amidon Hollywood lang based Mastodon client], BlueSky AT protocol, Facebook(TM), Twitter X (TM), Bitlbee IRC Gateway and others |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/kaffeine1/telegram-amiga telegram-amiga], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat jabberwocky], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], CLIMM, SabreMSN, [https://sourceforge.net/projects/ajabberwocky/ jabberwocky], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], SabreMSN, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 PolyglotNG], SabreMSN, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Torrents |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/p2p ArTorr], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->CTorrent, Transmission |<!--MorphOS-->MLDonkey, Beehive, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Transmission], CTorrent, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->FTP |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], MarranoFTP, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/wput-0.3.4c.i386-aros wput i386 c src] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP AmiFTP], AmiTradeCenter, ncFTP, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/sana2-tftpclient sana2 tftpclient c src] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], |<!--MorphOS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Pftp], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP-1.935-OS4 AmiFTP], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->WYSIWYG Web Site Editor |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Internet Radio Streaming Audio [http://www.gnu.org/software/gnump3d/ gnump3d], [http://www.icecast.org/ Icecast2] Server (Broadcast) and Client (Listen), [ mpd], [http://darkice.sourceforge.net/ DarkIce], [http://www.dyne.org/software/muse/ Muse], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc], Mplayer (Icecast Client only), |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinder TuneFinder C Src], [https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinderMUI TuneFinderMUI], [http://amigazeux.net/anr/ AmiNetRadio], [https://github.com/boingball/MintAMP MintAMP], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.tunenet.co.uk/ Tunenet], |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer, AmiNetRadio, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VoIP (Voice over IP) with SIP Client (Session Initiation Protocol) or Asterisk IAX2 Clients Softphone (skype like) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiPhone with Speak Freely, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Weather Forecast |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ WeatherBar], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench AWeather], [] |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], [https://github.com/emartisoft/AmiWeatherForecasts AmiWeatherForecasts src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/flipclock.lha FlipClock], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Street Road Maps Route Planning GPS Tracking |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/muimapparium/ MuiMapparium] [https://build.alb42.de/ Build of MuiMapp versions], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiAtlas*, UKRoutePlus*, [http://blog.alb42.de/ AmOSM], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://blog.alb42.de/programs/mapparium/ Mapparium], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Clock and Date setting from the internet (either ntp or websites) [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ World Clock], [http://www.time.gov/ NIST], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc ntpsync], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/amitimekeeper.i386-aros.lha amitimekeeper with c src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->ntpsync, [http://aminet.net/package/util/cdity/AmiTimeKeeper amitimekeeper], [http://aminet.net/comm/misc/netclock netclock], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/net/sntp sntp], [http://aminet.net/package/util/time/ScreenTime ScreenTime], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Newsgroups |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://newscoaster.sourceforge.net/ Newscoaster], [https://github.com/jens-maus/newsrog NewsRog], [ WorldNews], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->RSS |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/Team-Boingo/AmiRSS AmiRSS src] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->AI |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/murinsel/AmigaAI Claude], [https://github.com/geekychris/amiga_mcp AI on host machine], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BBS |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Graphical Image Editing Art== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Image Editing !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Pixel Raster Artwork [https://github.com/LibreSprite/LibreSprite LibreSprite based on GPL aseprite], [https://github.com/abetusk/hsvhero hsvhero], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ZunePaint/ ZunePaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LunaPaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit GrafX2], [ LodePaint needs OpenGL], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amigaforever.com/classic/download.html PPaint], GrafX2, [https://github.com/grovdata/Amiga_Sources/blob/master/software.md DeluxePaint], [http://www.amiforce.de/perfectpaint/perfectpaint.php PerfectPaint], Zoetrope, Brilliance2*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LodePaint], GrafX2, |<!--MorphOS-->Sketch, Pixel*, GrafX2, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 LunaPaint] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Image viewing |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LookHere], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LoView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer PicShow] , [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--Amiga OS-->PicShow, PicView, Photoalbum, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, PicShow, flPhoto, Thumbs, [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Photography retouching / Image Manipulation like Photoshop(tm) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOEffects], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Tecsoft Video Paint aka TVPaint], Photogenics*, ArtEffect*, ImageFX*, XiPaint, fxPaint, ImageMasterRT, Opalpaint, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, flPhoto, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit Photocrop] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], ImageFX*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Manage RAW picture folder galleries like Darktable, RAWtherapy, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Graphic Format Converter - ICC profile support sRGB, Adobe RGB, XYZ and linear RGB |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->GraphicsConverter, ImageStudio, [http://www.coplabs.org/artpro.html ArtPro] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Thumbnail Generator [], |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/shell Thumbnail Generator] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Icon Editor |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit Archives], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench Icon Toolbox], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit IconEditor] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Pixel Art Animation |<!--AROS-->Lunapaint |<!--Amiga OS-->PPaint, AnimatED, Scala*, GoldDisk MovieSetter*, Walt Disney's Animation Studio*, ProDAD*, [https://github.com/historicalsource/DeluxePaint DeluxePaint src], Brilliance |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 Titler] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D SVG based MovieSetter type |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->MovieSetter*, Fantavision* |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Morphing |<!--AROS-->[ GLMorph] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Cad (qcad->LibreCAD, etc.) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Xcad, MaxonCAD |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Cad like FreeCad, BRL-CAD, OpenSCAD, AvoCADo, etc. using dxf, obj (vertices), blend, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->XCad3d*, DynaCADD*, [https://aminet.net/package/gfx/3d/Cycas178_EN Cycas]*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Model Rendering of glft (json) gbl (png jpg), usdz (USD files with materials, textures, and animations), FBX Filmbox is a proprietary Autodesk format, |<!--AROS-->POV-Ray |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.discreetfx.com./amigaproducts.html CINEMA 4D]*, POV-Ray, Lightwave3D*, Real3D*, Caligari24*, Reflections/Monzoom*, [https://github.com/privatosan/RayStorm Raystorm src], Tornado 3D, [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/Eric-Graham-1987-Juggler-Raytracer-1.0 Eric-Graham-1987-Juggler-Raytracer-1.0] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Format Converter [], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ 3doc.i386-aros], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ivcon.lha IVCon] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen grabbing display |<!--AROS-->[ Screengrabber], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc snapit], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record screen recorder], [] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Grab graphics music from apps [https://github.com/Malvineous/ripper6 ripper6], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Office Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Office !width:10%;|AROS (x86) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_software Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1] (68k) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS_4 Hyperion OS4] (PPC) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS MorphOS] (PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Suite |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Softwood Final Office], [ Wordworth Office], [ Digita Office], [ The Works!], [ Europress Mini Office], [], [ Papyrus Office Demo], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Word-processing |<!--AROS-->[https://finalwriter.godaddysites.com/ Final Writer 7*], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1995&rowstart=20&pid=12668#post_12668 Slovo], [https://github.com/sodero/MUI-Vim/releases MUI-Vim], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/wordprocessing Cinnamon Writer], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->[ Softwood FinalCopy II*], Haage AmigaWriter*, Digita WordWorth*, Softwood FinalWriter*, Micro-Systems Excellence 3*, Arnor Protext, Rashumon, [ InterWord], [ KindWords], [WordPerfect], [ New Horizons Flow], [ CygnusEd Pro], [ Micro-systems Scribble], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AbiWord, [ CinnamonWriter], |<!--MorphOS-->[ Cinnamon Writer], [http://www.meta-morphos.org/viewtopic.php?topic=1246&forum=53 scriba], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/index.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Spreadsheets |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/leu/ Leu], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/spreadsheet ], |<!--AmigaOS-->[https://aminet.net/package/biz/spread/ignition-src Ignition Src 1.3], [MaxiPlan 500 Plus], [OXXI Plan/IT v2.0 Speadsheet], [ Superplan], [ Creative Developments TurboCalc], [ ProCalc], [ InterSpread], [Digita DGCalc], [ Gold Disk Advantage], [ Micro-systems Analyze!] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Gnumeric, [https://ignition-amiga.sourceforge.net/ Ignition], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ignition], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Presentations |<!--AROS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, [https://github.com/evaneykelen/mediapoint-amiga MediaPoint C and asm], PointRider, Scala*, |<!--Amiga OS4-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Databases |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/database BeeBase], |<!--Amiga OS-->Precision Superbase 4 Pro*, Arnor Prodata*, [https://sourceforge.net/projects/beebase/ BeeBase], Datastore, FinalData*, AmigaBase, Fiasco, Twist2*, [Digita DGBase], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->BeeBase, SQLite, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=6 BeeBase], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PDF Viewing and editing digital signatures |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/arospdf/ ArosPDF via splash], [https://github.com/wattoc/AROS-vpdf vpdf wip], |<!--Amiga OS-->APDF |<!--AmigaOS4-->AmiPDF |<!--MorphOS-->APDF, vPDF, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Note Taking markdown support like Obsidian like, joplin, OneNote, EverNotes, xournalpp, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Study and analyse, collect, organize, annotate, cite, and share |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PIM Personal Information Manager - Day Diary Planner Calendar App Filofax like |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->Digita Organiser*, On The Ball, Everyday Organiser, [ Contact Manager], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AOrganiser, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://polymere.free.fr/orga_en.html PolyOrga], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Accounting |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/misc ETB], LoanCalc, [ ], [ ], [ ], |[ Digita Home Accounts2], Accountant, Small Business Accounts, Account Master, [ Amigabok], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Project Management Research |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SuperGantt, SuperPlan, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Desktop |<!--AROS-->Wanderer, Scalos, Workbook, DOpus5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[https://github.com/zapek/Ambient Ambient Src] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Search |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool Finder], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Dictionary - multilingual [http://sourceforge.net/projects/babiloo/ Babiloo], [http://code.google.com/p/stardict-3/ StarDict], |<!--AROS-->[ ], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System wide Thesaurus - multi lingual |<!--AROS-->[ ], |Kuma K-Roget*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sticky Desktop Notes (post it type) |<!--AROS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.i386-aros AmiMemos], [https://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.src-aros AmiMemos Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/StickIt-2.00 StickIt v2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DTP Desktop Publishing |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOPublisher], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]*, Professional Pro Page*, Saxon Publisher, Pagesetter, PenPal, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |<!--MorphOS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Printing |<!--AROS-->Postscript 3 laser printers, [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT MintPRINT AirPrint IPP], [ Ghostscript], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT MintPRINT IPP], [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirprint AmiAirprint], [http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_what.htm TurboPrint]*, [ GutenPrint], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/NetPrinter NetPrinter LPR], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->(some native drivers), |<!--MorphOS-->early TurboPrint included, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/NetPrinter NetPrinter LPR], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Scanning |<!--AROS-->[ SCANdal], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->FxScan*, ScanQuix*, [https://github.com/boingball/MintSCAN MintSCAN], |<!--AmigaOS4-->SCANdal (Sane) |<!--MorphOS-->SCANdal |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OCR |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert gOCR] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos-files.net/categories/office/text Tesseract] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text Editing |<!--AROS-->Jano Editor (already installed as Editor), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit EdiSyn], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Vim], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd] [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd src], [ NoWinEd], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/TurboText20 TurboText20 ttx], Annotate, MicroGoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Protext*, NoWinED, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Notepad, Annotate, CygnusED*, NoWinED, |<!--MorphOS-->MorphOS ED, NoWinED, GoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Annotate, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Fonts [http://sourceforge.net/projects/fontforge/files/fontforge-source/ Font Designer] |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->TypeSmith*, SaxonScript (GetFont Adobe Type 1), |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Drawing Vector |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/amifig/ ZuneFIG previously AmiFIG], [https://github.com/serk118/designworks-aros designworks aros 64bit] |<!--Amiga OS-->Drawstudio*, ProVector*, ArtExpression*, Professional Draw*, AmiFIG, MetaView, [https://gitlab.com/amigasourcecodepreservation/designworks Design Works Src], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MindSpace, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit amifig], |<!--MorphOS-->SteamDraw, [http://aminet.net/package/gfx/edit/amifig amiFIG], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->video conferencing (jitsi) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->source code hosting |<!--AROS-->Gitlab, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (server) |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Server ArosVNCServer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/avnc/index.html AVNC] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC] |MorphVNC, vncserver |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (client) login and connect to another machine |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Client/ ArosVNC], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc rdesktop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/vva/index.html VVA], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->notifications |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Ranchero |<!--AmigaOS4-->Ringhio |<!--MorphOS-->MagicBeacon |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Biometric facial logins and fingerprint security features |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Audio== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Audio !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing playback Audio like MP3, [https://github.com/chrg127/gmplayer NSF], [https://github.com/kode54/lazyusf miniusf .usflib] [https://gitlab.com/kode54/psflib with pfslib], [], [], etc |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ HarmonyPlayer hp], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/audio/index.xhtml playcdda] CDs, [ WildMidi Player], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ UADE mod player], [], [ RNOTunes], [ mp3Player], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNetRadio, AmigaAmp, playOGG, [https://codeberg.org/tygre/amimodradio amimodradio] |<!--AmigaOS4-->TuneNet, SimplePlay, AmigaAmp, TKPlayer |AmiNetRadio, Mplayer, Kaya, AmigaAmp |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Audio |<!--AROS-->[ Audio Evolution 4] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec Src], [http://www.sonicpulse.de/eng/news.html SoundFX], [ Samplitude], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec], AmiSoundED, [http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/audioevolution4.lha Audio Evolution 4] |[http://www.hd-rec.de/HD-Rec/index.php?site=home HD-Rec], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Tracker Music |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/hitchhikr/protrekkr Protrekkr], [ Schism Tracker], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/tracker MilkyTracker], [http://www.hivelytracker.com/ HivelyTracker], [ Radium in AROS already], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/development/index.xhtml libMikMod], |<!--Amiga OS-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, DigiBooster, Octamed SoundStudio, [https://github.com/elindstrom/soundtracker soundtracker], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, GoatTracker |MilkyTracker, GoatTracker, DigiBooster, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Music [], [https://github.com/kmatheussen/camd CAMD] and/or staves and musical notes on manuscript [https://github.com/ratchov/midish midish] midi sequencer |<!--AROS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars and Pipes], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars'n'Pipes], MusicX* David "Talin" Joiner & Craig Weeks (for Notator-X), Deluxe Music Construction Set DMCS2*, [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny c Src] [https://github.com/kas1e/midi-sequencer-amigaos/tree/master/HornyGCC HornyGCC OS4 src] [https://github.com/capehill/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny OS4 fork src] [https://www.amigans.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=8143&order=ASC&status=&mode=0 OS4 thread], HD-Rec, [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/dominatorV1_51 Dominator], [https://github.com/royaltm/Amiga-midiIn Amiga-midiIn], [ Aegis Sonix 2.0] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Rockbeat, [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/download.html Bars'n'Pipes], [https://github.com/gooofy/freeaction Horny OS4 src fork], Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->Bars'n'Pipes, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sound Sampling |<!--AROS-->[ Advanced AHI Recorder all], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/record Audio Evolution 4], [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&did=162 Quick Record], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc SOX to get AIFF 16bit files], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/tree/master/workbench/tools/AHIRecord AHIRecord], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/AudioEvolution3_src Audio Evolution 3 c src], [ Samplitude]*, Audiomaster IV*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/timoinutilis/phonolith-amigaos phonolith c src], HD-Rec, Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Audio Evolution 4, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Processing like easyeffects so having limiter, compressor, convolver, equalizer and auto volume and many other plugins |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Live Looping or Audio Misc - Groovebox like |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD burn |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility IsoTools], [https://code.google.com/p/amiga-fryingpan/ FryingPan], |<!--Amiga OS-->FryingPan, [ MakeCD], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FryingPan, AmiDVD, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.amiga.org/forums/printthread.php?t=58736 FryingPan], Jalopeano, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD audio rip |<!--AROS-->Lame, [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&cfid=0&did=167 Quick CDrip], |<!--Amiga OS-->Lame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Lame, |<!--MorphOS-->Lame, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->MP3 v1 and v2 Tagger |<!--AROS-->id3ren (v1), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/edit mp3info], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> | |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Convert |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc Sox], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBox SoundBox], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBoxKey SoundBox Key], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/SampleE SampleE], sox |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DJ mixing jamming |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/djh0ffman/PT1210 Hoffman PT1210 DJ tracker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Radio Automation Software [http://www.rivendellaudio.org/ Rivendell], [http://code.campware.org/projects/livesupport/report/3 Campware LiveSupport], [http://www.sourcefabric.org/en/airtime/ SourceFabric AirTime], [http://www.ohloh.net/p/mediabox404 MediaBox404], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speakers Audio Sonos Mains AC networked wired controlled *2005 ZP100 with ZP80 *2008 Zoneplayer ZP120 (multi-room wireless amp) ZP90 receiver only with CR100 controller, *2009 ZonePlayer S5, *2010 BR100 wireless Bridge (no support), *2011 Play:3 *2013 Bridge (no support), Play:1, *2016 Arc, Play:1, *Beam (Gen 2), Playbar, Ray, Era 100, Era 300, Roam, Move 2, *Sub (Gen 3), Sub Mini, Five, Amp S2 |<!--AROS-->SonosController |<!--Amiga OS-->SonosController |<!--AmigaOS4-->SonosController |<!--MorphOS-->SonosController |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Smart Speakers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Video Creativity and Production== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Video !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing Video |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ VAMP], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml CDXL player], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml IffAnimPlay], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frogger*, AMP2, MPlayer, RiVA*, MooViD*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->DvPlayer, MPlayer |<!--MorphOS-->MPlayer, Frogger, AMP2, VLC |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Streaming Video and game streaming like OBS studio, Parsec, [https://github.com/lizardbyte/sunshine sunshine], [https://github.com/moonlight-stream/moonlight-qt moonlight], etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing DVD |<!--AROS-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, Mplayer |<!--Amiga OS-->AMP2, Frogger |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, DvPlayer*, AMP2, |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Recording |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record Screenrecorder], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Screenrecorder, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Create Edit Individual Video - Amiga like OSs have no pro NLE |<!--AROS-->[ Mencoder], [ Quick Videos], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit AVIbuild], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc FrameBuild], FFMPEG, |<!--Amiga OS-->[ MainConcept Mainactor Broadcast*], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Toaster Video Toaster*] with [https://discreetfx.com/openvideotoaster.html some c src], MacroSystem MovieShop 4.3*, proDAD Adorage*, [ IOSpirit VHI studio]*, [Gold Disk ShowMaker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FFMpeg/GUI |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, Mencoder, FFmpeg |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Subtitle editor |<!--AROS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0 Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IP-based video production workflows with High Dynamic Range (HDR), 10-bit color collaborative NDI, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Blogging like Lemmy or kbin |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR face recognition for Vtubers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting Live2D models with Cubism type editor or [https://github.com/AyagamiDev/ayagami ayagami] like with zipped moc3 with model metadata (model3, cdi3) <pre> Model data (cmo3) Basic motions (can3) Background image (png) Set of files for embedding (runtime folder) • Model data (moc3) • Motion data (motion3.json) • Model settings file (model3.json) • Physics settings file (physics3.json) • Display auxiliary file (cdi3.json) </pre> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting chatters .VRML models - standardized 3D file format for VR avatars |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->V-tubers V-tubing like Vseeface with Openseeface tracker or Vpuppr (virtual puppet project) for online live 2d / 3d art models rigging rigged LIV |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Misc Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Management |<!--AROS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 DOpus Magellan aka DOpus 5], [ Scalos], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->DOpus2, DOpus 4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], ClassAction, FileMaster, [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=4897 DirWork 2]*, [https://github.com/RudolphRiedel/DiskMaster2 DiskMaster2 src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], Filer, AmiDisk |<!--MorphOS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Verification / Repair |<!--AROS-->[https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility md5sum], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool asum], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool workpar2] (PAR2), [http://zakalwe.fi/~shd/foss/cksfv/files/ compile cksfv from website], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Par2, |- |Application Installer |<!--AROS-->[], [ InstallerNG], |<!--Amiga OS-->InstallerNG, Grunch, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Jack |<!--MorphOS-->Jack |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Compression archiver [https://github.com/FS-make-simple/paq9a paq9a], [], |<!--AROS-->XAD system is a toolkit designed for handling various file and disk archiver |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://aminet.net/package/util/pack/decrunchmania_os4 Crunchmania CrM2 depacker], |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Binary Hexadecimal Editor |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Zaphod], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Partition Editor formatter Disk Management |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1440&highlight=partition&pid=8821#post_8821 QuickPart], [ HDToolBox] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/stefanskotte/hdpart hdpart], [https://github.com/ChuckyGang/AmiPart AmiPart], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Repair and backups |<!--AROS-->ArSFSDoctor, |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/disk/bakup/quarterback_src Quarterback Tools C and asm src], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Disk check, integrity and history [https://github.com/smartmontools/smartmontools smart tools], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Multiple File renaming |<!--AROS-->DOpus 4 or 5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Anti Virus |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->VChecker, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Random Wallpaper Desktop changer [ DOpus5], [ Scalos], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Alarm Clock, Timer, Stopwatch, Countdown |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench DClock], [http://aminet.net/util/time/AlarmClockAROS.lha AlarmClock], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} ==Misc Application 2== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ IDE Integrated Development |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/aidea/ AIDEa], [ Murks], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, [ StormC], [https://github.com/jens-maus/amide amide], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->CodeBench , [https://gitlab.com/boemann/codecraft CodeCraft], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ Text Editors |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd], [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd FrexxEd src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate] with [https://www.onyxsoft.se/files/annotate_src.lha src], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Protext], [ CED], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[https://www.onyxsoft.se/annotate.html Annotate], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Repository |<!--AROS-->[ Git] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->Git |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BASIC Computer Language |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/language Basic4SDL], [ Ace Basic], [ X-AMOS], [SDLBasic], [ Alvyn], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amiforce.de/main.php Amiblitz 3] with [https://github.com/AmiBlitz/AmiBlitz3 Asm src], [http://amos.condor.serverpro3.com/AmosProManual/contents/c1.html Amos Pro] with [https://github.com/AmiDARK/AmosProfessionalUnity-Official-Releases Asm src], [http://aminet.net/package/dev/basic/ace24dist ACE Basic], [https://github.com/gooofy/aqb aqb], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->sdlBasic |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Computer Languages Translation [https://tetracorp.github.io/guide/reverse-engineering-amiga.html], [https://amigasourcecodepreservation.gitlab.io/amiga-assembler-insider-guide/], [https://github.com/kermitfrog/Amiga-Re-Engineering Rust, Ghidra and FS-UAE], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://bitbucket.org/rhinoid/convert68000toc/src/main/ convert m68k seka asm-one to c], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Gui Creators |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/guitool MuiBuilder], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ MuiBuilder], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Catalog .cd .ct Custom App Language Editors |<!--AROS-->FlexCat, [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility Flexcat GUI], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://aminet.net/package/dev/misc/simplecat SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Cross Development |<!--AROS-->[], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/geekychris/amiga_mcp amiga_mcp], [https://github.com/mbergmann-sh/AmigaED4-IDE AmigaED4-IDE], [https://lemonspawn.com/turbo-rascal-syntax-error-expected-but-begin/ Turbo Rascal], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Misc Application 3== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System |<!--AROS-->[ SysExplorer], [ SysMon], [ Scout], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Terminals Shells CLIs |<!--AROS-->[https://tomaszstaniak.com/aros-term/ aros-term], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OSK On Screen Keyboard |<!--AROS-->[], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/util/wb/OSK.lha OSK] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Magnifier Magnifying Glass Magnification |<!--AROS-->[http://www.onyxsoft.se/files/zoomit.lha ZoomIT], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Comic Book CBR CBZ format reader viewer |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comics], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comicon], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Reader |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#legadon Legadon EPUB],[] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Converter |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text to Speech tts [https://github.com/JonathanFly/bark-installer Bark], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Echo " " >SPEAK:A1 inbuilt], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc flite], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.text2speech.com translator], [https://github.com/sidick/narrator.wyoming narrator.wyoming], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=search&tool=simple FLite] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://se.aminet.net/pub/aminet/mus/misc/ FLite] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Recognition Dictation - [http://sourceforge.net/projects/cmusphinx/files/ CMU Sphinx], [http://julius.sourceforge.jp/en_index.php?q=en/index.html Julius], [http://www.isip.piconepress.com/projects/speech/index.html ISIP], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Changer [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Display Blanker screensaver |<!--AROS-->Blanker Commodity (built in), [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/screenblanker GarshneBlanker], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gblanker/ GBlanker Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->MultiCX, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->ModernArt Blanker, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fortune Cookie Quotes Sayings |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc AFortune], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} ==Misc Application 4== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fractals mandelbrot, etc |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc], |<!--Amiga OS-->ZoneXplorer, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Landscape Rendering |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/raytrace WCS World Construction Set], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Vista Pro], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Construction_Set World Construction Set] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |<!--MorphOS-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astronomy [https://sourceforge.net/projects/skychart/ skychart freepascal], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Digital Almanac (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/search?query=planetarium Aminet search], [http://aminet.net/misc/sci/DA3V56ISO.zip Digital Almanac], [https://aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3sourceV58 Src c V58], [ Galileo renamed to Distant Suns]*, [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/digital-almanac/ Digital Almanac], Distant Suns*, [http://www.digitaluniverse.org.uk/ Digital Universe]*, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.aminet.net/misc/sci/da3.lha Digital Almanac], [http://www.aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3-mos-src Src c V56], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astrology [https://sourceforge.net/projects/skylendar/ skylendar], [https://github.com/CruiserOne/Astrolog Astrolog], [https://www.astrolog.org/astrolog/astfile.htm Astrology alt site], [https://saravali.github.io/download.html Maitreya], [https://github.com/alamahant/Asteria Asteria], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Genealogy History Family Tree Ancestry Records (FreeBMD, FreeREG, and FreeCEN file formats or GEDCOM GenTree) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> [ Origins], [ Your Family Tree], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Languages |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Fun School, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Mathematics ([http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~parisse/install_en.html Xcas], etc.), |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/scientific mathX] |<!--Amiga OS-->Maple V, mathX, Fun School, GCSE Maths, [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4-->Yacas |<!--MorphOS-->Yacas |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Maths Graph Function Plotting |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#MUIPlot MUIPlot], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->App Utility Launcher Dock toolbar |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/docky BoingBar], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/adkennan/DockBot Dockbot], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Printer [https://github.com/OrcaSlicer/OrcaSlicer OrcaSlicer] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PCB design |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Digital Signage |<!--AROS-->Hollywood, Hollywood Designer |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->HAM radio, amateur radio, packet radio, [], [], [], [https://cemaxecuter.com/ Dragon OS], [https://github.com/km4ack/73Linux with 73 link update], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAL5KNePRSg video for], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/punktniklas/NiKom NiKom], [https://www.amigarealm.com/amiga/amicomms/comm4.htm Comm4], [https://www.amigarealm.com/archives/comms/aarug/ TNC Terminal Node Controller with packets over serial connections on Yaesu or Woxum handheld], [https://aminet.net/comm/misc AmiCom], [ with 7Plus file encoder/decoder], [ mksstv], [ RTTYam], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->modern smart home network like Home Assistant Automation Yellow, Green, Mosquitto, EMQX, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/evil4dmin/ami2ha HA], [https://github.com/sidick/midge mtqq.lib], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiHomeassist-0.7 AmiHomeassist], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Teaching classroom learning training [https://github.com/moodle/moodle moodle], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Games & Emulation== Some emulators/games require OpenGL to function and to adjust ahi prefs channels, frequency and unit0 and unit1 and [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/users/shell/changetaskpri.php changetaskpri -1] Rom patching https://www.marcrobledo.com/RomPatcher.js/ https://www.romhacking.net/patch/ (ips, ups, bps, etc) and this other site supports the latter formats https://hack64.net/tools/patcher.php Free public domain roms for use with emulators can be found [http://www.pdroms.de/ here] as most of the rest are covered by copyright rules. If you like to read about old games see [http://retrogamingtimes.com/ here] and [http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/ here] and a [http://www.vintagecomputing.com/ blog] about old computers. Possibly some of the [http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-best-selling-computer-and-video-games best selling] of all time. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators Wiki] with emulated systems list. [https://archive.gamehistory.org/ Archive of VGHF], [https://library.gamehistory.org/ Video Game History Foundation Library search] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Emulation] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Amstrad CPC |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [ Caprice32 (OpenGL & pure SDL)], [ Arnold], [https://retroshowcase.gr/cpcbox-master/], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Apple2 and 2GS |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Arcade |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Mame], [ SI Emu (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->Mame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem xmame], amiarcadia, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 Mame], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 2600 [], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Stella], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 5200 [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A5200DS A5200DS], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 7800 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 400 800 130XL [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A8DS A8DS], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Atari800], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Lynx |<!--AROS-->[http://myfreefilehosting.com/f/6366e11bdf_1.93MB Handy (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Jaguar |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Bandai Wonderswan |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation BBC Micro and Acorn Electron [http://beehttps://bem-unix.bbcmicro.com/download.html BeebEm], [http://b-em.bbcmicro.com/ B-Em], [http://elkulator.acornelectron.co.uk/ Elkulator], [http://electrem.emuunlim.com/ ElectrEm], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Dragon 32 and Tandy CoCo [http://www.6809.org.uk/xroar/ xroar], [], |<!--AROS-->[], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C16 Plus4 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C64 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Vice (ABIv0 only)], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frodo, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem viceplus], |<!--MorphOS-->Vice, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore Amiga |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Janus UAE], Emumiga, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer UAE], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 UAE], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Japanese MSX MSX2 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Intelivision |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Colecovision and Adam |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Milton Bradley (MB) Vectrex [ Vectrex OpenGL], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation PICO8 Pico-8 fantasy video game console [https://github.com/egordorichev/pemsa-sdl/ pemsa-sdl], [https://github.com/jtothebell/fake-08 fake-08], [https://github.com/Epicpkmn11/fake-08/tree/wip fake-08 fork], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo Gameboy |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba no sound], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo NES |<!--AROS-->[ EmiNES], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Fceu], [https://github.com/takahirox/nes-js?tab=readme-ov-file nes-js], [https://github.com/bfirsh/jsnes jsnes], [https://github.com/angelo-wf/NesJs NesJs], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNES, [http://www.dridus.com/~nyef/darcnes/ darcNES], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem amines] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo SNES |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Zsnes], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem warpsnes] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://fabportnawak.free.fr/snes/ Snes9x], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo N64 *HLE and plugins [ mupen64], [https://github.com/ares-emulator/ares ares], [https://github.com/N64Recomp/N64Recomp N64Recomp], [https://github.com/rt64/rt64 rt64], [https://github.com/simple64/simple64 Simple64], *LLE [], |<!--AROS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/tr-981125_src TR64], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Gamecube Wii] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Wii U] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/yuzu-emu Nintendo Switch] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation NEC PC Engine |<!--AROS-->[], [], [https://github.com/yhzmr442/jspce js-pce], |[http://www.hugo.fr.fm/ Hugo], [http://mednafen.sourceforge.net/ Mednafen], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem tgemu] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Master System (SMS) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Dega], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem sms], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem osmose] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Genesis/Megadrive |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gp no sound], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem DGen], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/genplus-gx/ Genplus], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem genesisplus] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Saturn *HLE [https://mednafen.github.io/ mednafen], [http://yabause.org/ yabause], [], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://yabause.org/ Yabause], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Dreamcast *HLE [https://github.com/flyinghead/flycast flycast], [https://code.google.com/archive/p/nulldc/downloads NullDC], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair ZX80 and ZX81 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair Spectrum |[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Fuse (crackly sound)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer SimCoupe], [ FBZX slow], [https://jsspeccy.zxdemo.org/ jsspeccy], [http://torinak.com/qaop/games qaop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.lasernet.plus.com/ Asp], [http://www.zophar.net/sinclair.html Speculator], [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/x128/index.html X128], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair QL |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/QDOS4amiga1 QDOS4amiga] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation SNK NeoGeo Pocket |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gngeo], NeoPop, |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sony PlayStation |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS2] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS3] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://vita3k.org/ Sony Vita] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/shadps4-emu/shadPS4 PS4] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerine_Computer_Systems Tangerine] Oric and Atmos |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Oricutron] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Oricutron] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/oricutron Oricutron] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 99/4 99/4A [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/DS994a DS994a], [], [https://js99er.net/#/ js99er], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga TI4Amiga], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga_src TI4Amiga src in c], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation HP 38G 40GS 48 49G/50G Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 58 83 84 85 86 - 89 92 Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/ General] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Games [https://www.trackawesomelist.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games/ Open Source and others] || AROS || Amiga OS || Amiga OS4 || Morphos |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Action like [https://github.com/opentomb/OpenTomb opentomb], [https://github.com/LostArtefacts/TRX TRX formerly Tomb1Main], [https://github.com/TombEngine TombEngine], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Thrust], [https://github.com/fragglet/sdl-sopwith sdl sopwith], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action BOH], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/OpenLara/tree/amiga/src source of openlara SDL2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Adventure like [http://dotg.sourceforge.net/ DMJ], [https://github.com/kromenak/gengine Gabriel Knight 3], [http://www.sarien.net/ Sierra Sarien], [https://github.com/klembot/twinejs twine js], [https://github.com/QSPFoundation/qspgui Quest Soft Player QSP], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/adventure dmagnetic], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=browse&cat=emulation/misc ScummVM], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying frotz infocom], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Board like [https://github.com/aperture-software/colditz-escape escape from colditz], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/board], [http://amigan.1emu.net/releases Africa] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Cards |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/card], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=180&pid=12934#post_12934 Balatro], |<!--AmigaOS-->[http://home.arcor.de/amigasolitaire/e/welcome.html Reko], [https://github.com/samskivert/beschei-en beschei Src], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Misc [https://github.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games Awesome open], [https://github.com/bobeff/open-source-games General Open Source], [https://github.com/SAT-R/sa2 Sonic Advance 2], [https://github.com/velorek1/cwordle Wordle type], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games FPS like [https://aminet.net/package/game/shoot/D1X_Rebirth_AGA Descent D1X src], [https://github.com/DescentDevelopers/Descent3 Descent 3], [https://github.com/Fewnity/Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS], [https://github.com/Aleph-One-Marathon/alephone Bungie Marathon 1994], [https://zdoom.org/downloads UzDoom opengl 3.3], [https://github.com/ZDoom/gzdoom gzdoom opengl 3+], [https://zdoom.org/downloads LZDoom opengl 2.1], [https://github.com/OpenXRay/xray-16 S.T.A.L.K.E.R Xray], |<!--AROS-->Doom, Quake, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Quake 3 Arena (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Assault Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube 2 Sauerbraten (OpenGL)], [http://fodquake.net/test/ FodQuake QuakeWorld], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Duke Nukem 3D], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Darkplaces Nexuiz Xonotic], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Doom 3 SDL (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Hexenworld and Hexen 2], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Aliens vs Predator Gold 2000 avp (openGL)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Odamex (openGL doom)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/fps/ zgloom], [], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/fps/ ab3dhd], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Doom, Quake, AB3D, Fears, Breathless, Gloom, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Doom, Quake, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12 Doom], Quake, Quake 3 Arena, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games MMORG like |<!--AROS-->[ Eternal Lands (OpenGL)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Platform like |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform], [ Maze of Galious], [ Gish]*(openGL), [ Mega Mario], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ thextech SMBX], [http://www.gianas-return.de/ Giana's Return], [http://www.sqrxz.de/ Sqrxz], [www.sqrxz2.de/ Sqrxz 2], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-3/ Sqrxz 3], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-4/ Sqrxz 4], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform Cave Story], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ Frogatto], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ OpenJazz], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ pekkakana2], [ Aquaria], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ sonic CD], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Giana Sisters], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Puzzle [https://github.com/mariopartyrd/marioparty4/tree/port Party], [https://github.com/mdodis/OpenSolomonsKey OpenSolomonsKey], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle], [ Cubosphere (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle Candy Crisis], [http://bszili.morphos.me/ TailTale], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Racing [ Trigger Rally], [ VDrift], [http://www.ultimatestunts.nl/index.php?page=2&lang=en Ultimate Stunts], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/ Mania Drive], [https://github.com/plowteam/donut Simpsons Hit and Run], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Super Tux Kart (OpenGL)], [http://www.dusabledanslherbe.eu/AROSPage/F1Spirit.30.html F1 Spirit (OpenGL)], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html MultiRacer], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ Speed Dreams], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/driving/dethrace-0.10.1.x86_64-aros-v11.zip Carmageddon dethrace 64bit], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/index.php?downloads=yes maniadrive like trackmania], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html Speed Dreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html TORCS], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 1st first person DRPG [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/OpenEnroth/OpenEnroth OpenEnroth MM], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/aros-stuff Arx Libertatis], [http://www.playfuljs.com/a-first-person-engine-in-265-lines/ js raycaster], [https://github.com/Dorthu/es6-crpg webgl], [https://github.com/sonountaleban/AmiShockolate System Shock], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->Phantasie, Faery Tale, Dungeon Master, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 3rd third person action CRPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/alexbatalov/fallout1-ce fallout ce], [https://github.com/rwengine/openrw gta3], [https://github.com/gta-reversed/gta-reversed gta3 sa], [https://github.com/mrxenginner/reVC gta3 vc revc], [https://github.com/jakobharder/burntime/tree/main Burntime], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ fheroes2 homm2], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ breakhack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ devilutionx diablo 1 hellfire], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ fallout 1], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ stratagus], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ hostile-takeover], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games isometric RPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/topics/dungeon?l=javascript Dungeon], [], [https://github.com/clintbellanger/heroine-dusk JS Dusk], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying nethack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying GemRB], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games card based RPG [https://github.com/open-duelyst/duelyst Duelyst], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games turn based tactics RPG [], [], [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy UFO AI], [http://play.freeciv.org/ FreeCiv], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Strategy [http://rtsgus.org/ RTSgus], [http://stargus.sourceforge.net/ Stargus], [https://github.com/KD-lab-Open-Source/Perimeter Perimeter], [https://matty77.itch.io/conflict-3049 conflict-3049], [https://github.com/ZeroK-RTS/Zero-K Zero-K multi player rts lua], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy MegaGlest (OpenGL)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ signus], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=140&pid=12446#post_12446 Wargus warcraft 2 setup], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/game/strat/OpenDUNE_RTG OpenDUNE_RTG src] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Rhythm, Beat, Step [], [], [https://clonehero.net/ clonehero], [https://github.com/MatteoGodzilla/Dj-Engine Dj-Engine], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc Frets on Fire], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Shoot Em Ups [http://www.mhgames.org/oldies/formido/ Formido], [http://code.google.com/p/violetland/ Violetland], ||<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Open Tyrian], [http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ Alien Blaster], [https://github.com/OpenFodder/openfodder OpenFodder], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/action/ tbftss The Battle for the Solar System: the Pandora War] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ The Battle for the Solar System: the Pandora War] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Simulations [http://scp.indiegames.us/ Freespace 2], [http://www.heptargon.de/gl-117/gl-117.html GL117], [http://code.google.com/p/corsix-th/ Theme Hospital], [http://code.google.com/p/freerct/ Rollercoaster Tycoon], [http://hedgewars.org/ Hedgewars], [https://github.com/raceintospace/raceintospace raceintospace], [https://github.com/Return-To-The-Roots RTTR Settlers 2], [https://github.com/OoliteProject/oolite oolite elite], [https://github.com/fesh0r/newkind newkind elite], [https://github.com/bohemiainteractive/cwr Arma Cold War Src], [https://github.com/endless-sky/endless-sky endless-sky], [https://github.com/pioneerspacesim/pioneer pioneer space command], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SimCity, SimAnt, Sim Hospital, Theme Park, [https://github.com/angree/openttd_amiga_68k openttd amiga_68k], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Life Sim [https://github.com/ACreTeam/forest Animal Crossing], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Horror [https://github.com/Mikompilation/MikuPan Fatal Frame], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Sandbox Voxel Open World Exploration [https://github.com/ClassiCube/ Classicube],[http://www.michaelfogleman.com/craft/ Craft], [https://github.com/tothpaul/DelphiCraft DelphiCraft],[https://www.minetest.net/ Luanti formerly Minetest], [ infiniminer], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Battle Royale [https://bruh.io/ Play.Bruh.io], [https://www.coolmathgames.com/0-copter Copter Royale], [https://surviv.io/ Surviv.io], [https://nuggetroyale.io/#Ketchup Nugget Royale], [https://miniroyale2.io/ Miniroyale2.io], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Tower Defense [https://chriscourses.github.io/tower-defense/ HTML5], [https://github.com/SBardak/Tower-Defense-Game TD C++], [https://github.com/bdoms/love_defense LUA and LOVE], [https://github.com/HyOsori/Osori-WebGame HTML5], [https://github.com/PascalCorpsman/ConfigTD ConfigTD Pascal], [https://github.com/GloriousEggroll/wine-ge-custom Wine], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=180&pid=12871#post_12871 Plants vs Zombies PvZ], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/boingball/miggy-tower-defense miggy-tower-defense], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Visual Novel Engines [https://github.com/diane1f0cd/VisualNovelTemplate Visual Novel Template], [https://github.com/Kirilllive/tuesday-js Tuesday JS], [https://github.com/tejasnayak25/vnsutra vnsutra], [https://github.com/weetabix-su/renpsp-dev RenPSP], [https://github.com/Galladite27/ONScripter-EN ONScripter-EN], [https://github.com/NathanGuilhot/VNES-Raylib https://github.com/NathanGuilhot/VNES VNES in Raylib], [https://www.renpy.org/latest.html renpy ren'py python based], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Reality VR [https://gitlab.com/madsbuvi/openmw openmw vr], [https://github.com/Team-Beef-Studios/BeefRaiderXR BeefRaiderXR], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Table Top VTT [ Roll20], [https://www.owlbear.rodeo/ owlbear rodeo], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Computer assisted TableTop TTRPG OSR [https://www.rpgsolo.com/play.php RPGSolo], [https://github.com/fpsvogel/solo-ttrpgs Solo TTRPG], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 2D 3D Engines [https://github.com/fegennari/3DWorld 3DWorld], [https://github.com/GarageGames/Torque3D Torque3D], [https://github.com/gameplay3d/GamePlay GamePlay 3D], [https://www.babylonjs.com/ BabylonJS ], [ Godot], [ Ogre], [ Crystal Space], [https://github.com/JacobHess03/ Dragon-Quest like], [https://github.com/bjornbytes/lovr Lua LOVE for 2D LOVR for 3D], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arkhamdev.net/wiki.htm?id=agx Arkham Development antiryadgx 8.9 lts with register], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/alpyre/Sevgi_Engine Sevgi Engine], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games C based game frameworks [https://github.com/orangeduck/Corange Corange], [https://github.com/scottcgi/Mojoc Mojoc], [https://orx-project.org/ Orx], [https://github.com/ioquake/ioq3 Quake 3], [https://www.mapeditor.org/ Tiled], [https://www.raylib.com/ 2d Raylib], [https://github.com/Rabios/awesome-raylib other raylib], [https://github.com/MrFrenik/gunslinger Gunslinger], [https://o3de.org/ o3d], [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library GLFW], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library Raylib 5], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games RPGMaker MV/MZ-compatible projects [https://github.com/Psychronic-Games/RPGReactor RPGReactor js], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Pinball [https://github.com/vpinball/vpinball vpinball], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games unpack unarc [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} ==Application Guides== [[#top|...to the top]] ===Web Browser=== OWB is now at version 2.0 (which got an engine refresh, from July 2015 to February 2019) and 3.0. This latest version has a good support for many/most web sites, even YouTube web page now works. [https://www.bilibili.tv/en/search untested] This improved compatibility comes at the expense of higher RAM usage (now 1GB RAM is the absolute minimum). Also, keep in mind that the lack of a JIT (Just-In-Time) JS compiler on the 32 bit version, makes the web surfing a bit slow. Only the 64 bit version of OWB 2.0 will have JIT enabled, thus benefitting of more speed. There are tooltypes that can be added to the icon to provide further features JIT, MSE etc Certificates from [https://curl.se/docs/caextract.html ca certs], DNS tracking blocking with [https://easylist.to/easylist/easylist.txt easylist.txt] in PROGDIR:Conf before starting browser with enabled AdBlock [https://github.com/easylist/easylist/tree/master easylist], [https://gitlab.com/eyeo anti abp], [https://firebog.net/ big blocklist], [https://github.com/StevenBlack/hosts Steves], [], [], This can be enabled with OWB Odyssey with Windows -> Content Blocking and Windows -> Messages and enter https://www.youtube.com/api/stats/ads* https://www.youtube.com/pagead/adview* https://www.youtube.com#@##player-ads* into your custom filters Element blocker browser extension might be needed for [https://github.com/easylist/easylist/wiki/Youtube-Issues youtube], [ mid roll], [ pre roll], [ ], OWB speed is much better when running from RAM Disk, the best way is to add the below into your S:User-Startup which copies OWB drawer from Extras:Internet/OWB to RAM Disk: So add this : <pre> copy Extras:Internet/OWB Ram:OWB/ ALL CLONE >NIL: copy Extras:Internet/OWB.info Ram: >NIL: </pre> Open RAM Disk and open OWB drawer and double click on OWB icon so that the above icon tooltypes are activated Problems are that the copy time is long (around 20 seconds added in the background), but we can make it faster if we delete useless files from the OWB drawer (docs, …) If you don’t copy the drawer back onto the HD, you won’t save your cache, cookies, passwords… So you need a script for it. copy Extras:Internet/Amelinium/#? Ram:Amelinium/ ALL CLONE >NIL: Error messages SSL error "cant verify with ca-certificates", check bios clock time date is correct Error 6, try checking networking prefs settings and Save / Use preferences again or a '''few times''' otherwise the network chipset may not be compatible with Aros [https://www.google.com/search?q=%s&udm=14 Google search without AI overview] [ DuckDuckGo] [ Ecosia] [ Qwant] [ Swisscows] [ Mojeek] [ Brave Search] [ PreSearch] [ Startpage] ===E-mail=== Emailinium is now available for IMAP and POP3 based accounts YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections ====SimpleMail==== SimpleMail supports IMAP and appears to work with GMail, but it's never been reliable enough, it can crash with large mailboxes. Please read more on this [http://www.freelists.org/list/simplemail-usr User list] GMail Be sure to activate the pop3 usage in your gmail account setup / configuration first. pop3: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 smtp: smtp.gmail.com (with authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use SSL: Yes Port: 465 or 587 Hotmail/MSN/outlook/Microsoft Mail mid-2017, all outlook.com accounts will be migrated to Office 365 / Exchange Most users are currently on POP which does not allow showing folders and many other features (technical limitations of POP3). With Microsoft IMAP you will get folders, sync read/unread, and show flags. You still won't get push though, as Microsoft has not turned on the IMAP Idle command as at Sept 2013. If you want to try it, you need to first remove (you can't edit) your pop account (long-press the account on the accounts screen, delete account). Then set it up this way: 1. Email/Password 2. Manual 3. IMAP 4. * Incoming: imap-mail.outlook.com, port 993, SSL/TLS should be checked * Outgoing: smtp-mail.outlook.com, port 587, SSL/TLS should be checked * POP server name pop-mail.outlook.com, port 995, POP encryption method SSL Yahoo Mail On April 24, 2002 Yahoo ceased to offer POP access to its free mail service. Introducing instead a yearly payment feature, allowing users POP3 and IMAP server support, along with such benefits as larger file attachment sizes and no adverts. Sorry to see Yahoo leaving its users to cough up for the privilege of accessing their mail. Understandable, when competing against rivals such as Gmail and Hotmail who hold a large majority of users and were hacked in 2014 as well. Incoming Mail (IMAP) Server * Server - imap.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 993 * Requires SSL - Yes Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server * Server - smtp.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 465 or 587 * Requires SSL - Yes * Requires authentication - Yes Your login info * Email address - Your full email address (name@domain.com) * Password - Your account's password * Requires authentication - Yes Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a subscription subs fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 * Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. * “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. * “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com * “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. * Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. ====YAM Yet Another Mailer==== YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers have now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections This email client is POP3 only if the SSL library is available [http://www.freelists.org/list/yam YAM Freelists] One of the downsides of using a POP3 mailer unfortunately - you have to set an option not to delete the mail if you want it left on the server. IMAP keeps all the emails on the server. Possible issues Sending mail issues is probably a matter of using your ISP's SMTP server, though it could also be an SSL issue. getting a "Couldn't initialise TLSv1 / SSL error Use of on-line e-mail accounts with this email client is not possible as it lacks the OpenSSL AmiSSl v3 compatible library GMail Incoming Mail (POP3) Server - requires SSL: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server - requires TLS: smtp.gmail.com (use authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use STARTTLS: Yes (some clients call this SSL) Port: 465 or 587 Account Name: your Gmail username (including '@gmail.com') Email Address: your full Gmail email address (username@gmail.com) Password: your Gmail password Anyway, the SMTP is pop.gmail.com port 465 and it uses SSLLv3 Authentication. The POP3 settings are for the same server (pop.gmail.com), only on port 995 instead. Outlook.com access <pre > Outlook.com SMTP server address: smtp.live.com Outlook.com SMTP user name: Your full Outlook.com email address (not an alias) Outlook.com SMTP password: Your Outlook.com password Outlook.com SMTP port: 587 Outlook.com SMTP TLS/SSL encryption required: yes </pre > Yahoo Mail <pre > “POP3 Server” – Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. “SMTP Server” – Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. </pre > Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a monthly fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 Microsoft Outlook Express Mail 1. Get the files to your PC. By whatever method get the files off your Amiga onto your PC. In the YAM folder you have a number of different folders, one for each of your folders in YAM. Inside that is a file usually some numbers such as 332423.283. YAM created a new file for every single email you received. 2. Open up a brand new Outlook Express. Just configure the account to use 127.0.0.1 as mail servers. It doesn't really matter. You will need to manually create any subfolders you used in YAM. 3. You will need to do a mass rename on all your email files from YAM. Just add a .eml to the end of it. Amazing how PCs still rely mostly on the file name so it knows what sort of file it is rather than just looking at it! There are a number of multiple renamers online to download and free too. 4. Go into each of your folders, inbox, sent items etc. And do a select all then drag the files into Outlook Express (to the relevant folder obviously) Amazingly the file format that YAM used is very compatible with .eml standard and viola your emails appear. With correct dates and working attachments. 5. If you want your email into Microsoft Outlook. Open that up and create a new profile and a new blank PST file. Then go into File Import and choose to import from Outlook Express. And the mail will go into there. And viola.. you have your old email from your Amiga in a more modern day format. ===FTP=== Magellan has a great FTP module. It allows transferring files from/to a FTP server over the Internet or the local network and, even if FTP is perceived as a "thing of the past", its usability is all inside the client. The FTP thing has a nice side effect too, since every Icaros machine can be a FTP server as well, and our files can be easily transferred from an Icaros machine to another with a little configuration effort. First of all, we need to know the 'server' IP address. Server is the Icaros machine with the file we are about to download on another Icaros machine, that we're going to call 'client'. To do that, move on the server machine and 1) run Prefs/Services to be sure "FTP file transfer" is enabled (if not, enable it and restart Icaros); 2) run a shell and enter this command: ifconfig -a Make a note of the IP address for the network interface used by the local area network. For cabled devices, it usually is net0:. Now go on the client machine and run Magellan: Perform these actions: 1) click on FTP; 2) click on ADDRESS BOOK; 3) click on "New". You can now add a new entry for your Icaros server machine: 1) Choose a name for your server, in order to spot it immediately in the address book. Enter the IP address you got before. 2) click on Custom Options: 1) go to Miscellaneous in the left menu; 2) Ensure "Passive Transfers" is NOT selected; 3) click on Use. We need to deactivate Passive Transfers because YAFS, the FTP server included in Icaros, only allows active transfers at the current stage. Now, we can finally connect to our new file source: 1) Look into the address book for the newly introduced server, be sure that name and IP address are right, and 2) click on Connect. A new lister with server's "MyWorkspace" contents will appear. You can now transfer files over the network choosing a destination among your local (client's) volumes. Can be adapted to any FTP client on any platform of your choice, just be sure your client allows Active Transfers as well. ===IRC Internet Relay Chat=== Jabberwocky is ideal for one-to-one social media communication, use IRC if you require one to many. Just type a message in ''lowercase''' letters and it will be posted to all in the [ AROS irc channel]. Please do not use UPPER CASE as it is a sign of SHOUTING which is annoying. Other things to type in - replace <message> with a line of text and <nick> with a person's name <pre> /help /list /who /whois <nick> /msg <nick> <message> /query <nick> <message>s /query /away <message> /away /quit <going away message> </pre> [http://irchelp.org/irchelp/new2irc.html#smiley Intro guide here]. IRC Primer can be found here in [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircprimer.html html], [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/text/ircprimer.txt TXT], [http://www.kei.com/irc/IRCprimer1.1.ps PostScript]. Issue the command /me <text> where <text> is the text that should follow your nickname. Example: /me slaps ajk around a bit with a large trout /nick <newNick> /nickserv register <password> <email address> /ns instead of /nickserv, while others might need /msg nickserv /nickserv identify <password> Alternatives: /ns identify <password> /msg nickserv identify <password> ==== IRC WookieChat ==== WookieChat is the most complete internet client for communication across the IRC Network. WookieChat allows you to swap ideas and communicate in real-time, you can also exchange Files, Documents, Images and everything else using the application's DCC capabilities. add smilies drawer/directory run wookiechat from the shell and set stack to 1000000 e.g. wookiechat stack 1000000 select a server / server window * nickname * user name * real name - optional Once you configure the client with your preferred screen name, you'll want to find a channel to talk in. servers * New Server - click on this to add / add extra - change details in section below this click box * New Group * Delete Entry * Connect to server * connect in new tab * perform on connect Change details * Servername - change text in this box to one of the below Server: * Port number - no need to change * Server password * Channel - add #channel from below * auto join - can click this * nick registration password, Click Connect to server button above <pre> Server: irc.freenode.net Channel: #aros </pre> irc://irc.freenode.net/aros <pre> Server: chat.amigaworld.net Channel: #amigaworld or #amigans </pre> <pre> On Sunday evenings USA time usually starting around 3PM EDT (1900 UTC) Server:irc.superhosts.net Channel #team*amiga </pre> <pre> BitlBee and Minbif are IRCd-like gateways to multiple IM networks Server: im.bitlbee.org Port 6667 Seems to be most useful on WookieChat as you can be connected to several servers at once. One for Bitlbee and any messages that might come through that. One for your normal IRC chat server. </pre> [http://www.bitlbee.org/main.php/servers.html Other servers], <pre> #Amiga.org - irc.synirc.net eu.synirc.net dissonance.nl.eu.synirc.net (IPv6: 2002:5511:1356:0:216:17ff:fe84:68a) twilight.de.eu.synirc.net zero.dk.eu.synirc.net us.synirc.net avarice.az.us.synirc.net envy.il.us.synirc.net harpy.mi.us.synirc.net liberty.nj.us.synirc.net snowball.mo.us.synirc.net - Ports 6660-6669 7001 (SSL) </pre> <pre> Multiple server support "Perform on connect" scripts and channel auto-joins Automatic Nickserv login Tabs for channels and private conversations CTCP PING, TIME, VERSION, SOUND Incoming and Outgoing DCC SEND file transfers Colours for different events Logging and automatic reloading of logs mIRC colour code filters Configurable timestamps GUI for changing channel modes easily Configurable highlight keywords URL Grabber window Optional outgoing swear word filter Event sounds for tabs opening, highlighted words, and private messages DCC CHAT support Doubleclickable URL's Support for multiple languages using LOCALE Clone detection Auto reconnection to Servers upon disconnection Command aliases Chat display can be toggled between AmIRC and mIRC style Counter for Unread messages Graphical nicklist and graphical smileys with a popup chooser </pre> ====IRC Aircos ==== Double click on Aircos icon in Extras:Networking/Apps/Aircos. It has been set up with a guest account for trial purposes. Though ideally, choose a nickname and password for frequent use of irc. ====IRC and XMPP Jabberwocky==== Servers are setup and close down at random You sign up to a server that someone else has setup and access chat services through them. The two ways to access chat from jabberwocky <pre > Jabberwocky -> Server -> XMPP -> open and ad-free Jabberwocky -> Server -> Transports (Gateways) -> Proprietary closed systems </pre > The Jabber.org service connects with all IM services that use XMPP, the open standard for instant messaging and presence over the Internet. The services we connect with include Google Talk (closed), Live Journal Talk, Nimbuzz, Ovi, and thousands more. However, you can not connect from Jabber.org to proprietary services like AIM, ICQ, MSN, Skype, or Yahoo because they don’t yet use XMPP components (XEP-0114) '''but''' you can use Jabber.com's servers and IM gateways (MSN, ICQ, Yahoo etc.) instead. The best way to use jabberwocky is in conjunction with a public jabber server with '''transports''' to your favorite services, like gtalk, Facebook, yahoo, ICQ, AIM, etc. You have to register with one of the servers, [https://list.jabber.at/ this list] or [http://www.jabberes.org/servers/ another list], [http://xmpp.net/ this security XMPP list], Unfortunately jabberwocky can only connect to one server at a time so it is best to check what services each server offers. If you set it up with separate Facebook and google talk accounts, for example, sometimes you'll only get one or the other. Jabberwocky open a window where the Jabber server part is typed in as well as your Nickname and Password. Jabber ID (JID) identifies you to the server and other users. Once registered the next step is to goto Jabberwocky's "Windows" menu and select the "Agents" option. The "Agents List" window will open. Roster (contacts list) [http://search.wensley.org.uk/ Chatrooms] (MUC) are available File Transfer - can send and receive files through the Jabber service but not with other services like IRC, ICQ, AIM or Yahoo. All you need is an installed webbrowser and OpenURL. Clickable URLs - The message window uses Mailtext.mcc and you can set a URL action in the MUI mailtext prefs like SYS:Utils/OpenURL %s NEWWIN. There is no consistent Skype like (H.323 VoIP) video conferencing available over Jabber. The move from xmpp to Jingle should help but no support on any amiga-like systems at the moment. [http://aminet.net/package/dev/src/AmiPhoneSrc192 AmiPhone] and [http://www.lysator.liu.se/%28frame,faq,nobg,useframes%29/ahi/v4-site/ Speak Freely] was an early attempt voice only contact. SIP and Asterisk are other PBX options. Facebook If you're using the XMPP transport provided by Facebook themselves, chat.facebook.com, it looks like they're now requiring SSL transport. This means jabberwocky method below will no longer work. The best thing to do is to create an ID on a public jabber server which has a Facebook gateway. <pre > 1. launch jabberwocky 2. if the login window doesn't appear on launch, select 'account' from the jabberwocky menu 3. your jabber ID will be user@chat.facebook.com where user is your user ID 4. your password is your normal facebook password 5. to save this for next time, click the popup gadget next to the ID field 6. click the 'add' button 7. click the 'close' button 8. click the 'connect' button </pre > you're done. you can also click the 'save as default account' button if you want. jabberwocky configured to auto-connect when launching the program, but you can configure as you like. there is amigaguide documentation included with jabberwocky. [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=37085&forum=32 Read more here] for Facebook users, you can log-in directly to Facebook with jabberwocky. just sign in as @chat.facebook.com with your Facebook password as the password Twitter For a few years, there has been added a twitter transport. Servers include [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/ jabber.hot-chili.net], and . An [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/tag/how-tos/ How-to] :Read [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/2010/05/09/twitter-transport-working/ more] Instagram no support at the moment best to use a web browser based client ICQ The new version (beta) of StriCQ uses a newer ICQ protocol. Most of the ICQ Jabber Transports still use an older ICQ protocol. You can only talk one-way to StriCQ using the older Transports. Only the newer ICQv7 Transport lets you talk both ways to StriCQ. Look at the server lists in the first section to check. Register on a Jabber server, e.g. this one works: http://www.jabber.de/ Then login into Jabberwocky with the following login data e.g. xxx@jabber.de / Password: xxx Now add your ICQ account under the window->Agents->"Register". Now Jabberwocky connects via the Jabber.de server with your ICQ account. Yahoo Messenger although yahoo! does not use xmpp protocol, you should be able to use the transport methods to gain access and post your replies MSN early months of 2013 Microsoft will ditch MSN Messenger client and force everyone to use Skype...but MSN protocol and servers will keep working as usual for quite a long time.... Occasionally the Messenger servers have been experiencing problems signing in. You may need to sign in at www.outlook.com and then try again. It may also take multiple tries to sign in. (This also affects you if you’re using Skype.) You have to check each servers' Agents List to see what transports (MSN protocol, ICQ protocol, etc.) are supported or use the list address' provided in the section above. Then register with each transport (IRC, MSN, ICQ, etc.) to which you need access. After registering you can Connect to start chatting. msn.jabber.com/registered should appear in the window. From this [http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/amiga-jabberwocky/message/1378 JW group] guide which helps with this process in a clear, step by step procedure. 1. Sign up on MSN's site for a passport account. This typically involves getting a Hotmail address. 2. Log on to the Jabber server of your choice and do the following: * Select the "Windows/Agents" menu option in Jabberwocky. * Select the MSN Agent from the list presented by the server. * Click the Register button to open a new window asking for: **Username = passort account email address, typically your hotmail address. **Nick = Screen name to be shown to anyone you add to your buddy list. **Password = Password for your passport account/hotmail address. * Click the Register button at the bottom of the new window. 3. If all goes well, you will see the MSN Gateway added to your buddy list. If not, repeat part 2 on another server. Some servers may show MSN in their list of available agents, but have not updated their software for the latest protocols used by MSN. 4. Once you are registered, you can now add people to your buddy list. Note that you need to include the '''msn.''' ahead of the servername so that it knows what gateway agent to use. Some servers may use a slight variation and require '''msg.gate.''' before the server name, so try both to see what works. If my friend's msn was amiga@hotmail.co.uk and my jabber server was @jabber.meta.net.nz.. then amiga'''%'''hotmail.com@'''msn.'''jabber.meta.net.nz or another the trick to import MSN contacts is that you don't type the hotmail URL but the passport URL... e.g. Instead of: goodvibe%hotmail.com@msn.jabber.com You type: goodvibe%passport.com@msn.jabber.com And the thing about importing contacts I'm afraid you'll have to do it by hand, one at the time... Google Talk any XMPP server will work, but you have to add your contacts manually. a google talk user is typically either @gmail.com or @talk.google.com. a true gtalk transport is nice because it brings your contacts to you and (can) also support file transfers to/from google talk users. implement Jingle a set of extensions to the IETF's Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support ended early 2014 as Google moved to Google+ Hangouts which uses it own proprietary format ===Video Player MPlayer=== Many of the menu features (such as doubling) do not work with the current version of mplayer but using 4:3 mplayer -vf scale=800:600 file.avi 16:9 mplayer -vf scale=854:480 file.avi if you want gui use; mplayer -gui 1 <other params> file.avi <pre > stack 1000000 ; using AspireOS 1.xx ; copy FROM SYS:Extras/Multimedia/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 1.x ; copy FROM SYS:Tools/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 2.x ; copy FROM SYS:Utilities/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: cd RAM:MPlayer run MPlayer -gui > Nil: ;run MPlayer -gui -ao ahi_dev -playlist http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls > Nil: </pre > $ mplayer rtsp://127.0.0.1:554/sample_300kbit.mp4 MPlayer supports multicast streaming, and rtp/rtsp protocols (it might require [http://www.live555.com/openRTSP/ live555 library] to work with some streams). But you might have to build it where it's disabled. Also, multicast won't work with some AmiTCP-likes. MIAMI supported it, though. AROS supports IPv4 (old but works) and this includes the needed address space for RTP. If you mean multicast via RTP - mplayer handles it. You can even force UDP over TCP -rtsp-stream-over-tcp If the rtsp Real Time Streaming Protocol server needs authentification: -user -passwd MPlayer - Menu - Open Playlist and load already downloaded .pls or .m3u file - auto starts around 4 percent cache MPlayer - Menu - Open Stream and copy one of the .pls lines below into space allowed, press OK and press play button on main gui interface Old 8bit 16bit remixes chip tune game music http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls http://scenesat.com/ http://www.shoutcast.com/radio/Amiga http://www.theoldcomputer.com/retro_radio/RetroRadio_Main.htm http://www.kohina.com/ http://www.remix64.com/ http://retrogamer.net/forum/ http://retroasylum.podomatic.com/rss2.xml http://retrogamesquad.com/ http://www.retronauts.com/ http://monsterfeet.com/noquarter/ http://www.retrogamingradio.com/ http://www.radiofeeds.co.uk/mp3.asp [[#top|...to the top]] ====ZunePaint==== simplified typical workflow * importing and organizing and photo management * making global and regional local correction(s) - recalculation is necessary after each adjustment as it is not in real-time * exporting your images in the best format available with the preservation of metadata Whilst achieving 80% of a great photo with just a filter, the remaining 20% comes from a manual fine-tuning of specific image attributes. For photojournalism, documentary, and event coverage, minimal touching is recommended. Stick to Camera Raw for such shots, and limit changes to level adjustment, sharpness, noise reduction, and white balance correction. For fashion or portrait shoots, a large amount of adjustment is allowed and usually ends up far from the original. Skin smoothing, blemish removal, eye touch-ups, etc. are common. Might alter the background a bit to emphasize the subject. Product photography usually requires a lot of sharpening, spot removal, and focus stacking. For landscape shots, best results are achieved by doing the maximum amount of preparation before/while taking the shot. No amount of processing can match timing, proper lighting, correct gear, optimal settings, etc. Excessive post-processing might give you a dramatic shot but best avoided in the long term. * White Balance - Left Amiga or F12 and K and under "Misc color effects" tab with a pull down for White Balance - color temperature also known as AKA tint (movies) or tones (painting) - warm temp raise red reduce green blue - cool raise blue lower red green * Exposure - exposure compensation, highlight/shadow recovery * Noise Reduction - during RAW development or using external software * Lens Corrections - distortion, vignetting, chromatic aberrations * Detail - capture sharpening and local contrast enhancement * Contrast - black point, levels (sliders) and curves tools (F12 and K) * Framing - straighten () and crop (F12 and F) * Refinements - color adjustments and selective enhancements - Left Amiga or F12 and K for RGB and YUV histogram tabs - * Resizing - enlarge for a print or downsize for the web or email (F12 and D) * Output Sharpening - customized for your subject matter and print/screen size White Balance - F12 and K scan your image for a shade which was meant to be white (neutral with each RGB value being equal) like paper or plastic which is in the same light as the subject of the picture. Use the dropper tool to select this color, similar colours will shift and you will have selected the perfect white balance for your part of the image - for the whole picture make sure RAZ or CLR button at the bottom is pressed before applying to the image above. Exposure correction F12 and K - YUV Y luminosity - RGB extra red tint - move red curve slightly down and move blue green curves slightly up Workflows in practice * Undo - Right AROS key or F12 and Z * Redo - Right AROS key or F12 and R First flatten your image (if necessary) and then do a rotation until the picture looks level. * Crop the picture. Click the selection button and drag a box over the area of the picture you want to keep. Press the crop button and the rest of the photo will be gone. * Adjust your saturation, exposure, hue levels, etc., (right AROS Key and K for color correction) until you are happy with the photo. Make sure you zoom in all of the way to 100% and look the photo over, zoom back out and move around. Look for obvious problems with the picture. * After coloring and exposure do a sharpen (Right AROS key and E for Convolution and select drop down option needed), e.g. set the matrix to 5x5 (roughly equivalent Amount to 60%) and set the Radius to 1.0. Click OK. And save your picture Implemented or would like to see for simplification and ease of use basic filters (presets) like black and white, monochrome, edge detection (sobel), motion/gaussian blur, * negative, sepiatone, retro vintage, night vision, colour tint, color gradient, color temperature, glows, fire, lightning, lens flare, emboss, filmic, pixelate mezzotint, antialias, etc. adjust / cosmetic tools such as crop, * reshaping tools, straighten, smear, smooth, perspective, liquify, bloat, pucker, push pixels in any direction, dispersion, transform like warp, blending with soft light, page-curl, whirl, ripple, fisheye, neon, etc. * red eye fixing, blemish remover, skin smoothing, teeth whitener, make eyes look brighter, desaturate, effects like oil paint, cartoon, pencil sketch, charcoal, noise/matrix like sharpen/unsharpen, (right AROS key with A for Artistic effects) * blend two image, gradient blend, masking blend, explode, implode, custom collage, surreal painting, comic book style, needlepoint, stained glass, watercolor, mosaic, stencil/outline, crayon, chalk, etc. borders such as * dropshadow, rounded, blurred, color tint, picture frame, film strip polaroid, bevelled edge, etc. brushes e.g. * frost, smoke, etc. and manual control of fix lens issues including vignetting (darkening), color fringing and barrel distortion, and chromatic and geometric aberration - lens and body profiles perspective correction levels - directly modify the levels of the tone-values of an image, by using sliders for highlights, midtones and shadows curves - Color Adjustment and Brightness/Contrast color balance one single color transparent (alpha channel (color information/selections) for masking and/or blending ) for backgrounds, etc. Threshold indicates how much other colors will be considered mixture of the removed color and non-removed colors decompose layer into a set of layers with each holding a different type of pattern that is visible within the image any selection using any selecting tools like lasso tool, marquee tool etc. the selection will temporarily be save to alpha If you create your image without transparency then the Alpha channel is not present, but you can add later. File formats like .psd (Photoshop file has layers, masks etc. contains edited sensor data. The original sensor data is no longer available) .xcf .raw .hdr Image Picture Formats * low dynamic range (JPEG, PNG, TIFF 8-bit), 16-bit (PPM, TIFF), typically as a 16-bit TIFF in either ProPhoto or AdobeRGB colorspace - TIFF files are also fairly universal – although, if they contain proprietary data, such as Photoshop Adjustment Layers or Smart Filters, then they can only be opened by Photoshop making them proprietary. * linear high dynamic range (HDR) images (PFM, [http://www.openexr.com/ ILM .EXR], jpg, [http://aminet.net/util/dtype cr2] (canon tiff based), hdr, NEF, CRW, ARW, MRW, ORF, RAF (Fuji), PEF, DCR, SRF, ERF, DNG files are RAW converted to an Adobe proprietary format - a container that can embed the raw file as well as the information needed to open it) An old version of [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert dcraw] There is no single RAW file format. Each camera manufacturer has one or more unique RAW formats. RAW files contain the brightness levels data captured by the camera sensor. This data cannot be modified. A second smaller file, separate XML file, or within a database with instructions for the RAW processor to change exposure, saturation etc. The extra data can be changed but the original sensor data is still there. RAW is technically least compatible. A raw file is high-bit (usually 12 or 14 bits of information) but a camera-generated TIFF file will be usually converted by the camera (compressed, downsampled) to 8 bits. The raw file has no embedded color balance or color space, but the TIFF has both. These three things (smaller bit depth, embedded color balance, and embedded color space) make it so that the TIFF will lose quality more quickly with image adjustments than the raw file. The camera-generated TIFF image is much more like a camera processed JPEG than a raw file. A strong advantage goes to the raw file. The power of RAW files, such as the ability to set any color temperature non-destructively and will contain more tonal values. The principle of preserving the maximum amount of information to as late as possible in the process. The final conversion - which will always effectively represent a "downsampling" - should prevent as much loss as possible. Once you save it as TIFF, you throw away some of that data irretrievably. When saving in the lossy JPEG format, you get tremendous file size savings, but you've irreversibly thrown away a lot of image data. As long as you have the RAW file, original or otherwise, you have access to all of the image data as captured. Keyboard equivalence with Photoshop(tm) would help File PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Ctrl+n New Open Ctrl+o Open Close Ctrl+w Close Save Ctrl+s Save Save as Shift+Ctrl+s Save as Revert F12 Revert Print Ctrl+p Print Exit Ctrl+q Quit Edit PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Undo/Redo (1 level) Ctrl+z Undo (Redo is Shift+Ctrl+z) Cut Ctrl+x Cut Copy Ctrl+c Copy Paste Ctrl+v Paste Paste Into Shift+Ctrl+v Paste Into Fill with FG color Alt+Backspace Fill with FG color Fill with BG color Control+Backspace Fill with BG color Image/Colors PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Levels Ctrl+l Levels Auto Contrast Shift+Ctrl+Alt+l Stretch Contrast (same?) Curves Ctrl+m Curves Color Balance Ctrl+b Color Balance Hue/Saturation Ctrl+u Hue-Saturation Desaturate Shift+Ctrl+u Desaturate Invert Ctrl+i Invert Default Colors d Default Colors Switch Colors x Switch Colors Layer PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Layer Shift+Ctrl+n New Layer Layer via Copy Ctrl+j Duplicate Layer Bring (layer) to Front Shift+Ctrl+] Layer to Top Send (layer) to Back Shift+Ctrl+[ Layer to Bottom Bring (layer) Forward Ctrl+] Raise Layer Send (layer) Backward Ctrl+[ Lower Layer Select Top Layer Shift+Alt+] Select Top Layer Select Bottom Layer Shift+Alt+[ Select Bottom Layer Select One Layer Forward Alt+] Select Previous Layer Select One Layer Backward Alt+[ Select Next Layer Merge Down Ctrl+e Merge Down Merge Visible Shift+Ctrl+e Merge Visible Preserve Transparency / Keep Transparency Cycle Modes Forwards Shift+= Next Layer Mode Cycle Modes Backwards Shift+- Previous Layer Mode Select PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Select All Ctrl+a Select All Deselect Ctrl+d Select None Inverse Shift+Ctrl+i Invert Feather Ctrl+Alt+d Feather View PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Zoom In Ctrl+= Zoom In Zoom Out Ctrl+- Zoom Out Fit on Screen Ctrl+0 Zoom to Fit Window Actual Pixels Ctrl+Alt+0 Zoom 1:1 Show/Hide Extras Ctrl+h Toggle Show Selection (close enough?) Show/Hide Guides Ctrl+' Toggle Show Guides Show/Hide Grid Ctrl+Alt+' Toggle Show Grid Show/Hide Rulers Ctrl+r Toggle Show Rulers Snap Ctrl+; Snap to Guides Scroll View Up Page Up Scroll Page Up Scroll View Down Page Down Scroll Page Down Scroll View Left Ctrl+Page Up Scroll Page Left Scroll View Right Ctrl+Page Down Scroll Page Right Window/Dialogs PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP ? F5 Tools Dialog Color Tab F6 Colors Dialog Layers Tab F7 Layers Dialog Info Tab F8 Image Information Tools PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Rectangular Marquee Tool m Rect Select Tool Elliptical Marquee Tool Shift+m Ellipse Select Tool *This is a toggle between 'Elliptical Marquee Tool' and 'Rectangular Marquee Tool' in Photoshop Move Tool v Move Tool Lasso Tool l Free Select Tool Magic Wand Tool w Fuzzy Select Tool Crop Tool c Crop & Resize Tool Airbrush Tool j Airbrush Tool Paintbrush Tool b Paintbrush Tool Clone Stamp Tool s Clone Stamp Tool Eraser Tool e Eraser Tool Gradient Tool g Blend Tool Paint Bucket Tool Shift+g Bucket Fill Tool *This is a toggle between 'Paint Bucket Tool' and 'Gradient Tool' in Photoshop Blur Tool r Convolve Tool Dodge Tool o DodgeBurn Tool Type Tool t Text Tool Pen Tool p Bezier Select Tool Eye Dropper Tool i Color Picker Tool Zoom Tool z Magnify Tool Previous Brush , Previous Brush Next Brush . Next Brush First Brush Shift+< First Brush Last Brush Shift+> Last Brush Decrease Brush Size [ Decrease Brush Size Increase Brush Size ] Increase Brush Size Decrease Brush Hardness { Decrease Brush Hardness Increase Brush Hardness } Increase Brush Hardness Help PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Help F1 Help Context Help Shift+F1 Context Help Misc. PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Last Filter Ctrl+f Repeat Last Filter ? Shift+Ctrl+f Reshow Last Filter Preferences Ctrl+k Preferences Liquify Shift+Ctrl+x IWarp (close enough?) Toggle Quick Mask q Toggle Quick Mask Spotlights - triangle of white opaque shape Cutting out and/or replacing unwanted background or features - select large areas with the selection option like the Magic Wand tool (aka Color Range) or the Lasso (quick and fast) with feather 2 to soften edge or the pen tool which adds points/lines/Bézier curves (better control but slower), hold down the shift button as you click to add extra points/areas of the subject matter to remove. Increase the tolerance to cover more areas. To subtract from your selection hold down alt as you're clicking. * Layer masks are a better way of working than Erase they clip (black hides/hidden white visible/reveal). Clone Stamp can be simulated by and brushes for other areas. * Leave the fine details like hair, fur, etc. to later with lasso and the shift key to draw a line all the way around your subject. Gradient Mapping - Inverse - Mask. i.e. Refine your selected image with edge detection and using the radius and edge options / adjuster (increase/decrease contrast) so that you will capture more fine detail from the background allowing easier removal. Remove fringe/halo saving image as png rather than jpg/jpeg to keep transparency background intact. Implemented [http://colorizer.org/ colour model representations] [http://paulbourke.net/texture_colour/colourspace/ Mathematical approach] - Photo stills are spatially 2d (h and w), but are colorimetrically 3d (r g and b, or H L S, or Y U V etc.) as well. * RGB - split cubed mapped color model for photos and computer graphics hardware using the light spectrum (adding and subtracting) * YUV - Y-Lightness U-blue/yellow V-red/cyan (similar to YPbPr and YCbCr) used in the PAL, NTSC, and SECAM composite digital TV color [http://crewofone.com/2012/chroma-subsampling-and-transcoding/#comment-7299 video] Histograms White balanced (neutral) if the spike happens in the same place in each channel of the RGB graphs. If not, you're not balanced. If you have sky you'll see the blue channel further off to the right. RGB is best one to change colours. These elements RGB is a 3-channel format containing data for Red, Green, and Blue in your photo scale between 0 and 255. The area in a picture that appears to be brighter/whiter contains more red color as compared to the area which is relatively darker. Similarly in the green channel the area that appears to be darker contains less amount of green color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Similarly in the blue channel the area appears to be darker contains less amount of blue color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Brightness luminance histogram also matches the green histogram more than any other color - human eye interprets green better e.g. RGB rough ratio 15/55/30% RGBA (RGB+A, A means alpha channel) . The alpha channel is used for "alpha compositing", which can mostly be associated as "opacity". AROS deals in RGB with two digits for every color (red, green, blue), in ARGB you have two additional hex digits for the alpha channel. The shadows are represented by the left third of the graph. The highlights are represented by the right third. And the midtones are, of course, in the middle. The higher the black peaks in the graph, the more pixels are concentrated in that tonal range (total black area). By moving the black endpoint, which identifies the shadows (darkness) and a white light endpoint (brightness) up and down either sides of the graph, colors are adjusted based on these points. By dragging the central one, can increased the midtones and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . RGB Curves * Move left endpoint (black point) up or right endpoint (white point) up brightens * Move left endpoint down or right endpoint down darkens Color Curves * Dragging up on the Red Curve increases the intensity of the reds in the image but * Dragging down on the Red Curve decreases the intensity of the reds and thus increases the apparent intensity of its complimentary color, cyan. Green’s complimentary color is magenta, and blue’s is yellow. <pre> Red <-> Cyan Green <->Magenta Blue <->Yellow </pre> YUV Best option to analyse and pull out statistical elements of any picture (i.e. separate luminance data from color data). The line in Y luma tone box represents the brightness of the image with the point in the bottom left been black, and the point in the top right as white. A low-contrast image has a concentrated clump of values nearer to the center of the graph. By comparison, a high-contrast image has a wider distribution of values across the entire width of the Histogram. A histogram that is skewed to the right would indicate a picture that is a bit overexposed because most of the color data is on the lighter side (increase exposure with higher value F), while a histogram with the curve on the left shows a picture that is underexposed. This is good information to have when using post-processing software because it shows you not only where the color data exists for a given picture, but also where any data has been clipped (extremes on edges of either side): that is, it does not exist and, therefore, cannot be edited. By dragging the endpoints of the line and as well as the central one, can increased the dark/shadows, midtones and light/bright parts and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . The U and V chroma parts show color difference components of the image. It’s useful for checking whether or not the overall chroma is too high, and also whether it’s being limited too much Can be used to create a negative image but also With U (Cb), the higher value you are, the more you're on the blue primary color. If you go to the low values then you're on blue complementary color, i.e. yellow. With V (Cr), this is the same principle but with Red and Cyan. e.g. If you push U full blue and V full red, you get magenta. If you push U full yellow and V full Cyan then you get green. YUV simultaneously adds to one side of the color equation while subtracting from the other. using YUV to do color correction can be very problematic because each curve alters the result of each other: the mutual influence between U and V often makes things tricky. You may also be careful in what you do to avoid the raise of noise (which happens very easily). Best results are obtained with little adjustments sunset that looks uninspiring and needs some color pop especially for the rays over the hill, a subtle contrast raise while setting luma values back to the legal range without hard clipping. ====Lunapaint==== Pixel based drawing app with onion-skin animation function Blocking, Shading, Coloring, adding detail <pre> b BRUSH e ERASER alt eyedropper v layer tool z ZOOM / MAGNIFY < > n spc panning m marque q lasso w same color selection / region </pre> <pre> , LM RM v V f filter F . size p , pick color [] last / next color </pre> There is not much missing in Lunapaint to be as good as FlipBook and then you have to take into account that Flipbook is considered to be amongst the best and easiest to use animation software out there. Ok to be honest Flipbook has some nice features that require more heavy work but those aren't so much needed right away, things like camera effects, sound, smart fill, export to different movie file formats etc. Tried Flipbook with my tablet and compared it to Luna. The feeling is the same when sketching. LunaPaint is very responsive/fluent to draw with. Just as Flipbook is, and that responsiveness is something its users have mentioned as one of the positive sides of said software. author was learning MUI. Some parts just have to be rewritten with proper MUI classes before new features can be added. * add [Frame Add] / [Frame Del] * whole animation feature is impossible to use. If you draw 2 color maybe but if you start coloring your cells then you get in trouble * pickup the entire image as a brush, not just a selection ? And consequently remove the brush from memory when one doesn't need it anymore. can pick up a brush and put it onto a new image but cropping isn't possible, nor to load/save brushes. * Undo is something I longed for ages in Lunapaint. * to import into the current layer, other types of images (e.g. JPEG) besides RAW64. * implement graphic tablet features support **GENERAL DRAWING** Miss it very much: UNDO ERASER COLORPICKER - has to show on palette too which color got picked. BACKGROUND COLOR -Possibility to select from "New project screen" Miss it somewhat: ICON for UNDO ICON for ERASER ICON for CLEAR SCREEN ( What can I say? I start over from scratch very often ) BRUSH - possibility to cut out as brush not just copy off image to brush **ANIMATING** Miss it very much: NUMBER OF CELLS - Possibity to change total no. of cells during project ANIM BRUSH - Possibility to pick up a selected part of cells into an animbrush Miss it somewhat: ADD/REMOVE FRAMES: Add/remove single frame In general LunaPaint is really well done and it feels like a new DeluxePaint version. It works with my tablet. Sure there's much missing of course but things can always be added over time. So there is great potential in LunaPaint that's for sure. Animations could be made in it and maybe put together in QuickVideo, saving in .gif or .mng etc some day. LAYERS -Layers names don't get saved globally in animation frames -Layers order don't change globally in an animation (perhaps as default?). EXPORTING IMAGES -Exporting frames to JPG/PNG gives problems with colors. (wrong colors. See my animatiopn --> My robot was blue now it's "gold" ) I think this only happens if you have layers. -Trying to flatten the layers before export doesn't work if you have animation frames only the one you have visible will flatten properly all other frames are destroyed. (Only one of the layers are visible on them) -Exporting images filenames should be for example e.g. file0001, file0002...file0010 instead as of now file1, file2...file10 LOAD/SAVE (Preferences) -Make a setting for the default "Work" folder. * Destroyed colors if exported image/frame has layers * mystic color cycling of the selected color while stepping frames back/forth (annoying) <pre> Deluxe Paint II enhanced key shortcuts NOTE: @ denotes the ALT key [Technique] F1 - Paint F2 - Single Colour F3 - Replace F4 - Smear F5 - Shade F6 - Cycle F7 - Smooth M - Colour Cycle [Brush] B - Restore O - Outline h - Halve brush size H - Double brush size x - Flip brush on X axis X - Double brush size on X axis only y - Flip on Y Y - Double on Y z - Rotate brush 90 degrees Z - Stretch [Stencil] ` - Stencil On [Miscellaneous] F9 - Info Bar F10 - Selection Bar @o - Co-Ordinates @a - Anti-alias @r - Colourise @t - Translucent TAB - Colour Cycle [Picture] L - Load S - Save j - Page to Spare(Flip) J - Page to Spare(Copy) V - View Page Q - Quit [General Keys] m - Magnify < - Zoom In > - Zoom Out [ - Palette Colour Up ] - Palette Colour Down ( - Palette Colour Left ) - Palette Colour Right , - Eye Dropper . - Pixel / Brush Toggle / - Symmetry | - Co-Ordinates INS - Perspective Control +/- - Brush Size (Fine Control) w - Unfilled Polygon W - Filled Polygon e - Unfilled Ellipse E - Filled Ellipse r - Unfilled Rectangle R - Filled Rectangle t - Type/text tool a - Select Font u/U - Undo d - Brush D - Filled Non-Uniform Polygon f/F - Fill Options g/G - Grid h/H - Brush Size (Coarse Control) K - Clear c - Unfilled Circle C - Filled Circle v - Line b - Scissor Select and Toggle B - Brush {,} - Toggle between two background colours </pre> ====Lodepaint==== Pixel based painting artwork app ====Grafx2==== Pixel based painting artwork app aesprite like [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59Y6OTzNrhk aesprite workflow keys and tablet use], [], ====Vector Graphics ZuneFIG==== Vector Image Editing of files .svg .ps .eps *Objects - raise lower rotate flip aligning snapping *Path - unify subtract intersect exclude divide *Colour - fill stroke *Stroke - size *Brushes - *Layers - *Effects - gaussian bevels glows shadows *Text - *Transform - AmiFIG ([http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/frm_introduction.html xfig manual]) [[File:MyScreen.png|thumb|left|alt=Showing all Windows open in AmiFIG.|All windows available to AmiFIG.]] for drawing simple to intermediate vector graphic images for scientific and technical uses and for illustration purposes for those with talent ;Menu options * Load - fig format but import(s) SVG * Save - fig format but export(s) eps, ps, pdf, svg and png * PAN = Ctrl + Arrow keys * Deselect all points There is no selected object until you apply the tool, and the selected object is not highlighted. ;Metrics - to set up page and styles - first window to open on new drawings ;Tools - Drawing Primitives - set Attributes window first before clicking any Tools button(s) * Shapes - circles, ellipses, arcs, splines, boxes, polygon * Lines - polylines * Text "T" button * Photos - bitmaps * Compound - Glue, Break, Scale * POINTs - Move, Add, Remove * Objects - Move, Copy, Delete, Mirror, Rotate, Paste use right mouse button to stop extra lines, shapes being formed and the left mouse to select/deselect tools button(s) * Rotate - moves in 90 degree turns centered on clicked POINT of a polygon or square ;Attributes which provide change(s) to the above primitives * Color * Line Width * Line Style * arrowheads ;Modes Choose from freehand, charts, figures, magnet, etc. ;Library - allows .fig clip-art to be stored * compound tools to add .fig(s) together ;FIG 3.2 [http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/fig-format.html Format] as produced by xfig version 3.2.5 <pre> Landscape Center Inches Letter 100.00 Single -2 1200 2 4 0 0 50 -1 0 12 0.0000 4 135 1050 1050 2475 This is a test.01 </pre> # change the text alignment within the textbox. I can choose left, center, or right aligned by either changing the integer in the second column from 0 (left) to 1 or 2 (center, or right). # The third integer in the row specifies fontcolor. For instance, 0 is black, but blue is 1 and Green3 is 13. # The sixth integer in the bottom row specifies fontface. 0 is Times-Roman, but 16 is Helvetica (a MATLAB default). # The seventh number is fontsize. 12 represents a 12pt fontsize. Changing the fontsize of an item really is as easy as changing that number to 20. # The next number is the counter-clockwise angle of the text. Notice that I have changed the angle to .7854 (pi/4 rounded to four digits=45 degrees). # twelfth number is the position according to the standard “x-axis” in Xfig units from the left. Note that 1200 Xfig units is equivalent to once inch. # thirteenth number is the “y-position” from the top using the same unit convention as before. * The nested text string is what you entered into the textbox. * The “01″ present at the end of that line in the .fig file is the closing tag. For instance, a change to \100 appends a @ symbol at the end of the period of that sentence. ; Just to note there are no layers, no 3d functions, no shading, no transparency, no animation [[#top|...to the top]] ===Audio=== # AHI uses linear panning/balance, which means that in the center, you will get -6dB. If an app uses panning, this is what you will get. Note that apps like Audio Evolution need panning, so they will have this problem. # When using AHI Hifi modes, mixing is done in 32-bit and sent as 32-bit data to the driver. The Envy24HT driver uses that to output at 24-bit (always). # For the Envy24/Envy24HT, I've made 16-bit and 24-bit inputs (called Line-in 16-bit, Line-in 24-bit etc.). There is unfortunately no app that can handle 24-bit recording. ====Music Mods==== Digital module (mods) trackers are music creation software using samples and sometimes soundfonts, audio plugins (VST, AU or RTAS), MIDI. Generally, MODs are similar to MIDI in that they contain note on/off and other sequence messages that control the mod player. Unlike (most) midi files, however, they also contain sound samples that the sequence information actually plays. MOD files can have many channels (classic amiga mods have 4, corresponding to the inbuilt sound channels), but unlike MIDI, each channel can typically play only one note at once. However, since that note might be a sample of a chord, a drumloop or other complex sound, this is not as limiting as it sounds. Like MIDI, notes will play indefinitely if they're not instructed to end. Most trackers record this information automatically if you play your music in live. If you're using manual note entry, you can enter a note-off command with a keyboard shortcut - usually Caps Lock. In fact when considering file size MOD is not always the best option. Even a dummy song wastes few kilobytes for nothing when a simple SID tune could be few hundreds bytes and not bigger than 64kB. AHX is another small format, AHX tunes are never larger than 64kB excluding comments. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXXsZfwgil Protrekkr] (previously aka [w:Juan_Antonio_Arguelles_Rius|NoiseTrekkr]) If Protrekkr does not start, please check if the Unit 0 has been setup in the AHI prefs and still not, go to the directory utilities/protrekkr and double click on the Protrekkr icon *Sample *Note - Effect *Track (column) - Pattern - Order It all starts with the Sample which is used to create Note(s) in a Track (column of a tracker) The Note can be changed with an Effect. A Track of Note(s) can be collected into a Pattern (section of a song) and these can be given Order to create the whole song. Patience (notes have to be entered one at a time) or playing the bassline on a midi controller (faster - see midi section above). Best approach is to wait until a melody popped into your head. *Up-tempo means the track should be reasonably fast, but not super-fast. *Groovy and funky imply the track should have some sort of "swing" feel, with plenty of syncopation or off beat emphasis and a recognizable, melodic bass line. *Sweet and happy mean upbeat melodies, a major key and avoiding harsh sounds. *Moody - minor key First, create a quick bass sound, which is basically a sine wave, but can be hand drawn for a little more variance. It could also work for the melody part, too. This is usually a bass guitar or some kind of synthesizer bass. The bass line is often forgotten by inexperienced composers, but it plays an important role in a musical piece. Together with the rhythm section the bass line forms the groove of a song. It's the glue between the rhythm section and the melodic layer of a song. The drums are just pink noise samples, played at different frequencies to get a slightly different sound for the kick, snare, and hihats. Instruments that fall into the rhythm category are bass drums, snares, hi-hats, toms, cymbals, congas, tambourines, shakers, etc. Any percussive instrument can be used to form part of the rhythm section. The lead is the instrument that plays the main melody, on top of the chords. There are many instruments that can play a lead section, like a guitar, a piano, a saxophone or a flute. The list is almost endless. There is a lot of overlap with instruments that play chords. Often in one piece an instrument serves both roles. The lead melody is often played at a higher pitch than the chords. Listened back to what was produced so far, and a counter-melody can be imagined, which can be added with a triangle wave. To give the ends of phrases some life, you can add a solo part with a crunchy synth. By hitting random notes in the key of G, then edited a few of them. For the climax of the song, filled out the texture with a gentle high-pitch pad… …and a grungy bass synth. The arrow at A points at the pattern order list. As you see, the patterns don't have to be in numerical order. This song starts with pattern "00", then pattern "02", then "03", then "01", etcetera. Patterns may be repeated throughout a song. The B arrow points at the song title. Below it are the global BPM and speed parameters. These determine the tempo of the song, unless the tempo is altered through effect commands during the song. The C arrow points at the list of instruments. An instrument may consist of multiple samples. Which sample will be played depends on the note. This can be set in the Instrument Editing screen. Most instruments will consist of just one sample, though. The sample list for the selected instrument can be found under arrow D. Here's a part of the main editing screen. This is where you put in actual notes. Up to 32 channels can be used, meaning 32 sounds can play simultaneously. The first six channels of pattern "03" at order "02" are shown here. The arrow at A points at the row number. The B arrow points at the note to play, in this case a C4. The column pointed at by the C arrow tells us which instrument is associated with that note, in this case instrument #1 "Kick". The column at D is used (mainly) for volume commands. In this case it is left empty which means the instrument should play at its default volume. You can see the volume column being used in channel #6. The E column tells us which effect to use and any parameters for that effect. In this case it holds the "F" effect, which is a tempo command. The "04" means it should play at tempo 4 (a smaller number means faster). Base pattern When I create a new track I start with what I call the base pattern. It is worthwhile to spend some time polishing it as a lot of the ideas in the base pattern will be copied and used in other patterns. At least, that's how I work. Every musician will have his own way of working. In "Wild Bunnies" the base pattern is pattern "03" at order "02". In the section about selecting samples I talked about the four different categories of instruments: drums, bass, chords and leads. That's also how I usually go about making the base pattern. I start by making a drum pattern, then add a bass line, place some chords and top it off with a lead. This forms the base pattern from which the rest of the song will grow. Drums Here's a screenshot of the first four rows of the base pattern. I usually reserve the first four channels or so for the drum instruments. Right away there are a couple of tricks shown here. In the first channel the kick, or bass drum, plays some notes. Note the alternating F04 and F02 commands. The "F" command alters the tempo of the song and by quickly alternating the tempo; the song will get some kind of "swing" feel. In the second channel the closed hi-hat plays a fairly simple pattern. Further down in the channel, not shown here, some open hi-hat notes are added for a bit of variation. In the third and fourth channel the snare sample plays. The "8" command is for panning. One note is panned hard to the left and the other hard to the right. One sample is played a semitone lower than the other. This results in a cool flanging effect. It makes the snare stand out a little more in the mix. Bass line There are two different instruments used for the bass line. Instrument #6 is a pretty standard synthesized bass sound. Instrument #A sounds a bit like a slap bass when used with a quick fade out. By using two different instruments the bass line sounds a bit more ”human”. The volume command is used to cut off the notes. However, it is never set to zero. Setting the volume to a very small value will result in a reverb-like effect. This makes the song sound more "live". The bass line hints at the chords that will be played and the key the song will be in. In this case the key of the song is D-major, a positive and happy key. Chords The D major chords that are being played here are chords stabs; short sounds with a quick decay (fade out). Two different instruments (#8 and #9) are used to form the chords. These instruments are quite similar, but have a slightly different sound, panning and volume decay. Again, the reason for this is to make the sound more human. The volume command is used on some chords to simulate a delay, to achieve more of a live feel. The chords are placed off-beat making for a funky rhythm. Lead Finally the lead melody is added. The other instruments are invaluable in holding the track together, but the lead melody is usually what catches people's attention. A lot of notes and commands are used here, but it looks more complex than it is. A stepwise ascending melody plays in channel 13. Channel 14 and 15 copy this melody, but play it a few rows later at a lower volume. This creates an echo effect. A bit of panning is used on the notes to create some stereo depth. Like with the bass line, instead of cutting off notes the volume is set to low values for a reverb effect. The "461" effect adds a little vibrato to the note, which sounds nice on sustained notes. Those paying close attention may notice the instrument used here for the lead melody is the same as the one used for the bass line (#6 "Square"), except played two or three octaves higher. This instrument is a looped square wave sample. Each type of wave has its own quirks, but the square wave (shown below) is a really versatile wave form. Song structure Good, catchy songs are often carefully structured into sections, some of which are repeated throughout the song with small variations. A typical pop-song structure is: Intro - Verse - Chorus - Verse - Chorus - Bridge - Chorus. Other single sectional song structures are <pre> Strophic or AAA Song Form - oldest story telling with refrain (often title of the song) repeated in every verse section melody AABA Song Form - early popular, jazz and gospel fading during the 1960s AB or Verse/Chorus Song Form - songwriting format of choice for modern popular music since the 1960s Verse/Chorus/Bridge Song Form ABAB Song Form ABAC Song Form ABCD Song Form AAB 12-Bar Song Form - three four-bar lines or sub-sections 8-Bar Song Form 16-Bar Song Form Hybrid / Compound Song Forms </pre> The most common building blocks are: #INTRODUCTION(INTRO) #VERSE #REFRAIN #PRE-CHORUS / RISE / CLIMB #CHORUS #BRIDGE #MIDDLE EIGHT #SOLO / INSTRUMENTAL BREAK #COLLISION #CODA / OUTRO #AD LIB (OFTEN IN CODA / OUTRO) The chorus usually has more energy than the verse and often has a memorable melody line. As the chorus is repeated the most often during the song, it will be the part that people will remember. The bridge often marks a change of direction in the song. It is not uncommon to change keys in the bridge, or at least to use a different chord sequence. The bridge is used to build up tension towards the big finale, the last repetition of chorus. Playing RCTRL: Play song from row 0. LSHIFT + RCTRL: Play song from current row. RALT: Play pattern from row 0. LSHIFT + RALT: Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on '>': Play song from row 0. Right mouse on '>': Play song from current row. Left mouse on '|>': Play pattern from row 0. Right mouse on '|>': Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on 'Edit/Record': Edit mode on/off. Right mouse on 'Edit/Record': Record mode on/off. Editing LSHIFT + ESCAPE: Switch large patterns view on/off TAB: Go to next track LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. track LCTRL + TAB: Go to next note in track LCTRL + LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. note in track SPACE: Toggle Edit mode On & Off (Also stop if the song is being played) SHIFT SPACE: Toggle Record mode On & Off (Wait for a key note to be pressed or a midi in message to be received) DOWN ARROW: 1 Line down UP ARROW: 1 Line up LEFT ARROW: 1 Row left RIGHT ARROW: 1 Row right PREV. PAGE: 16 Arrows Up NEXT PAGE: 16 Arrows Down HOME / END: Top left / Bottom right of pattern LCTRL + HOME / END: First / last track F5, F6, F7, F8, F9: Jump to 0, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 lines of the patterns + - (Numeric keypad): Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous position LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous instrument LSHIFT + M: Toggle mute state of the current channel LCTRL + LSHIFT + M: Solo the current track / Unmute all LSHIFT + F1 to F11: Select a tab/panel LCTRL + 1 to 4: Select a copy buffer Tracking 1st and 2nd keys rows: Upper octave row 3rd and 4th keys rows: Lower octave row RSHIFT: Insert a note off / and * (Numeric keypad) or F1 F2: -1 or +1 octave INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current track or current selected block. LSHIFT + INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current pattern DELETE (NOT BACKSPACE): Empty a column or a selected block. Blocks (Blocks can also be selected with the mouse by holding the right button and scrolling the pattern with the mouse wheel). LCTRL + A: Select entire current track LCTRL + LSHIFT + A: Select entire current pattern LALT + A: Select entire column note in a track LALT + LSHIFT + A: Select all notes of a track LCTRL + X: Cut the selected block and copy it into the block-buffer LCTRL + C: Copy the selected block into the block-buffer LCTRL + V: Paste the data from the block buffer into the pattern LCTRL + I: Interpolate selected data from the first to the last row of a selection LSHIFT + ARROWS PREV. PAGE NEXT PAGE: Select a block LCTRL + R: Randomize the select columns of a selection, works similar to CTRL + I (interpolating them) LCTRL + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher LCTRL + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher LCTRL + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + W: Save the current selection into a file Misc LALT + ENTER: Switch between full screen / windowed mode LALT + F4: Exit program (Windows only) LCTRL + S: Save current module LSHIFT + S: Switch top right panel to synths list LSHIFT + I: Switch top right panel to instruments list <pre> C-x xh xx xx hhhh Volume B-x xh xx xx hhhh Jump to A#x xh xx xx hhhh hhhh Slide F-x xh xx xx hhhh Tempo D-x xh xx xx hhhh Pattern Break G#x xh xx xx hhhh </pre> h Hex 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 d Dec 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 The Set Volume command: C. Input a note, then move the cursor to the effects command column and type a C. Play the pattern, and you shouldn't be able to hear the note you placed the C by. This is because the effect parameters are 00. Change the two zeros to a 40(Hex)/64(Dec), depending on what your tracker uses. Play back the pattern again, and the note should come in at full volume. The Position Jump command next. This is just a B followed by the position in the playing list that you want to jump to. One thing to remember is that the playing list always starts at 0, not 1. This command is usually in Hex. Onto the volume slide command: A. This is slightly more complex (much more if you're using a newer tracker, if you want to achieve the results here, then set slides to Amiga, not linear), due to the fact it depends on the secondary tempo. For now set a secondary tempo of 06 (you can play around later), load a long or looped sample and input a note or two. A few rows after a note type in the effect command A. For the parameters use 0F. Play back the pattern, and you should notice that when the effect kicks in, the sample drops to a very low volume very quickly. Change the effect parameters to F0, and use a low volume command on the note. Play back the pattern, and when the slide kicks in the volume of the note should increase very quickly. This because each part of the effect parameters for command A does a different thing. The first number slides the volume up, and the second slides it down. It's not recommended that you use both a volume up and volume down at the same time, due to the fact the tracker only looks for the first number that isn't set to 0. If you specify parameters of 8F, the tracker will see the 8, ignore the F, and slide the volume up. Using a slide up and down at same time just makes you look stupid. Don't do it... The Set Tempo command: F, is pretty easy to understand. You simply specify the BPM (in Hex) that you want to change to. One important thing to note is that values of lower than 20 (Hex) sets the secondary tempo rather than the primary. Another useful command is the Pattern Break: D. This will stop the playing of the current pattern and skip to the next one in the playing list. By using parameters of more than 00 you can also specify which line to begin playing from. Command 3 is Portamento to Note. This slides the currently playing note to another note, at a specified speed. The slide then stops when it reaches the desired note. <pre> C-2 1 000 - Starts the note playing --- 000 C-3 330 - Starts the slide to C-3 at a speed of 30. --- 300 - Continues the slide --- 300 - Continues the slide </pre> Once the parameters have been set, the command can be input again without any parameters, and it'll still perform the same function unless you change the parameters. This memory function allows certain commands to function correctly, such as command 5, which is the Portamento to Note and Volume Slide command. Once command 3 has been set up command 5 will simply take the parameters from that and perform a Portamento to Note. Any parameters set up for command 5 itself simply perform a Volume Slide identical to command A at the same time as the Portamento to Note. This memory function will only operate in the same channel where the original parameters were set up. There are various other commands which perform two functions at once. They will be described as we come across them. C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 02 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 05 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 08 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0A C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0D C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 (You can also switch on the Slider Rec to On, and perform parameter-live-recording, such as cutoff transitions, resonance or panning tweaking, etc..) Note: this command only works for volume/panning and fx datas columns. The next command we'll look at is the Portamento up/down: 1 and 2. Command 1 slides the pitch up at a specified speed, and 2 slides it down. This command works in a similar way to the volume slide, in that it is dependent on the secondary tempo. Both these commands have a memory dependent on each other, if you set the slide to a speed of 3 with the 1 command, a 2 command with no parameters will use the speed of 3 from the 1 command, and vice versa. Command 4 is Vibrato. Vibrato is basically rapid changes in pitch, just try it, and you'll see what I mean. Parameters are in the format of xy, where x is the speed of the slide, and y is the depth of the slide. One important point to remember is to keep your vibratos subtle and natural so a depth of 3 or less and a reasonably fast speed, around 8, is usually used. Setting the depth too high can make the part sound out of tune from the rest. Following on from command 4 is command 6. This is the Vibrato and Volume Slide command, and it has a memory like command 5, which you already know how to use. Command 7 is Tremolo. This is similar to vibrato. Rather than changing the pitch it slides the volume. The effect parameters are in exactly the same format. vibrato effect (0x1dxy) x = speed y = depth (can't be used if arpeggio (0x1b) is turned on) <pre> C-7 00 .. .. 1B37 <- Turn Arpeggio effect on --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B38 <- Change datas --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B00 <- Turn it off </pre> Command 9 is Sample Offset. This starts the playback of the sample from a different place than the start. The effect parameters specify the sample offset, but only very roughly. Say you have a sample which is 8765(Hex) bytes long, and you wanted it to play from position 4321(Hex). The effect parameter could only be as accurate as the 43 part, and it would ignore the 21. Command B is the Playing List/Order Jump command. The parameters specify the position in the Playing List/Order to jump to. When used in conjunction with command D you can specify the position and the line to play from. Command E is pretty complex, as it is used for a lot of different things, depending on what the first parameter is. Let's take a trip through each effect in order. Command E0 controls the hardware filter on an Amiga, which, as a low pass filter, cuts off the highest frequencies being played back. There are very few players and trackers on other system that simulate this function, not that you should need to use it. The second parameter, if set to 1, turns on the filter. If set to 0, the filter gets turned off. Commands E1/E2 are Fine Portamento Up/Down. Exactly the same functions as commands 1/2, except that they only slide the pitch by a very small amount. These commands have a memory the same as 1/2 as well. Command E3 sets the Glissando control. If parameters are set to 1 then when using command 3, any sliding will only use the notes in between the original note and the note being slid to. This produces a somewhat jumpier slide than usual. The best way to understand is to try it out for yourself. Produce a slow slide with command 3, listen to it, and then try using E31. Command E4 is the Set Vibrato Waveform control. This command controls how the vibrato command slides the pitch. Parameters are 0 - Sine, 1 - Ramp Down (Saw), 2 - Square. By adding 4 to the parameters, the waveform will not be restarted when a new note is played e.g. 5 - Sine without restart. Command E5 sets the Fine Tune of the instrument being played, but only for the particular note being played. It will override the default Fine Tune for the instrument. The parameters range from 0 to F, with 0 being -8 and F being +8 Fine Tune. A parameter of 8 gives no Fine Tune. If you're using a newer tracker that supports more than -8 to +8 e.g. -128 to +128, these parameters will give a rough Fine Tune, accurate to the nearest 16. Command E6 is the Jump Loop command. You mark the beginning of the part of a pattern that you want to loop with E60, and then specify with E6x the end of the loop, where x is the number of times you want it to loop. Command E7 is the Set Tremolo Waveform control. This has exactly the same parameters as command E4, except that it works for Tremolo rather than Vibrato. Command E9 is for Retriggering the note quickly. The parameter specifies the interval between the retrigs. Use a value of less than the current secondary tempo, or else the note will not get retrigged. Command EA/B are for Fine Volume Slide Up/Down. Much the same as the normal Volume Slides, except that these are easier to control since they don't depend on the secondary tempo. The parameters specify the amount to slide by e.g. if you have a sample playing at a volume of 08 (Hex) then the effect EA1 will slide this volume to 09 (Hex). A subsequent effect of EB4 would slide this volume down to 05 (Hex). Command EC is the Note Cut. This sets the volume of the currently playing note to 0 at a specified tick. The parameters should be lower than the secondary tempo or else the effect won't work. Command ED is the Note Delay. This should be used at the same time as a note is to be played, and the parameters will specify the number of ticks to delay playing the note. Again, keep the parameters lower than the secondary tempo, or the note won't get played! Command EE is the Pattern Delay. This delays the pattern for the amount of time it would take to play a certain number of rows. The parameters specify how many rows to delay for. Command EF is the Funk Repeat command. Set the sample loop to 0-1000. When EFx is used, the loop will be moved to 1000- 2000, then to 2000-3000 etc. After 9000-10000 the loop is set back to 0- 1000. The speed of the loop "movement" is defined by x. E is two times as slow as F, D is three times as slow as F etc. EF0 will turn the Funk Repeat off and reset the loop (to 0-1000). effects 0x41 and 0x42 to control the volumes of the 2 303 units There is a dedicated panel for synth parameter editing with coherent sections (osc, filter modulation, routing, so on) the interface is much nicer, much better to navigate with customizable colors, the reverb is now customizable (10 delay lines), It accepts newer types of Waves (higher bit rates, at least 24). Has a replay routine. It's pretty much your basic VA synth. The problem isn't with the sampler being to high it's the synth is tuned two octaves too low, but if you want your samples tuned down just set the base note down 2 octaves (in the instrument panel). so the synth is basically divided into 3 sections from left to right: oscillators/envelopes, then filter and LFO's, and in the right column you have mod routings and global settings. for the oscillator section you have two normal oscillators (sine, saw, square, noise), the second of which is tunable, the first one tunes with the key pressed. Attached to OSC 1 is a sub-oscillator, which is a sawtooth wave tuned one octave down. The phase modulation controls the point in the duty cycle at which the oscillator starts. The ADSR envelope sliders (grouped with oscs) are for modulation envelope 1 and 2 respectively. you can use the synth as a sampler by choosing the instrument at the top. In the filter column, the filter settings are: 1 = lowpass, 2 = highpass, 3 = off. cutoff and resonance. For the LFOs they are LFO 1 and LFO 2, the ADSR sliders in those are for the LFO itself. For the modulation routings you have ENV 1, LFO 1 for the first slider and ENV 2, LFO 2 for the second, you can cycle through the individual routings there, and you can route each modulation source to multiple destinations of course, which is another big plus for this synth. Finally the glide time is for portamento and master volume, well, the master volume... it can go quite loud. The sequencer is changed too, It's more like the one in AXS if you've used that, where you can mute tracks to re-use patterns with variation. <pre> Support for the following modules formats: 669 (Composer 669, Unis 669), AMF (DSMI Advanced Module Format), AMF (ASYLUM Music Format V1.0), APUN (APlayer), DSM (DSIK internal format), FAR (Farandole Composer), GDM (General DigiMusic), IT (Impulse Tracker), IMF (Imago Orpheus), MOD (15 and 31 instruments), MED (OctaMED), MTM (MultiTracker Module editor), OKT (Amiga Oktalyzer), S3M (Scream Tracker 3), STM (Scream Tracker), STX (Scream Tracker Music Interface Kit), ULT (UltraTracker), UNI (MikMod), XM (FastTracker 2), Mid (midi format via timidity) </pre> Possible plugin options include [http://lv2plug.in/ LV2], ====Midi - Musical Instrument Digital Interface==== A midi file typically contains music that plays on up to 16 channels (as per the midi standard), but many notes can simultaneously play on each channel (depending on the limit of the midi hardware playing it). '''Timidity''' Although usually already installed, you can uncompress the [http://www.libsdl.org/projects/SDL_mixer/ timidity.tar.gz (14MB)] into a suitable drawer like below's SYS:Extras/Audio/ assign timidity: SYS:Extras/Audio/timidity added to SYSːs/User-Startup '''WildMidi playback''' '''Audio Evolution 4 (2003) 4.0.23 (from 2012)''' *Sync Menu - CAMD Receive, Send checked *Options Menu - MIDI Machine Control - Midi Bar Display - Select CAMD MIDI in / out - Midi Remote Setup MCB Master Control Bus *Sending a MIDI start-command and a Song Position Pointer, you can synchronize audio with an external MIDI sequencer (like B&P). *B&P Receive, start AE, add AudioEvolution.ptool in Bars&Pipes track, press play / record in AE then press play in Pipes *CAMD Receive, receive MIDI start or continue commands via camd.library sync to AE *MIDI Machine Control *Midi Bar Display *Select CAMD MIDI in / out *Midi Remote Setup - open requester for external MIDI controllers to control app mixer and transport controls cc remotely Channel - mixer(vol, pan, mute, solo), eq, aux, fx, Subgroup - Volume, Mute, Solo Transport - Start, End, Play, Stop, Record, Rewind, Forward Misc - Master vol., Bank Down, Bank up <pre> q - quit First 3 already opened when AE started F1 - timeline window F2 - mixer F3 - control F4 - subgroups F5 - aux returns F6 - sample list i - Load sample to use space - start/stop play b - reset time 0:00 s - split mode r - open recording window a - automation edit mode with p panning, m mute and v volume [ / ] - zoom in / out : - previous track * - next track x c v f - cut copy paste cross-fade g - snap grid </pre> '''[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars n Pipes sequencer]''' BarsnPipes debug ... in shell Menu (right mouse) *Song - Songs load and save in .song format but option here to load/save Midi_Files .mid in FORMAT0 or FORMAT1 *Track - *Edit - *Tool - *Timing - SMTPE Synchronizing *Windows - *Preferences - Multiple MIDI-in option Windows (some of these are usually already opened when Bars n Pipes starts up for the first time) *Workflow -> Tracks, .... Song Construction, Time-line Scoring, Media Madness, Mix Maestro, *Control -> Transport (or mini one), Windows (which collects all the Windows icons together-shortcut), .... Toolbox, Accessories, Metronome, Once you have your windows placed on the screen that suits your workflow, Song -> Save as Default will save the positions, colors, icons, etc as you'd like them If you need a particular setup of Tracks, Tools, Tempos etc, you save them all as a new song you can load each time Right mouse menu -> Preferences -> Environment... -> ScreenMode - Linkages for Synch (to Slave) usbmidi.out.0 and Send (Master) usbmidi.in.0 - Clock MTC '''Tracks''' #Double-click on B&P's icon. B&P will then open with an empty Song. You can also double-click on a song icon to open a song in B&P. #Choose a track. The B&P screen will contain a Tracks Window with a number of tracks shown as pipelines (Track 1, Track 2, etc...). To choose a track, simply click on the gray box to show an arrow-icon to highlight it. This icon show whether a track is chosen or not. To the right of the arrow-icon, you can see the icon for the midi-input. If you double-click on this icon you can change the MIDI-in setup. #Choose Record for the track. To the right of the MIDI-input channel icon you can see a pipe. This leads to another clickable icon with that shows either P, R or M. This stands for Play, Record or Merge. To change the icon, simply click on it. If you choose P, this track can only play the track (you can't record anything). If you choose R, you can record what you play and it overwrites old stuff in the track. If you choose M, you merge new records with old stuff in the track. Choose R now to be able to make a record. #Chose MIDI-channel. On the most right part of the track you can see an icon with a number in it. This is the MIDI-channel selector. Here you must choose a MIDI-channel that is available on your synthesizer/keyboard. If you choose General MIDI channel 10, most synthesizer will play drum sounds. To the left of this icon is the MIDI-output icon. Double-click on this icon to change the MIDI-output configuration. #Start recording. The next step is to start recording. You must then find the control buttons (they look like buttons on a CD-player). To be able to make a record. you must click on the R icon. You can simply now press the play button (after you have pressed the R button) and play something on you keyboard. To playback your composition, press the Play button on the control panel. #Edit track. To edit a track, you simply double click in the middle part of a track. You will then get a new window containing the track, where you can change what you have recorded using tools provided. Take also a look in the drop-down menus for more features. Videos to help understand [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6gVTX-9900 small intro], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4&t=3s Overview], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixOVutKsYQo Workplace Setup CC PC Sysex], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDnJLYPaZTs Import Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BC3kkzPLkv4 Tempo Mapping], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd23kqMYPDs ptool Arpeggi-8], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDJq-YxgwQg PlayMidi Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DY9Pu5P9TaU Amiga Midi], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4 Learning Amiga bars and Pipes], Groups like [https://groups.io/g/barsnpipes/topics this] could help '''Tracks window''' * blue "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Group" and transport tape deck VCR-type controls * Flags * [http://theproblem.alco-rhythm.com/org/bp.html Track 1, Track2, to Track 16, on each Track there are many options that can be activated] Each Track has a *Left LHS - Click in grey box to select what Track to work on, Midi-In ptool icon should be here (5pin plug icon), and many more from the Toolbox on the Input Pipeline *Middle - (P, R, M) Play, Record, Merge/Multi before the sequencer line and a blue/red/yellow (Thru Mute Play) Tap *Right RHS - Output pipeline, can have icons placed uopn it with the final ptool icon(s) being the 5pin icon symbol for Midi-OUT Clogged pipelines may need Esc pressed several times '''Toolbox (tools affect the chosen pipeline)''' After opening the Toolbox window you can add extra Tools (.ptool) for the pipelines like keyboard(virtual), midimonitor, quick patch, transpose, triad, (un)quantize, feedback in/out, velocity etc right mouse -> Toolbox menu option -> Install Tool... and navigate to Tool drawer (folder) and select requried .ptool Accompany B tool to get some sort of rythmic accompaniment, Rythm Section and Groove Quantize are examples of other tools that make use of rythms [https://aminet.net/search?query=bars Bars & Pipes pattern format .ptrn] for drawer (folder). Load from the Menu as Track or Group '''Accessories (affect the whole app)''' Accessories -> Install... and goto the Accessories drawer for .paccess like adding ARexx scripting support '''Song Construction''' <pre> F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Duplicator F5 Eraser F6 Toolpad F7 Bounding box F8 Lock to A-B-A A-B-A strip, section, edit flags, white boxes, </pre> Bars&Pipes Professional offers three track formats; basic song tracks, linear tracks — which don't loop — and finally real‑time tracks. The difference between them is that both song and linear tracks respond to tempo changes, while real‑time tracks use absolute timing, always trigger at the same instant regardless of tempo alterations '''Tempo Map''' F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Eraser F5 Curve F6 Toolpad Compositions Lyrics, Key, Rhythm, Time Signature '''Master Parameters''' Key, Scale/Mode '''Track Parameters''' Dynamics '''Time-line Scoring''' '''Media Madness''' '''Mix Maestro''' *ACCESSORIES Allows the importation of other packages and additional modules *CLIPBOARD Full cut, copy and paste operations, enabling user‑definable clips to be shared between tracks. *INFORMATION A complete rundown on the state of the current production and your machine. *MASTER PARAMETERS Enables global definition of time signatures, lyrics, scales, chords, dynamics and rhythm changes. *MEDIA MADNESS A complete multimedia sequencer which allows samples, stills, animation, etc *METRONOME Tempo feedback via MIDI, internal Amiga audio and colour cycling — all three can be mixed and matched as required. *MIX MAESTRO Completely automated mixdown with control for both volume and pan. All fader alterations are memorised by the software *RECORD ACTIVATION Complete specification of the data to be recorded/merged. Allows overdubbing of pitch‑bend, program changes, modulation etc *SET FLAGS Numeric positioning of location and edit flags in either SMPTE or musical time *SONG CONSTRUCTION Large‑scale cut and paste of individual measures, verses or chorus, by means of bounding box and drag‑n‑drop mouse selections *TEMPO MAP Tempo change using a variety of linear and non‑linear transition curves *TEMPO PALETTE Instant tempo changes courtesy of four user‑definable settings. *TIMELINE SCORING Sequencing of a selection of songs over a defined period — ideal for planning an entire set for a live performance. *TOOLBOX Selection screen for the hundreds of signal‑processing tools available *TRACKS Opens the main track window to enable recording, editing and the use of tools. *TRANSPORT Main playback control window, which also provides access to user‑ defined flags, loop and punch‑in record modes. Bars and Pipes Pro 2.5 is using internal 4-Byte IDs, to check which kind of data are currently processed. Especially in all its files the IDs play an important role. The IDs are stored into the file in the same order they are laid out in the memory. In a Bars 'N' Pipes file (no matter which kind) the ID "NAME" (saved as its ANSI-values) is stored on a big endian system (68k-computer) as "NAME". On a little endian system (x86 PC computer) as "EMAN". The target is to make the AROS-BnP compatible to songs, which were stored on a 68k computer (AMIGA). If possible, setting MIDI channels for Local Control for your keyboard http://www.fromwithin.com/liquidmidi/archive.shtml MIDI files are essentially a stream of event data. An event can be many things, but typically "note on", "note off", "program change", "controller change", or messages that instruct a MIDI compatible synth how to play a given bit of music. * Channel - 1 to 16 - * Messages - PC presets, CC effects like delays, reverbs, etc * Sequencing - MIDI instruments, Drums, Sound design, * Recording - * GUI - Piano roll or Tracker, Staves and Notes MIDI events/messages like step entry e.g. Note On, Note Off MIDI events/messages like PB, PC, CC, Mono and Poly After-Touch, Sysex, etc MIDI sync - Midi Clocks (SPS Measures), Midi Time Code (h, m, s and frames) SMPTE Individual track editing with audition edits so easier to test any changes. Possible to stop track playback, mix clips from the right edit flag and scroll the display using arrow keys. Step entry, to extend a selected note hit the space bar and the note grows accordingly. Ability to cancel mouse‑driven edits by simply clicking the right mouse button — at which point everything snaps back into its original form. Lyrics can now be put in with syllable dividers, even across an entire measure or section. Autoranging when you open a edit window, the notes are automatically displayed — working from the lowest upwards. Flag editing, shift‑click on a flag immediately open the bounds window, ready for numeric input. Ability to cancel edits using the right‑hand mouse button, plus much improved Bounding Box operations. Icons other than the BarsnPipes icon -> PUBSCREEN=BarsnPipes (cannot choose modes higher than 8bit 256 colors) Preferences -> Menu in Tracks window - Send MIDI defaults OFF Prefs -> Environment -> screenmode (saved to BarsnPipes.prefs binary file) Customization -> pics in gui drawer (folder) - Can save as .song files and .mid General Midi SMF is a “Standard Midi File” ([http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~ich/classes/mumt306/StandardMIDIfileformat.html SMF0, SMF1 and SMF2]), [https://github.com/stump/libsmf libsmf], [https://github.com/markc/midicomp MIDIcomp], [https://github.com/MajicDesigns/MD_MIDIFile C++ src], [], [https://github.com/newdigate/midi-smf-reader Midi player], * SMF0 All MIDI data is stored in one track only, separated exclusively by the MIDI channel. * SMF1 The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks/channels. * SMF2 (rarely used) The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks, which are additionally wrapped in containers, so it's possible to have e.g. several tracks using the same MIDI channels. Would it be possible to enrich Bars N’Pipes with software synth and sample support along with audio recording and mastering tools like in the named MAC or PC music sequencers? On the classic AMIGA-OS this is not possible because of missing CPU-power. The hardware of the classic AMIGA is not further developed. So we must say (unfortunately) that those dreams can’t become reality BarsnPipes is best used with external MIDI-equipment. This can be a keyboard or synthesizer with MIDI-connectors. <pre> MIDI can control 16 channels There are USB-MIDI-Interfaces on the market with 16 independent MIDI-lines (multi-port), which can handle 16 MIDI devices independently – 16×16 = 256 independent MIDI-channels or instruments handle up to 16 different USB-MIDI-Interfaces (multi-device). That is: 16X16X16 = 4096 independent MIDI-channels – theoretically </pre> <pre> Librarian MIDI SYStem EXplorer (sysex) - PatchEditor and used to be supplied as a separate program like PatchMeister but currently not at present It should support MIDI.library (PD), BlueRibbon.library (B&P), TriplePlayPlus, and CAMD.library (DeluxeMusic) and MIDI information from a device's user manual and configure a custom interface to access parameters for all MIDI products connected to the system Supports ALL MIDI events and the Patch/Librarian data is stored in MIDI standard format Annette M.Crowling, Missing Link Software, Inc. </pre> Composers <pre> [https://x.com/hirasawa/status/1403686519899054086 Susumu Hirasawa] </pre> <pre> 1988 Todor Fay and his wife Melissa Jordan Gray, who founded the Blue Ribbon Inc 1992 Bars&Pipes Pro published November 2000, Todor Fay announcement to release the sourcecode of Bars&Pipes Pro 2.5c beta end of May 2001, the source of the main program and the sources of some tools and accessories were in a complete and compileable state end of October 2009 stop further development of BarsnPipes New for now on all supported systems and made freeware 2013 Alfred Faust diagnosed with incureable illness, called „Myastenia gravis“ (weak muscles) </pre> Protrekkr How to use Midi In/Out in Protrekkr ? First of all, midi in & out capabilities of this program are rather limited. # Go to Misc. Setup section and select a midi in or out device to use (ptk only supports one device at a time). # Go to instrument section, and select a MIDI PRG (the default is N/A, which means no midi program selected). # Go to track section and here you can assign a midi channel to each track of ptk. # Play notes :]. Note off works. F'x' note cut command also works too, and note-volume command (speed) is supported. Also, you can change midicontrollers in the tracker, using '90' in the panning row: <pre> C-3 02 .. .. 0000.... --- .. .. 90 xxyy.... << This will set the value --- .. .. .. 0000.... of the controller n.'xx' to 'yy' (both in hex) --- .. .. .. 0000.... </pre> So "--- .. .. 90 2040...." will set the controller number $20(32) to $40(64). You will need the midi implementation table of your gear to know what you can change with midi controller messages. N.B. Not all MIDI devices are created equal! Although the MIDI specification defines a large range of MIDI messages of various kinds, not every MIDI device is required to work in exactly the same way and respond to all the available messages and ways of working. For example, we don't expect a wind synthesiser to work in the same way as a home keyboard. Some devices, the older ones perhaps, are only able to respond to a single channel. With some of those devices that channel can be altered from the default of 1 (probably) to another channel of the 16 possible. Other devices, for instance monophonic synthesisers, are capable of producing just one note at a time, on one MIDI channel. Others can produce many notes spread across many channels. Further devices can respond to, and transmit, "breath controller" data (MIDI controller number 2 (CC#2)) others may respond to the reception of CC#2 but not be able to create and to send it. A controller keyboard may be capable of sending "expression pedal" data, but another device may not be capable of responding to that message. Some devices just have the basic GM sound set. The "voice" or "instrument" is selected using a "Program Change" message on its own. Other devices have a greater selection of voices, usually arranged in "banks", and the choice of instrument is made by responding to "Bank Select MSB" (MIDI controller 0 (CC#0)), others use "Bank Select LSB" (MIDI controller number 32 (CC#32)), yet others use both MSB and LSB sent one after the other, all followed by the Program Change message. The detailed information about all the different voices will usually be available in a published MIDI Data List. MIDI Implementation Chart But in the User Manual there is sometimes a summary of how the device works, in terms of MIDI, in the chart at the back of the manual, the MIDI Implementation Chart. If you require two devices to work together you can compare the two implementation charts to see if they are "compatible". In order to do this we will need to interpret that chart. The chart is divided into four columns headed "Function", "Transmitted" (or "Tx"), "Received" (or "Rx"), or more correctly "Recognised", and finally, "Remarks". <pre> The left hand column defines which MIDI functions are being described. The 2nd column defines what the device in question is capable of transmitting to another device. The 3rd column defines what the device is capable of responding to. The 4th column is for explanations of the values contained within these previous two columns. </pre> There should then be twelve sections, with possibly a thirteenth containing extra "Notes". Finally there should be an explanation of the four MIDI "modes" and what the "X" and the "O" mean. <pre> Mode 1: Omni On, Poly; Mode 2: Omni On, Mono; Mode 3: Omni Off, Poly; Mode 4: Omni Off, Mono. </pre> O means "yes" (implemented), X means "no" (not implemented). Sometimes you will find a row of asterisks "**************", these seem to indicate that the data is not applicable in this case. Seen in the transmitted field only (unless you've seen otherwise). Lastly you may find against some entries an asterisk followed by a number e.g. *1, these will refer you to further information, often on a following page, giving more detail. Basic Channel But the very first set of boxes will tell us the "Basic Channel(s)" that the device sends or receives on. "Default" is what happens when the device is first turned on, "changed" is what a switch of some kind may allow the device to be set to. For many devices e.g. a GM sound module or a home keyboard, this would be 1-16 for both. That is it can handle sending and receiving on all MIDI channels. On other devices, for example a synthesiser, it may by default only work on channel 1. But the keyboard could be "split" with the lower notes e.g. on channel 2. If the synth has an arppegiator, this may be able to be set to transmit and or receive on yet another channel. So we might see the default as "1" but the changed as "1-16". Modes. We need to understand Omni On and Off, and Mono and Poly, then we can decipher the four modes. But first we need to understand that any of these four Mode messages can be sent to any MIDI channel. They don't necessarily apply to the whole device. If we send an "Omni On" message (CC#125) to a MIDI channel of a device, we are, in effect, asking it to respond to e.g. a Note On / Off message pair, received on any of the sixteen channels. Sound strange? Read it again. Still strange? It certainly is. We normally want a MIDI channel to respond only to Note On / Off messages sent on that channel, not any other. In other words, "Omni Off". So "Omni Off" (CC#124) tells a channel of our MIDI device to respond only to messages sent on that MIDI channel. "Poly" (CC#127) is for e.g. a channel of a polyphonic sound module, or a home keyboard, to be able to respond to many simultaneous Note On / Off message pairs at once and produce musical chords. "Mono" (CC#126) allows us to set a channel to respond as if it were e.g. a flute or a trumpet, playing just one note at a time. If the device is capable of it, then the overlapping of notes will produce legato playing, that is the attack portion of the second note of two overlapping notes will be removed resulting in a "smoother" transition. So a channel with a piano voice assigned to it will have Omni Off, Poly On (Mode 3), a channel with a saxophone voice assigned could be Omni Off, Mono On (Mode 4). We call these combinations the four modes, 1 to 4, as defined above. Most modern devices will have their channels set to Mode 3 (Omni Off, Poly) but be switchable, on a per channel basis, to Mode 4 (Omni Off, Mono). This second section of data will include first its default value i.e. upon device switch on. Then what Mode messages are acceptable, or X if none. Finally, in the "Altered" field, how a Mode message that can't be implemented will be interpreted. Usually there will just be a row of asterisks effectively meaning nothing will be done if you try to switch to an unimplemented mode. Note Number <pre> The next row will tell us which MIDI notes the device can send or receive, normally 0-127. The second line, "True Voice" has the following in the MIDI specification: "Range of received note numbers falling within the range of true notes produced by the instrument." My interpretation is that, for instance, a MIDI piano may be capable of sending all MIDI notes (0 to 127) by transposition, but only responding to the 88 notes (21 to 108) of a real piano. </pre> Velocity This will tell us whether the device we're looking at will handle note velocity, and what range from 1-127, or maybe just 64, it transmits or will recognise. So usually "O" plus a range or "X" for not implemented. After touch This may have one or two lines two it. If a one liner the either "O" or "X", yes or no. If a two liner then it may include "Keys" or "Poly" and "Channel". This will show whether the device will respond to Polyphonic after touch or channel after touch or neither. Pitch Bend Again "O" for implemented, "X" for not implemented. (Many stage pianos will have no pitch bend capability.) It may also, in the notes section, state whether it will respond to the full 14 bits, or not, as usually encoded by the pitch bend wheel. Control Change This is likely to be the largest section of the chart. It will list all those controllers, starting from CC#0, Bank Select MSB, which the device is capable of sending, and those that it will respond to using "O" or "X" respectively. You will, almost certainly, get some further explanation of functionality in the remarks column, or in more detail elsewhere in the documentation. Of course you will need to know what all the various controller numbers do. Lots of the official technical specifications can be found at the [www.midi.org/techspecs/ MMA], with the table of messages and control change [www.midi.org/techspecs/midimessages.php message numbers] Program Change Again "O" or "X" in the Transmitted or Recognised column to indicate whether or not the feature is implemented. In addition a range of numbers is shown, typically 0-127, to show what is available. True # (number): "The range of the program change numbers which correspond to the actual number of patches selected." System Exclusive Used to indicate whether or not the device can send or recognise System Exclusive messages. A short description is often given in the Remarks field followed by a detailed explanation elsewhere in the documentation. System Common - These include the following: <pre> MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame messages (device synchronisation). Song Position Pointer Song Select Tune Request </pre> The section will indicate whether or not the device can send or respond to any of these messages. System Real Time These include the following: <pre> Timing Clock - often just written as "Clock" Start Stop Continue </pre> These three are usually just referred to as "Commands" and listed. Again the section will indicate which, if any, of these messages the device can send or respond to. <pre> Aux. Messages Again "O" or "X" for implemented or not. Aux. = Auxiliary. Active Sense = Active Sensing. </pre> Often with an explanation of the action of the device. Notes The "Notes" section can contain any additional comments to clarify the particular implementation. Some of the explanations have been drawn directly from the MMA MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification. And the detailed explanation of some of the functions will be found there, or in the General MIDI System Level 1 or General MIDI System Level 2 documents also published by the MMA. OFFICIAL MIDI SPECIFICATIONS SUMMARY OF MIDI MESSAGES Table 1 - Summary of MIDI Messages The following table lists the major MIDI messages in numerical (binary) order (adapted from "MIDI by the Numbers" by D. Valenti, Electronic Musician 2/88, and updated by the MIDI Manufacturers Association.). This table is intended as an overview of MIDI, and is by no means complete. WARNING! Details about implementing these messages can dramatically impact compatibility with other products. We strongly recommend consulting the official MIDI Specifications for additional information. MIDI 1.0 Specification Message Summary Channel Voice Messages [nnnn = 0-15 (MIDI Channel Number 1-16)] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1000nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note Off event. This message is sent when a note is released (ended). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1001nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note On event. This message is sent when a note is depressed (start). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1010nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Polyphonic Key Pressure (Aftertouch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Control Change. This message is sent when a controller value changes. Controllers include devices such as pedals and levers. Controller numbers 120-127 are reserved as "Channel Mode Messages" (below). (ccccccc) is the controller number (0-119). (vvvvvvv) is the controller value (0-127). |- |<!--Status-->1100nnnn || <!--Data-->0ppppppp || <!--Description-->Program Change. This message sent when the patch number changes. (ppppppp) is the new program number. |- |<!--Status-->1101nnnn || <!--Data-->0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Pressure (After-touch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". This message is different from polyphonic after-touch. Use this message to send the single greatest pressure value (of all the current depressed keys). (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1110nnnn || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Pitch Bend Change. This message is sent to indicate a change in the pitch bender (wheel or lever, typically). The pitch bender is measured by a fourteen bit value. Center (no pitch change) is 2000H. Sensitivity is a function of the receiver, but may be set using RPN 0. (lllllll) are the least significant 7 bits. (mmmmmmm) are the most significant 7 bits. |} Channel Mode Messages (See also Control Change, above) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Mode Messages. This the same code as the Control Change (above), but implements Mode control and special message by using reserved controller numbers 120-127. The commands are: *All Sound Off. When All Sound Off is received all oscillators will turn off, and their volume envelopes are set to zero as soon as possible c = 120, v = 0: All Sound Off *Reset All Controllers. When Reset All Controllers is received, all controller values are reset to their default values. (See specific Recommended Practices for defaults) c = 121, v = x: Value must only be zero unless otherwise allowed in a specific Recommended Practice. *Local Control. When Local Control is Off, all devices on a given channel will respond only to data received over MIDI. Played data, etc. will be ignored. Local Control On restores the functions of the normal controllers. c = 122, v = 0: Local Control Off c = 122, v = 127: Local Control On * All Notes Off. When an All Notes Off is received, all oscillators will turn off. c = 123, v = 0: All Notes Off (See text for description of actual mode commands.) c = 124, v = 0: Omni Mode Off c = 125, v = 0: Omni Mode On c = 126, v = M: Mono Mode On (Poly Off) where M is the number of channels (Omni Off) or 0 (Omni On) c = 127, v = 0: Poly Mode On (Mono Off) (Note: These four messages also cause All Notes Off) |} System Common Messages System Messages (0xF0) The final status nybble is a “catch all” for data that doesn’t fit the other statuses. They all use the most significant nybble (4bits) of 0xF, with the least significant nybble indicating the specific category. The messages are denoted when the MSB of the second nybble is 1. When that bit is a 0, the messages fall into two other subcategories. System Common If the MSB of the second second nybble (4 bits) is not set, this indicates a System Common message. Most of these are messages that include some additional data bytes. System Common Messages Type Status Byte Number of Data Bytes Usage <pre> Time Code Quarter Frame 0xF1 1 Indicates timing using absolute time code, primarily for synthronization with video playback systems. A single location requires eight messages to send the location in an encoded hours:minutes:seconds:frames format*. Song Position 0xF2 2 Instructs a sequencer to jump to a new position in the song. The data bytes form a 14-bit value that expresses the location as the number of sixteenth notes from the start of the song. Song Select 0xF3 1 Instructs a sequencer to select a new song. The data byte indicates the song. Undefined 0xF4 0 Undefined 0xF5 0 Tune Request 0xF6 0 Requests that the receiver retunes itself**. </pre> *MIDI Time Code (MTC) is significantly complex. Please see the MIDI Specification **While modern digital instruments are good at staying in tune, older analog synthesizers were prone to tuning drift. Some analog synthesizers had an automatic tuning operation that could be initiated with this command. System Exclusive If you’ve been keeping track, you’ll notice there are two status bytes not yet defined: 0xf0 and 0xf7. These are used by the System Exclusive message, often abbreviated at SysEx. SysEx provides a path to send arbitrary data over a MIDI connection. There is a group of predefined messages for complex data, like fine grained control of MIDI Time code machinery. SysEx is also used to send manufacturer defined data, such as patches, or even firmware updates. System Exclusive messages are longer than other MIDI messages, and can be any length. The messages are of the following format: 0xF0, 0xID, 0xdd, ...... 0xF7 The message is bookended with distinct bytes. It opens with the Start Of Exclusive (SOX) data byte, 0xF0. The next one to three bytes after the start are an identifier. Values from 0x01 to 0x7C are one-byte vendor IDs, assigned to manufacturers who were involved with MIDI at the beginning. If the ID is 0x00, it’s a three-byte vendor ID - the next two bytes of the message are the value. <pre> ID 0x7D is a placeholder for non-commercial entities. ID 0x7E indicates a predefined Non-realtime SysEx message. ID 0x7F indicates a predefined Realtime SysEx message. </pre> After the ID is the data payload, sent as a stream of bytes. The transfer concludes with the End of Exclusive (EOX) byte, 0xF7. The payload data must follow the guidelines for MIDI data bytes – the MSB must not be set, so only 7 bits per byte are actually usable. If the MSB is set, it falls into three possible scenarios. An End of Exclusive byte marks the ordinary termination of the SysEx transfer. System Real Time messages may occur within the transfer without interrupting it. The recipient should handle them independently of the SysEx transfer. Other status bytes implicitly terminate the SysEx transfer and signal the start of new messages. Some inexpensive USB-to-MIDI interfaces aren’t capable of handling messages longer than four bytes. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11110000 || <!--Data-->0iiiiiii [0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii] 0ddddddd --- --- 0ddddddd 11110111 || <!--Description-->System Exclusive. This message type allows manufacturers to create their own messages (such as bulk dumps, patch parameters, and other non-spec data) and provides a mechanism for creating additional MIDI Specification messages. The Manufacturer's ID code (assigned by MMA or AMEI) is either 1 byte (0iiiiiii) or 3 bytes (0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii). Two of the 1 Byte IDs are reserved for extensions called Universal Exclusive Messages, which are not manufacturer-specific. If a device recognizes the ID code as its own (or as a supported Universal message) it will listen to the rest of the message (0ddddddd). Otherwise, the message will be ignored. (Note: Only Real-Time messages may be interleaved with a System Exclusive.) |- |<!--Status-->11110001 || <!--Data-->0nnndddd || <!--Description-->MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame. nnn = Message Type dddd = Values |- |<!--Status-->11110010 || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Song Position Pointer. This is an internal 14 bit register that holds the number of MIDI beats (1 beat= six MIDI clocks) since the start of the song. l is the LSB, m the MSB. |- |<!--Status-->11110011 || <!--Data-->0sssssss || <!--Description-->Song Select. The Song Select specifies which sequence or song is to be played. |- |<!--Status-->11110100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Tune Request. Upon receiving a Tune Request, all analog synthesizers should tune their oscillators. |- |<!--Status-->11110111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->End of Exclusive. Used to terminate a System Exclusive dump. |} System Real-Time Messages {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11111000 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Timing Clock. Sent 24 times per quarter note when synchronization is required. |- |<!--Status-->11111001 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111010 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Start. Start the current sequence playing. (This message will be followed with Timing Clocks). |- |<!--Status-->11111011 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Continue. Continue at the point the sequence was Stopped. |- |<!--Status-->11111100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Stop. Stop the current sequence. |- |<!--Status-->11111101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Active Sensing. This message is intended to be sent repeatedly to tell the receiver that a connection is alive. Use of this message is optional. When initially received, the receiver will expect to receive another Active Sensing message each 300ms (max), and if it does not then it will assume that the connection has been terminated. At termination, the receiver will turn off all voices and return to normal (non- active sensing) operation. |- |<!--Status-->11111111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Reset. Reset all receivers in the system to power-up status. This should be used sparingly, preferably under manual control. In particular, it should not be sent on power-up. |} Advanced Messages Polyphonic Pressure (0xA0) and Channel Pressure (0xD0) Some MIDI controllers include a feature known as Aftertouch. While a key is being held down, the player can press harder on the key. The controller measures this, and converts it into MIDI messages. Aftertouch comes in two flavors, with two different status messages. The first flavor is polyphonic aftertouch, where every key on the controller is capable of sending its own independent pressure information. The messages are of the following format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xkk, 0xpp n is the status (0xA) c is the channel nybble kk is the key number (0 to 127) pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Polyphonic aftertouch is an uncommon feature, usually found on premium quality instruments, because every key requires a separate pressure sensor, plus the circuitry to read them all. Much more commonly found is channel aftertouch. Instead of needing a discrete sensor per key, it uses a single, larger sensor to measure pressure on all of the keys as a group. The messages omit the key number, leaving a two-byte format <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xD) c is the channel number pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Pitch Bend (0xE0) Many keyboards have a wheel or lever towards the left of the keys for pitch bend control. This control is usually spring-loaded, so it snaps back to the center of its range when released. This allows for both upward and downward bends. Pitch Bend Wheel The wheel sends pitch bend messages, of the format <pre> 0xnc, 0xLL, 0xMM n is the status (0xE) c is the channel number LL is the 7 least-significant bits of the value MM is the 7 most-significant bits of the value </pre> You’ll notice that the bender data is actually 14 bits long, transmitted as two 7-bit data bytes. This means that the recipient needs to reassemble those bytes using binary manipulation. 14 bits results in an overall range of 214, or 0 to 16,383. Because it defaults to the center of the range, the default value for the bender is halfway through that range, at 8192 (0x2000). Control Change (0xB0) In addition to pitch bend, MIDI has provisions for a wider range of expressive controls, sometimes known as continuous controllers, often abbreviated CC. These are transmitted by the remaining knobs and sliders on the keyboard controller shown below. Continuous Controllers These controls send the following message format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xcc, 0xvv n is the status (0xB) c is the MIDI channel cc is the controller number (0-127) vv is the controller value (0-127) </pre> Typically, the wheel next to the bender sends controller number one, assigned to modulation (or vibrato) depth. It is implemented by most instruments. The remaining controller number assignments are another point of confusion. The MIDI specification was revised in version 2.0 to assign uses for many of the controllers. However, this implementation is not universal, and there are ranges of unassigned controllers. On many modern MIDI devices, the controllers are assignable. On the controller keyboard shown in the photos, the various controls can be configured to transmit different controller numbers. Controller numbers can be mapped to particular parameters. Virtual synthesizers frequently allow the user to assign CCs to the on-screen controls. This is very flexible, but it might require configuration on both ends of the link and completely bypasses the assignments in the standard. Program Change (0xC0) Most synthesizers have patch storage memory, and can be told to change patches using the following command: <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xc) c is the channel pp is the patch number (0-127) </pre> This allows for 128 sounds to be selected, but modern instruments contain many more than 128 patches. Controller #0 is used as an additional layer of addressing, interpreted as a “bank select” command. Selecting a sound on such an instrument might involve two messages: a bank select controller message, then a program change. Audio & Midi are not synchronized, what I can do ? Buy a commercial software package but there is a nasty trick to synchronize both. It's a bit hardcore but works for me: Simply put one line down to all midi notes on your pattern (use Insert key) and go to 'Misc. Setup', adjust the latency and just search a value that will make sound sync both audio/midi. The stock Sin/Saw/Pulse and Rnd waveforms are too simple/common, is there a way to use something more complex/rich ? You have to ability to redirect the waveforms of the instruments through the synth pipe by selecting the "wav" option for the oscillator you're using for this synth instrument, samples can be used as wavetables to replace the stock signals. Sound banks like soundfont (sf2) or Kontakt2 are not supported at the moment ====DAW Audio Evolution 4==== Audio Evolution 4 gives you unsurpassed power for digital audio recording and editing on the Amiga. The latest release focusses on time-saving non-linear and non-destructive editing, as seen on other platforms. Besides editing, Audio Evolution 4 offers a wide range of realtime effects, including compression, noise gate, delays, reverb, chorus and 3-band EQ. Whether you put them as inserts on a channel or use them as auxillaries, the effect parameters are realtime adjustable and can be fully automated. Together with all other mixing parameters, they can even be controlled remotely, using more ergonomic MIDI hardware. Non-linear editing on the time line, including cut, copy, paste, move, split, trim and crossfade actions The number of tracks per project(s) is unlimited .... AHI limits you to recording only two at a time. i.e. not on 8 track sound cards like the Juli@ or Phase 88. sample file import is limited to 16bit AIFF (not AIFC, important distinction as some files from other sources can be AIFC with aiff file extension). and 16bit WAV (pcm only) Most apps use the Music Unit only but a few apps also use Unit (0-3) instead or as well. * Set up AHI prefs so that microphone is available. (Input option near the bottom) stereo++ allows the audio piece to be placed anywhere and the left-right adjusted to sound positionally right hifi best for music playback if driver supports this option Load 16bit .aif .aiff only sample(s) to use not AIFC which can have the same ending. AIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format sox recital.wav recital.aiff sox recital.wav −b 16 recital.aiff channels 1 rate 16k fade 3 norm sox input.wav output.aiff bass −b 16 rate 48k performs the same format translation, but also applies four effects (down-mix to one channel, sample rate change, fade-in, nomalize), and stores the result at a bit-depth of 16. rec −c 2 radio.aiff trim 0 30:00 records half an hour of stereo audio play existing-file.wav 24bit PCM WAV or AIFF do not work *No stream format handling. So no way to pass on an AC3 encoded stream unmodified to the digital outputs through AHI. *No master volume handling. Each application has to set its own volume. So each driver implements its own custom driver-mixer interface for handling master volumes, mute and preamps. *Only one output stream. So all input gets mixed into one output. *No automatic handling of output direction based on connected cables. *No monitor input selection. Only monitor volume control. select the correct input (Don't mistake enabled sound for the correct input.) The monitor will feedback audio to the lineout and hp out no matter if you have selected the correct input to the ADC. The monitor will provide sound for any valid input. This will result in free mixing when recording from the monitor input instead of mic/line because the monitor itself will provide the hardware mixing for you. Be aware that MIC inputs will give two channel mono. Only Linein will give real stereo. Now for the not working part. Attempt to record from linein in the AE4 record window, the right channel is noise and the left channel is distorted. Even with the recommended HIFI 16bit Stereo++ mode at 48kHz. Channels Monitor Gain Inout Output Advanced settings - Debugging via serial port * Options -> Soundcard In/Out * Options -> SampleRate * Options -> Preferences F6 for Sample File List Setting a grid is easy as is measuring the BPM by marking a section of the sample. Is your kick drum track "not in time" ? If so, you're stumped in AE4 as it has no fancy variable time signatures and definitely no 'track this dodgy rhythm' function like software of the nature of Logic has. So if your drum beat is freeform you will need to work in freeform mode. (Real music is free form anyway). If the drum *is* accurate and you are just having trouble measuring the time, I usually measure over a range of bars and set the number of beats in range to say 16 as this is more accurate, Then you will need to shift the drum track to match your grid *before* applying the grid. (probably an iterative process as when the grid is active samples snap to it, and when inactive you cannot see it). AE4 does have ARexx but the functions are more for adding samples at set offsets and starting playback / recording. These are the usual features found in DAWs... * Recording digital audio, midi sequencer and mixer * virtual VST instruments and plug-ins * automation, group channels, MIDI channels, FX sends and returns, audio and MIDI editors and music notation editor * different track views * mixer and track layout (but not the same as below) * traditional two windows (track and mixer) Mixing - mixdown Could not figure out how to select what part I wanted to send to the aux, set it to echo and return. Pretty much the whole echo effect. Or any effect. Take look at page17 of the manual. When you open the EQ / Aux send popup window you will see 4 sends. Now from the menu choose the windows menu. Menus->Windows-> Aux Returns Window or press F5 You will see a small window with 4 volume controls and an effects button for each. Click a button and add an effects to that aux channel, then set it up as desired (note the reverb effect has a special AUX setting that improves its use with the aux channel, not compulsory but highly useful). You set the amount of 'return' on the main mix in the Aux Return window, and the amount sent from each main mixer channel in the popup for that channel. Again the aux sends are "prefade" so the volume faders on each channel do not affect them. Tracking Effects - fade in To add some echoes to some vocals, tried to add an effect on a track but did not come out. This is made more complicated as I wanted to mute a vocal but then make it echo at the muting point. Want to have one word of a vocal heard and then echoed off. But when the track is mute the echo is cancelled out. To correctly understand what is happening here you need to study the figure at the bottom of page 15 on the manual. You will see from that that the effects are applied 'prefade' So the automation you applied will naturally mute the entire signal. There would be a number of ways to achieve the goal, You have three real time effects slots, one for smoothing like so Sample -> Amplify -> Delay Then automate the gain of the amplify block so that it effectively mutes the sample just before the delay at the appropriate moment, the echo effect should then be heard. Getting the effects in the right order will require experimentation as they can only be added top down and it's not obvious which order they are applied to the signal, but there only two possibilities, so it wont take long to find out. Using MUTE can cause clicks to the Amplify can be used to mute more smoothly so that's a secondary advantage. Signal Processing - Overdub [[#top|...to the top]] ===Office=== ====Spreadsheet Leu==== Support for some xlsx, and ods functions ====Spreadsheet Ignition==== ; Needs ABIv1 to be completed before more can be done File formats supported * ascii #?.txt and #?.csv (single sheets with data only). * igs and TurboCalc(WIP) #?.tc for all sheets with data, formats and formulas. There is '''no''' support for xls, xlsx, ods or uos ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Office_Format Uniform Unified Office Format]) at the moment. * Always use Esc key after editing Spreadsheet cells. * copy/paste seems to copy the first instance only so go to Edit -> Clipboard to manage the list of remembered actions. * Right mouse click on row (1 or 2 or 3) or column header (a or b or c) to access optimal height or width of the row or column respectively * Edit -> Insert -> Row seems to clear the spreadsheet or clears the rows after the inserted row until undo restores as it should be... Change Sheet name by Object -> Sheet -> Properties Click in the cell which will contain the result, and click '''down arrow button''' to the right of the formula box at the bottom of the spreadsheet and choose the function required from the list provided. Then click on the start cell and click on the bottom right corner, a '''very''' small blob, which allows stretching a bounding box (thick grey outlines) across many cells This grey bounding box can be used to '''copy a formula''' to other cells. Object -> Cell -> Properties to change cell format - Currency only covers DM and not $, Euro, Renminbi, Yen or Pound etc. Shift key and arrow keys selects a range of cells, so that '''formatting can be done to all highlighted cells'''. View -> Overview then select ALL with one click (in empty cell in the top left hand corner of the sheet). Default mode is relative cell referencing e.g. a1+a2 but absolute e.g. $a$1+$a$2 can be entered. * #sheet-name to '''absolute''' reference another sheet-name cell unless reference() function used. ;Graphs use shift key and arrow keys to select a bunch of cells to be graph'ed making sure that x axes represents and y axes represents * value() - 0 value, 1 percent, 2 date, 3 time, 4 unit ... ;Dates * Excel starts a running count from the 1st Jan 1900 and Ignition starts from 1st Jan 1AD '''(maybe this needs to change)''' Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put date in days ;Time Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put time in seconds taken ;Database (to be done by someone else) type - standard, reference (bezug), search criterion (suchkriterium), * select a bunch of cells and Object -> Database -> Define to set Datenbank (database) and Felder (fields not sure how?) * Neu (new) or loschen (delete) to add/remove database headings e.g. Personal, Start Date, Finish Date (one per row?) * Object -> Database -> Index to add fields (felder) like Surname, First Name, Employee ID, etc. to ? Filtering done with dbfilter(), dbproduct() and dbposition(). Activities with dbsum(), dbaverage(), dbmin() and dbmax(). Table sorting - ;Scripts (Arexx) ;Excel(TM) to Ignition - commas ''',''' replaced by semi-colons ''';''' to separate values within functions *SUM(), *AVERAGE(), MAX(), MIN(), INT(), PRODUCT(), MEDIAN(), VAR() becomes Variance(), Percentile(), *IF(), AND, OR, NOT *LEFT(), RIGHT(), MID() becomes MIDDLE(), LEN() becomes LENGTH(), *LOWER() becomes LOWERCASE(), UPPER() becomes UPPERCASE(), * DATE(yyyy,mm,dd) becomes COMPUTEDATE(dd;mm;yyyy), *TODAY(), DAY(),WEEK(), MONTH(),=YEAR(TODAY()), *EOMONTH() becomes MONTHLENGTH(), *NOW() should be date and time becomes time only, SECOND(), MINUTE(), HOUR(), *DBSUM() becomes DSUM(), ;Missing and possibly useful features/functions needed for ignition to have better support of Excel files There is no Merge and Join Text over many cells, no protect and/or freeze row or columns or books but can LOCK sheets, no define bunch of cells as a name, Macros (Arexx?), conditional formatting, no Solver, no Goal Seek, no Format Painter, no AutoFill, no AutoSum function button, no pivot tables, (30 argument limit applies to Excel) *HLOOKUP(), VLOOKUP(), [http://production-scheduling.com/excel-index-function-most-useful/ INDEX(), MATCH()], CHOOSE(), TEXT(), *TRIM(), FIND(), SUBSTITUTE(), CONCATENATE() or &, PROPER(), REPT(), *[https://acingexcel.com/excel-sumproduct-function/ SUMPRODUCT()], ROUND(), ROUNDUP(), *ROUNDDOWN(), COUNT(), COUNTA(), SUMIF(), COUNTIF(), COUNTBLANK(), TRUNC(), *PMT(), PV(), FV(), POWER(), SQRT(), MODE(), TRUE, FALSE, *MODE(), LARGE(), SMALL(), RANK(), STDEV(), *DCOUNT(), DCOUNTA(), WEEKDAY(), ;Excel Keyboard [http://dmcritchie.mvps.org/excel/shortx2k.htm shortcuts needed to aid usability in Ignition] <pre> Ctrl Z - Undo Ctrl D - Fill Down Ctrl R - Fill right Ctrl F - Find Ctrl H - Replace Ctrl 1 - Formatting of Cells CTRL SHIFT ~ Apply General Formatting ie a number Ctrl ; - Todays Date F2 - Edit cell F4 - toggle cell absolute / relative cell references </pre> ====Document Scanning - Scandal==== Scanner usually needs to be connected via a USB port and not via a hub or extension lead. Check in Trident Prefs -> Devices that the USB Scanner is not bound to anything (e.g. Bindings None) If not found then reboot the computer and recheck. Start Scandal, choose Settings from Menu strip at top of screen and in Scanner Driver choose the ?#.device of the scanner (e.g. epson2.device). The next two boxes - leave empty as they are for morphos SCSI use only or put ata.device (use the selection option in bigger box below) and Unit as 0 this is needed for gt68xx * gt68xx - no editing needed in s/gt68xx.conf but needs a firmware file that corresponds to the scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx firmwares] in sys:s/gt68xx. * epson2 - Need to edit the file epson2.conf in sys/s that corresponds to the scanner being used '''Save''' the settings but do not press the Use button (aros freezes) Back to the Picture Scan window and the right-hand sections. Click on the '''Information''' tab and press Connect button and the scanner should now be detected. Go next to the '''Scanner''' tab next to Information Tab should have Color, Black and White, etc. and dpi settings now. Selecting an option Color, B/W etc. can cause dpi settings corruption (especially if the settings are in one line) so set '''dpi first'''. Make sure if Preview is set or not. In the '''Scan''' Tab, press Scan and the scanner will do its duty. Be aware that nothing is saved to disk yet. In the Save tab, change format JPEG, PNG or IFF DEEP. Tick incremental and base filename if necessary and then click the Save button. The image will now be saved to permanent storage. The driver ignores a device if it is already bond to another USB class, rejects it from being usable. However, open Trident prefs, select your device and use the right mouse button to open. Select "NONE" to prevent poseidon from touching the device. Now save settings. It should always work now. [[#top|...to the top]] ===Emulators=== ==== Amiberry ==== ==== Amiga Emu - Janus UAE ==== With Amibridge, AROS attempts to make the UAE emulator seem embedded within but it still is acting as an app There is no dynarec m68k for each hardware that Aros supports or direct patching of motorola calls to AROS hardware accelerated ones unless the emulator has that included Try starting Janus with a priority of -1 like this little script: <pre> cd sys:system/AmiBridge/emulator changetaskpri -1 run janus-uae -f my_uaerc.config >nil: cd sys:prefs endcli </pre> This stops Janus hogging all the CPU time. ===Miscellaneous=== ====Screensaver Blanker==== Most blankers on the amiga (i.e. aros) run as commodities (they are in the tools/commodities drawer). Double click on blanker. Control is with an app called Exchange, which you need to run first (double click on app) or run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Exchange >NIL: but subsequently can use (Cntrl Alt h). Icon tool types (may be broken) or command line options <pre> seconds=number </pre> Once the timing is right then add the following to s:icaros-sequence or s:user-startup e.g. for 5 minutes run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Blanker seconds=300 >NIL: *[http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/screenblanker/gblanker.i386-aros.zip Garshneblanker] can make Aros unstable or slow. Certain blankers crashes in Icaros 2.0.x like Dragon, Executor. *[ Acuario AROS version], the aquarium screen saver. Startup: extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Kill: c:break name=extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Managed to start Acuario by the Executor blanker. <pre> cx_priority= cx_popkey= ie CX_POPKEY="Shift F1" cx_popup=Yes or No </pre> <pre> Qualifier String Input Event Class ---------------- ----------------- "lshift" IEQUALIFIER_LSHIFT "rshift" IEQUALIFIER_RSHIFT "capslock" IEQUALIFIER_CAPSLOCK "control" IEQUALIFIER_CONTROL "lalt" IEQUALIFIER_LALT "ralt" IEQUALIFIER_RALT "lcommand" IEQUALIFIER_LCOMMAND "rcommand" IEQUALIFIER_RCOMMAND "numericpad" IEQUALIFIER_NUMERICPAD "repeat" IEQUALIFIER_REPEAT "midbutton" IEQUALIFIER_MIDBUTTON "rbutton" IEQUALIFIER_RBUTTON "leftbutton" IEQUALIFIER_LEFTBUTTON "relativemouse" IEQUALIFIER_RELATIVEMOUSE </pre> <pre> Synonym Synonym String Identifier ------- ---------- "shift" IXSYM_SHIFT /* look for either shift key */ "caps" IXSYM_CAPS /* look for either shift key or capslock */ "alt" IXSYM_ALT /* look for either alt key */ Highmap is one of the following strings: "space", "backspace", "tab", "enter", "return", "esc", "del", "up", "down", "right", "left", "f1", "f2", "f3", "f4", "f5", "f6", "f7", "f8", "f9", "f10", "help". </pre> [[#top|...to the top]] ==== World Construction Set WCS (Version 2.031) ==== WCS is a fractal landscape software such as Scenery Animator, Vista Pro and Panorama. Open sourced February 2022, World Construction Set [https://3dnature.com/downloads/legacy-software/ legally and for free] and [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/3DNature c source]. Announced August 1994 this version dates from April 1996 developed by Gary R. Huber and Chris "Xenon" Hanson" from Questar <pre> Assign "WCSProjects:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSProjects" Assign "WCSFrames:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSFrames" </pre> <pre> Load projects .proj by accessing pull down menu Project -> Open then click on CanyonSunset.proj OK to changing .par file and enlarge Status Log window to show what is happening Render by pull down menu Modules -> Render with End equal 1 not 300 then click bottom middle button Render </pre> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxQDmf1ZWG0 Youtube walkthrough of above], [], [], Also try working with the already built file ColoDemo - Then open with the drop-down menu: Project/Open, then WCSProject:ColoDemo.proj Which allows you to use altimetric DEM files already included and Loading scene parameters from ColoDemo.par Once this is done, save everything with a new name to start working exclusively on your project. Then drop-down menu and select Save As ("NewName".proj name), then drop-down menu to open parameter and select Save All ( .par name) After launching the software, there is a the Module Control Panel composed of five icons. It is a dock type shortcut of the first few functions of the drop-down menu *Database - Load (#?.proj), Append, Create, Edit, Save, Dir List (of WCSProject drawer), *Data Ops - Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats *Map View - Database file Loader leading to Map View Control with option to the Database Editor *Parameters - Editor for Motion, Color, Ecosystem, Clouds, Waves, management of altimeter files DEM, sclock settings etc *Render - rendering terrain These are more in the pull down menu but not in the dock *Motion Editor *Color Editor *Ecosys Editor Simple minimal workflow *Load database (1st icon - 1st) *Set parameters and save .par file (4th icon) *Render scene (5th icon) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbTwwR2qcc4 Youtube], [], <pre> .proj new project name which creates a drawer of additional files .binary array, ascii array .xyz , z buffer, DTED .dt0, vista 1990s dem, iff conversion .Obj with .elev, .frd with .hdr maps, - digital elevation model (DEM) is a 3D representation of elevation data in various formats USGS 7.5MinDEM, .par </pre> Since for the time being no project is loaded, a query window indicates a procedural error when clicking on the rendering icon (right end of the bar). The menu is quite traditional; it varies according to the activity of the windows. To display any altimetric file in the "Mapview" (third icon of the panel), There are three possibilities: * Loading of a demonstration project. * The import of a DEM file, followed by texturing and packaging from the "Database-Editor" and the "Color-Editor". * The creation of an altimetric file in WCS format, then texturing. The altimeter file editing (display in the menu) is only made possible if the "Mapview" window is active. The software is made up of many windows and won't be able to describe them all. Know that "Color-Editor" and the "Data-Editor" comprise sufficient functions for obtaining an almost real rendering quality. You have the possibility of inserting vector objects in the "Data-Editor" (creation of roads, railways, etc.) The Map View (MapView) window *Database - Objects and Topos *View - Align, Center, Zoom, Pan, Move *Draw - Maps and distance *Object - Find, highlight, add points, conform topo, duplicate *Motion - Camera, Focus, path, elevation *Windows - DEM designer, Cloud (.cld) and wave (.wve) editor, You will notice that by selecting this window and simply moving the pointer to various points on the map you will see latitude and longitude values ​​change, along with the height. Drop-down menu and Modules, then select MapView and change the width of the window with the map to arrange it in the best way on the screen. With the Auto button the center. Window that then displays the contents of my DEM file, in this case the Grand Canyon. MapView allows you to observe the shape of the landscape from above ZOOM button Press the Zoom button and then with the pointer position on a point on the map, press the left mouse button and then move to the opposite corner to circumscribe the chosen area and press the left mouse button again, then we will see the enlarged area selected on the map. Would add that there is a box next to the Zoom button that allows the direct insertion of a value which, the larger it is, the smaller the magnification and the smaller the value, the stronger the magnification. At each numerical change you will need to press the DRAW button to update the view. PAN button Under Zoom you will find the PAN button which allows you to move the map at will in all directions by the amount you want. This is done by drawing a line in one direction, then press PAN and point to an area on the map with the pointer and press the left mouse button. At this point, leave it and move the pointer in one direction by drawing a line and press the left mouse button again to trigger the movement of the map on the screen (origin and end points). Do some experiments and then use the Auto button immediately below to recenter everything. There are parameters such as TOPO, VEC to be left checked and immediately below one that allows different views of the map with the Style command (Single, Multi, Surface, Emboss, Slope, Contour), each with its own particularities to highlight different details. Now you have the first basics to manage your project visually on the map. Close the MapView window and go further... Let's start working on ECOSYSTEMS If we select Emboss from the MapView Style command we will have a clear idea of ​​how the landscape appears, realizing that it is a predominantly desert region of our planet. Therefore we will begin to act on any vegetation present and the appearance of the landscape. With WCS we will begin to break down the elements of the landscape by assigning defined characteristics. It will be necessary to determine the classes of the ecosystem (Class) with parameters of Elevation Line (maximum altitude), Relative Elevation (arrangement on basins or convexities with respectively positive or negative parameters), Min Slope and Max Slope (slope). WCS offers the possibility of making ecosystems coexist on the same terrain with the UnderEco function, by setting a Density value. Ecosys Ecosystem Editor Let's open it from Modules, then Ecosys Editor. In the left pane you will find the list of ecosystems referring to the files present in our project. It will be necessary to clean up that box to leave only the Water and Snow landscapes and a few other predefined ones. We can do this by selecting the items and pressing the Remove button (be careful not for all elements the button is activated, therefore they cannot all be eliminated). Once this is done we can start adding new ecosystems. Scroll through the various Unused and as soon as the Name item at the top is activated allowing you to write, type the name of your ecosystem, adding the necessary parameters. <pre> Ecosystem1: Name: RockBase Class: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 15 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem2: Name: RockIncl Clss: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 30 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem3: Name: Grass Class Low Veg Density: 50 Height: 1 Elev Line : 1500 Rel El Eff: 5 Max Slope: 10 – Min Slope: 0 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema4: Name: Shrubs Class: Low Veg Density: 40 Height: 8 Elev Line: 3000 Rel El Eff: -2 Max Slope: 20 Min Slope : 5 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema5: Name: Terrain Class: Ground Density: 100 UnderEco: Terrain </pre> Now we need to identify an intermediate ecosystem that guarantees a smooth transition between all, therefore we select as Understory Ecosystem the one called Terrain in all ecosystems, except Snow and Water . Now we need to 'emerge' the Colorado River in the Canyon and we can do this by raising the sea level to 900 (Sea Level) in the Ecosystem called Water. Please note that the order of the ecosystem list gives priority to those that come after. So our list must have the following order: Water, Snow, Shrubs, RockIncl, RockBase, Terrain. It is possible to carry out all movements with the Swap button at the bottom. To put order you can also press Short List. Press Keep to confirm all the work done so far with Ecosystem Editor. Remember every now and then to save both the Project 'Modules/Save' and 'Parameter/Save All' EcoModels are made up of .etp .fgp .iff8 for each model Color Editor Now it's time to define the colors of our scene and we can do this by going to Modules and then Color Editor. In the list we focus on our ecosystems, created first. Let's go to the bottom of the list and select the first white space, assigning the name 'empty1', with a color we like and then we will find this element again in other environments... It could serve as an example for other situations! So we move to 'grass' which already exists and assign the following colors: R 60 G 70 B50 <pre> 'shrubs': R 60 G 80 B 30 'RockIncl' R 110 G 65 B 60 'RockBase' R 110 G 80 B 80 ' Terrain' R 150 G 30 B 30 <pre> Now we can work on pre-existing colors <pre> 'SunLight' R 150 G 130 B 130 'Haze and Fog' R 190 G 170 B 170 'Horizon' R 209 G 185 B 190 'Zenith' R 140 G 150 B 200 'Water' R 90 G 125 B 170 </pre> Ambient R 0 G 0 B 0 So don't forget to close Color Editor by pressing Keep. Go once again to Ecosystem Editor and assign the corresponding color to each environment by selecting it using the Ecosystem Color button. Press it several times until the correct one appears. Then save the project and parameters again, as done previously. Motion Editor Now it's time to take care of the framing, so let's go to Modules and then to Motion Editor. An extremely feature-rich window will open. Following is the list of parameters regarding the Camera, position and other characteristics: <pre> -Camera Altitude: 7.0 -Camera Latitude: 36.075 -Camera Longitude: 112.133 -Focus Attitude: -2.0 -Focus Latitude: 36.275 -Focus Longitude: 112.386 -Camera : 512 → rendering window -Camera Y: 384 → rendering window -View Arc: 80 → View width in degrees -Sun Longitude: 172 -Sun Latitude: -0.9 -Haze Start: 3.8 -Haze Range: 78, 5 </pre> As soon as the values ​​shown in the relevant sliders have been modified, we will be ready to open the CamView window to observe the wireframe preview. Let's not consider all the controls that will appear. Well from the Motion Editor if you have selected Camera Altitude and open the CamView panel, you can change the height of the camera by holding down the right mouse button and moving the mouse up and down. To update the view, press the Terrain button in the adjacent window. As soon as you are convinced of the position, confirm again with Keep. You can carry out the same work with the other functions of the camera, such as Focus Altitude... Let's now see the next positioning step on the Camera map, but let's leave the CamView preview window open while we go to Modules to open the window at the same time MapView. We will thus be able to take advantage of the view from the other together with a subjective one. From the MapView window, select with the left mouse button and while it is pressed, move the Camera as desired. To update the subjective preview, always click on Terrain. While with the same procedure you can intervene on the direction of the camera lens, by selecting the cross and with the left button pressed you can choose the desired view. So with the pressure of Terrain I update the Preview. Possibly can enlarge or reduce the Map View using the Zoom button, for greater precision. Also write that the circle around the cameras indicates the beginning of the haze, there are two types (haze and fog) linked to the altitude. Would also add that the camera height is editable through the Motion Editor panel. The sun Let's see that changing the position of the sun from the Motion Editor. Press the SUN button at the bottom right and set the time and the date. Longitude and latitude are automatically obtained by the program. Always open the View Arc command from the Motion Editor panel, an item present in the Parameter List box. Once again confirm everything with Keep and then save again. Animation The animation part is not left-back and also occupies a window. The settings possibilities are enormous. A time line with dragging functions ("slide", "drag"...) comparable to that of LightWave completes this window. A small window is available for positioning the stars as a function of a date, in order to vary the seasons and their various events (and yes...). At the bottom of the "Motion-Editor", a "cam-view" function will give you access to a control panel. Different preview modes are possible. The rendering is also accessible through a window. No less than nine pages compose it. At this level, you will be able to determine the backup name of your images ("path"), the type of texture to be calculated, the resolution of the images, activate or deactivate functions such as the depth buffer ("zbuffer"), the blur, the background image, etc. Once all these parameters have been set, all you have to do is click on the "Render" button. For rendering go to Modules and then Render. Select the resolution, then under IMA select the name of the image. Move to FRA and indicate the level of fractal detail which of 4 is quite good. Then Keep to confirm and then reopen the window, pressing Render you will see the result. The image will be opened with any viewing program. Strengths: * Multi-window. * Quality of rendering. * Accuracy. * Opening, preview and rendering on CyberGraphX screen. * Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats * The "zbuffer" function. Weaknesses: * No OpenGL management * Calculation time. * No network computing tool. ====Writing CD / DVD - Frying Pan==== Can be backup DVDs (4GB ISO size limit due to use of FileInfoBlock), create audio cds from mp3's, and put .iso files on discs If using for the first time - click Drive button and Device set to ata.device and unit to 0 (zero) Click Tracks Button - Drive 1 - Create New Disc or Import Existing Disc Image (iso bin/cue etc.) - Session File open cue file If you're making a data cd, with files and drawers from your hard drive, you should be using the ISO Builder.. which is the MUI page on the left. ("Data/Audio Tracks" is on the right). You should use the "Data/Audio tracks" page if you want to create music cds with AIFF/WAV/MP3 files, or if you download an .iso file, and you want to put it on a cd. Click WRITE Button - set write speed - click on long Write button Examples Easiest way would be to burn a DATA CD, simply go to "Tracks" page "ISO Builder" and "ADD" everything you need to burn. On the "Write" page i have "Masterize Disc (DAO)", "Close Disc" and "Eject after Write" set. One must not "Blank disc before write" if one uses a CDR AUDIO CD from MP3's are as easy but tricky to deal with. FP only understands one MP3 format, Layer II, everything else will just create empty tracks Burning bootable CD's works only with .iso files. Go to "Tracks" page and "Data/Audio Tracks" and add the .iso ====odf==== Every ODF file is a collection of several subdocuments within a package (ZIP file), each of which stores part of the complete document. * content.xml – Document content and automatic styles used in the content. * styles.xml – Styles used in the document content and automatic styles used in the styles themselves. * meta.xml – Document meta information, such as the author or the time of the last save action. * settings.xml – Application-specific settings, such as the window size or printer information. To read document follow these steps: * Extracting .ods file. * Getting content.xml file (which contains sheets data). * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Creating DataSet (that represent Spreadsheet file). * With XmlDocument select “table:table” elements, and then create adequate DataTables. * Parse child’s of “table:table” element and fill DataTables with those data. * At the end, return DataSet and show it in application’s interface. To write document follow these steps: * Extracting template.ods file (.ods file that we use as template). * Getting content.xml file. * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Erasing all “table:table” elements from the content.xml file. * Reading data from our DataSet and composing adequate “table:table” elements. * Adding “table:table” elements to content.xml file. * Zipping that file as new .ods file. XLS file format The XLS file format contains streams, substreams, and records. These sheet substreams include worksheets, macro sheets, chart sheets, dialog sheets, and VBA module sheets. All the records in an XLS document start with a 2-byte unsigned integer to specify Record Type (rt), and another for Count of Bytes (cb). A record cannot exceed 8224 bytes. If larger than the rest is stored in one or more continue records. * Workbook stream **Globals substream ***BoundSheet8 record - info for Worksheet substream i.e. name, location, type, and visibility. (4bytes the lbPlyPos FilePointer, specifies the position in the Workbook stream where the sheet substream starts) **Worksheet substream (sheet) - Cell Table - Row record - Cells (2byte=row 2byte=column 2byte=XF format) ***Blank cell record ***RK cell record 32-bit number. ***BoolErr cell record (2-byte Bes structure that may be either a Boolean value or an error code) ***Number cell record (64-bit floating-point number) ***LabelSst cell record (4-byte integer that specifies a string in the Shared Strings Table (SST). Specifically, the integer corresponds to the array index in the RGB field of the SST) ***Formula cell record (FormulaValue structure in the 8 bytes that follow the cell structure. The next 6 bytes can be ignored, and the rest of the record is a CellParsedFormula structure that contains the formula itself) ***MulBlank record (first 2 bytes give the row, and the next 2 bytes give the column that the series of blanks starts at. Next, a variable length array of cell structures follows to store formatting information, and the last 2 bytes show what column the series of blanks ends on) ***MulRK record ***Shared String Table (SST) contains all of the string values in the workbook. ACCRINT(), ACCRINTM(), AMORDEGRC(), AMORLINC(), COUPDAYBS(), COUPDAYS(), COUPDAYSNC(), COUPNCD(), COUPNUM(), COUPPCD(), CUMIPMT(), CUMPRINC(), DB(), DDB(), DISC(), DOLLARDE(), DOLLARFR(), DURATION(), EFFECT(), FV(), FVSCHEDULE(), INTRATE(), IPMT(), IRR(), ISPMT(), MDURATION(), MIRR(), NOMINAL(), NPER(), NPV(), ODDFPRICE(), ODDFYIELD(), ODDLPRICE(), ODDLYIELD(), PMT(), PPMT(), PRICE(), PRICEDISC(), PRICEMAT(), PV(), RATE(), RECEIVED(), SLN(), SYD(), TBILLEQ(), TBILLPRICE(), TBILLYIELD(), VDB(), XIRR(), XNPV(), YIELD(), YIELDDISC(), YIELDMAT(), <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> {{BookCat}} ibol1dqbhgzns1mi15jr9k6rxqf6c3k 4671803 4671802 2026-09-22T19:05:57Z Jeff1138 301139 4671803 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== [[#Graphical Image Editing Art]] [[#Office Application]] [[#Audio]] [[#Misc Application]] [[#Games & Emulation]] [[#Application Guides]] [[#top|...to the top]] [[#top|...to the top]] Most apps can be opened on the Workbench (aka publicscreen pubscreen) which is the default display option but can offer a custom one set to your configurations (aka custom screen mode promotion). These custom ones tend to stack so the possible use of A-M/A-N method of switching between full screens and the ability to pull down screens as well If you are interested in creating or porting new software, see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/Docs here] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Internet Applications !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Web Online Browser [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Amelinium], Odyssey 2.0, [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1175&highlight=odyssey&rowstart=100 Odyssey 3.0], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://juen.in/ Amelinium], [https://blog.alb42.de/programs/amifox/ amifox] with [https://github.com/alb42/wrp wrp server], IBrowse*, [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager], [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ AWeb 3.6 src], [https://github.com/matjam/aweb AWeb Src], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/www/NetSurf-m68k-sources Netsurf], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ Odyssey OWB], [ Timberwolf (Firefox port 2011)], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?forum=32&topic_id=32847 OWB-mui], [http://strohmayer.org/owb/ OWB-Reaction], IBrowse*, [http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=network/browser/aweb.lha AWeb], Voyager, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Netsurf], |<!--MorphOS-->Wayfarer, [http://fabportnawak.free.fr/owb/ Odyssey OWB], [ Netsurf], IBrowse*, AWeb, [], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->YouTube, Dailymotion website downloading videos audio [https://github.com/yt-dlp/yt-dlp yt-dlp], [https://clipgrab.org/ clipgrab], |<!--AROS-->[], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [ smtube], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], getVideo, Tubexx, [https://github.com/walkero-gr/aiostreams aiostreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ytsearch], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 getVideo], Tubexx |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Old style E-mailing SMTP POP3 IMAP based |<!--AROS-->Emailinium, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/email SimpleMail], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ src], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--Amiga OS-->Emailinium, [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ SimpleMail], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--AmigaOS4-->SimpleMail, YAM, |<!--MorphOS--> SimpleMail, YAM |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IRC, ICB, |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat WookieChat], [https://sourceforge.net/projects/wookiechat/ Wookiechat src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat AiRcOS], Jabberwocky, |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/charabaruk/WookieChat Wookiechat], AmIRC |<!--AmigaOS4-->Wookiechat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Wookiechat], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 AmIRC], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Instant Messaging IM like [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amidon Hollywood lang based Mastodon client], BlueSky AT protocol, Facebook(TM), Twitter X (TM), Bitlbee IRC Gateway and others |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/kaffeine1/telegram-amiga telegram-amiga], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat jabberwocky], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], CLIMM, SabreMSN, [https://sourceforge.net/projects/ajabberwocky/ jabberwocky], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], SabreMSN, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 PolyglotNG], SabreMSN, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Torrents |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/p2p ArTorr], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->CTorrent, Transmission |<!--MorphOS-->MLDonkey, Beehive, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Transmission], CTorrent, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->FTP |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], MarranoFTP, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/wput-0.3.4c.i386-aros wput i386 c src] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP AmiFTP], AmiTradeCenter, ncFTP, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/sana2-tftpclient sana2 tftpclient c src] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], |<!--MorphOS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Pftp], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP-1.935-OS4 AmiFTP], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->WYSIWYG Web Site Editor |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Internet Radio Streaming Audio [http://www.gnu.org/software/gnump3d/ gnump3d], [http://www.icecast.org/ Icecast2] Server (Broadcast) and Client (Listen), [ mpd], [http://darkice.sourceforge.net/ DarkIce], [http://www.dyne.org/software/muse/ Muse], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc], Mplayer (Icecast Client only), |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinder TuneFinder C Src], [https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinderMUI TuneFinderMUI], [http://amigazeux.net/anr/ AmiNetRadio], [https://github.com/boingball/MintAMP MintAMP], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.tunenet.co.uk/ Tunenet], |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer, AmiNetRadio, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VoIP (Voice over IP) with SIP Client (Session Initiation Protocol) or Asterisk IAX2 Clients Softphone (skype like) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiPhone with Speak Freely, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Weather Forecast |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ WeatherBar], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench AWeather], [] |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], [https://github.com/emartisoft/AmiWeatherForecasts AmiWeatherForecasts src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/flipclock.lha FlipClock], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Street Road Maps Route Planning GPS Tracking |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/muimapparium/ MuiMapparium] [https://build.alb42.de/ Build of MuiMapp versions], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiAtlas*, UKRoutePlus*, [http://blog.alb42.de/ AmOSM], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://blog.alb42.de/programs/mapparium/ Mapparium], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Clock and Date setting from the internet (either ntp or websites) [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ World Clock], [http://www.time.gov/ NIST], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc ntpsync], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/amitimekeeper.i386-aros.lha amitimekeeper with c src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->ntpsync, [http://aminet.net/package/util/cdity/AmiTimeKeeper amitimekeeper], [http://aminet.net/comm/misc/netclock netclock], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/net/sntp sntp], [http://aminet.net/package/util/time/ScreenTime ScreenTime], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Newsgroups |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://newscoaster.sourceforge.net/ Newscoaster], [https://github.com/jens-maus/newsrog NewsRog], [ WorldNews], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->RSS |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/Team-Boingo/AmiRSS AmiRSS src] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->AI |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/murinsel/AmigaAI Claude], [https://github.com/geekychris/amiga_mcp AI on host machine], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BBS |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Graphical Image Editing Art== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Image Editing !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Pixel Raster Artwork [https://github.com/LibreSprite/LibreSprite LibreSprite based on GPL aseprite], [https://github.com/abetusk/hsvhero hsvhero], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ZunePaint/ ZunePaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LunaPaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit GrafX2], [ LodePaint needs OpenGL], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amigaforever.com/classic/download.html PPaint], GrafX2, [https://github.com/grovdata/Amiga_Sources/blob/master/software.md DeluxePaint], [http://www.amiforce.de/perfectpaint/perfectpaint.php PerfectPaint], Zoetrope, Brilliance2*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LodePaint], GrafX2, |<!--MorphOS-->Sketch, Pixel*, GrafX2, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 LunaPaint] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Image viewing |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LookHere], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LoView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer PicShow] , [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--Amiga OS-->PicShow, PicView, Photoalbum, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, PicShow, flPhoto, Thumbs, [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Photography retouching / Image Manipulation like Photoshop(tm) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOEffects], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Tecsoft Video Paint aka TVPaint], Photogenics*, ArtEffect*, ImageFX*, XiPaint, fxPaint, ImageMasterRT, Opalpaint, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, flPhoto, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit Photocrop] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], ImageFX*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Manage RAW picture folder galleries like Darktable, RAWtherapy, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Graphic Format Converter - ICC profile support sRGB, Adobe RGB, XYZ and linear RGB |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->GraphicsConverter, ImageStudio, [http://www.coplabs.org/artpro.html ArtPro] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Thumbnail Generator [], |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/shell Thumbnail Generator] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Icon Editor |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit Archives], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench Icon Toolbox], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit IconEditor] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Pixel Art Animation |<!--AROS-->Lunapaint |<!--Amiga OS-->PPaint, AnimatED, Scala*, GoldDisk MovieSetter*, Walt Disney's Animation Studio*, ProDAD*, [https://github.com/historicalsource/DeluxePaint DeluxePaint src], Brilliance |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 Titler] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D SVG based MovieSetter type |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->MovieSetter*, Fantavision* |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Morphing |<!--AROS-->[ GLMorph] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Cad (qcad->LibreCAD, etc.) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Xcad, MaxonCAD |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Cad like FreeCad, BRL-CAD, OpenSCAD, AvoCADo, etc. using dxf, obj (vertices), blend, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->XCad3d*, DynaCADD*, [https://aminet.net/package/gfx/3d/Cycas178_EN Cycas]*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Model Rendering of glft (json) gbl (png jpg), usdz (USD files with materials, textures, and animations), FBX Filmbox is a proprietary Autodesk format, |<!--AROS-->POV-Ray |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.discreetfx.com./amigaproducts.html CINEMA 4D]*, POV-Ray, Lightwave3D*, Real3D*, Caligari24*, Reflections/Monzoom*, [https://github.com/privatosan/RayStorm Raystorm src], Tornado 3D, [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/Eric-Graham-1987-Juggler-Raytracer-1.0 Eric-Graham-1987-Juggler-Raytracer-1.0] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Format Converter [], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ 3doc.i386-aros], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ivcon.lha IVCon] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen grabbing display |<!--AROS-->[ Screengrabber], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc snapit], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record screen recorder], [] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Grab graphics music from apps [https://github.com/Malvineous/ripper6 ripper6], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Office Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Office !width:10%;|AROS (x86) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_software Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1] (68k) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS_4 Hyperion OS4] (PPC) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS MorphOS] (PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Suite |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Softwood Final Office], [ Wordworth Office], [ Digita Office], [ The Works!], [ Europress Mini Office], [], [ Papyrus Office Demo], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Word-processing |<!--AROS-->[https://finalwriter.godaddysites.com/ Final Writer 7*], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1995&rowstart=20&pid=12668#post_12668 Slovo], [https://github.com/sodero/MUI-Vim/releases MUI-Vim], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/wordprocessing Cinnamon Writer], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->[ Softwood FinalCopy II*], Haage AmigaWriter*, Digita WordWorth*, Softwood FinalWriter*, Micro-Systems Excellence 3*, Arnor Protext, Rashumon, [ InterWord], [ KindWords], [WordPerfect], [ New Horizons Flow], [ CygnusEd Pro], [ Micro-systems Scribble], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AbiWord, [ CinnamonWriter], |<!--MorphOS-->[ Cinnamon Writer], [http://www.meta-morphos.org/viewtopic.php?topic=1246&forum=53 scriba], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/index.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Spreadsheets |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/leu/ Leu], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/spreadsheet ], |<!--AmigaOS-->[https://aminet.net/package/biz/spread/ignition-src Ignition Src 1.3], [MaxiPlan 500 Plus], [OXXI Plan/IT v2.0 Speadsheet], [ Superplan], [ Creative Developments TurboCalc], [ ProCalc], [ InterSpread], [Digita DGCalc], [ Gold Disk Advantage], [ Micro-systems Analyze!] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Gnumeric, [https://ignition-amiga.sourceforge.net/ Ignition], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ignition], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Presentations |<!--AROS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, [https://github.com/evaneykelen/mediapoint-amiga MediaPoint C and asm], PointRider, Scala*, |<!--Amiga OS4-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Databases |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/database BeeBase], |<!--Amiga OS-->Precision Superbase 4 Pro*, Arnor Prodata*, [https://sourceforge.net/projects/beebase/ BeeBase], Datastore, FinalData*, AmigaBase, Fiasco, Twist2*, [Digita DGBase], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->BeeBase, SQLite, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=6 BeeBase], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PDF Viewing and editing digital signatures |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/tomaszstaniak/aros-foliopdf aros-foliopdf version of mupdf], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/arospdf/ ArosPDF via splash], [https://github.com/wattoc/AROS-vpdf vpdf], |<!--Amiga OS-->APDF |<!--AmigaOS4-->AmiPDF |<!--MorphOS-->APDF, vPDF, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Note Taking markdown support like Obsidian like, joplin, OneNote, EverNotes, xournalpp, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Study and analyse, collect, organize, annotate, cite, and share |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PIM Personal Information Manager - Day Diary Planner Calendar App Filofax like |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->Digita Organiser*, On The Ball, Everyday Organiser, [ Contact Manager], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AOrganiser, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://polymere.free.fr/orga_en.html PolyOrga], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Accounting |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/misc ETB], LoanCalc, [ ], [ ], [ ], |[ Digita Home Accounts2], Accountant, Small Business Accounts, Account Master, [ Amigabok], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Project Management Research |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SuperGantt, SuperPlan, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Desktop |<!--AROS-->Wanderer, Scalos, Workbook, DOpus5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[https://github.com/zapek/Ambient Ambient Src] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Search |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool Finder], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Dictionary - multilingual [http://sourceforge.net/projects/babiloo/ Babiloo], [http://code.google.com/p/stardict-3/ StarDict], |<!--AROS-->[ ], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System wide Thesaurus - multi lingual |<!--AROS-->[ ], |Kuma K-Roget*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sticky Desktop Notes (post it type) |<!--AROS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.i386-aros AmiMemos], [https://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.src-aros AmiMemos Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/StickIt-2.00 StickIt v2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DTP Desktop Publishing |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOPublisher], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]*, Professional Pro Page*, Saxon Publisher, Pagesetter, PenPal, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |<!--MorphOS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Printing |<!--AROS-->Postscript 3 laser printers, [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT MintPRINT AirPrint IPP], [ Ghostscript], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT MintPRINT IPP], [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirprint AmiAirprint], [http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_what.htm TurboPrint]*, [ GutenPrint], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/NetPrinter NetPrinter LPR], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->(some native drivers), |<!--MorphOS-->early TurboPrint included, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/NetPrinter NetPrinter LPR], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Scanning |<!--AROS-->[ SCANdal], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->FxScan*, ScanQuix*, [https://github.com/boingball/MintSCAN MintSCAN], |<!--AmigaOS4-->SCANdal (Sane) |<!--MorphOS-->SCANdal |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OCR |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert gOCR] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos-files.net/categories/office/text Tesseract] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text Editing |<!--AROS-->Jano Editor (already installed as Editor), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit EdiSyn], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Vim], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd] [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd src], [ NoWinEd], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/TurboText20 TurboText20 ttx], Annotate, MicroGoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Protext*, NoWinED, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Notepad, Annotate, CygnusED*, NoWinED, |<!--MorphOS-->MorphOS ED, NoWinED, GoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Annotate, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Fonts [http://sourceforge.net/projects/fontforge/files/fontforge-source/ Font Designer] |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->TypeSmith*, SaxonScript (GetFont Adobe Type 1), |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Drawing Vector |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/amifig/ ZuneFIG previously AmiFIG], [https://github.com/serk118/designworks-aros designworks aros 64bit] |<!--Amiga OS-->Drawstudio*, ProVector*, ArtExpression*, Professional Draw*, AmiFIG, MetaView, [https://gitlab.com/amigasourcecodepreservation/designworks Design Works Src], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MindSpace, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit amifig], |<!--MorphOS-->SteamDraw, [http://aminet.net/package/gfx/edit/amifig amiFIG], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->video conferencing (jitsi) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->source code hosting |<!--AROS-->Gitlab, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (server) |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Server ArosVNCServer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/avnc/index.html AVNC] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC] |MorphVNC, vncserver |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (client) login and connect to another machine |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Client/ ArosVNC], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc rdesktop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/vva/index.html VVA], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->notifications |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Ranchero |<!--AmigaOS4-->Ringhio |<!--MorphOS-->MagicBeacon |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Biometric facial logins and fingerprint security features |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Audio== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Audio !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing playback Audio like MP3, [https://github.com/chrg127/gmplayer NSF], [https://github.com/kode54/lazyusf miniusf .usflib] [https://gitlab.com/kode54/psflib with pfslib], [], [], etc |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ HarmonyPlayer hp], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/audio/index.xhtml playcdda] CDs, [ WildMidi Player], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ UADE mod player], [], [ RNOTunes], [ mp3Player], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNetRadio, AmigaAmp, playOGG, [https://codeberg.org/tygre/amimodradio amimodradio] |<!--AmigaOS4-->TuneNet, SimplePlay, AmigaAmp, TKPlayer |AmiNetRadio, Mplayer, Kaya, AmigaAmp |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Audio |<!--AROS-->[ Audio Evolution 4] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec Src], [http://www.sonicpulse.de/eng/news.html SoundFX], [ Samplitude], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec], AmiSoundED, [http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/audioevolution4.lha Audio Evolution 4] |[http://www.hd-rec.de/HD-Rec/index.php?site=home HD-Rec], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Tracker Music |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/hitchhikr/protrekkr Protrekkr], [ Schism Tracker], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/tracker MilkyTracker], [http://www.hivelytracker.com/ HivelyTracker], [ Radium in AROS already], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/development/index.xhtml libMikMod], |<!--Amiga OS-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, DigiBooster, Octamed SoundStudio, [https://github.com/elindstrom/soundtracker soundtracker], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, GoatTracker |MilkyTracker, GoatTracker, DigiBooster, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Music [], [https://github.com/kmatheussen/camd CAMD] and/or staves and musical notes on manuscript [https://github.com/ratchov/midish midish] midi sequencer |<!--AROS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars and Pipes], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars'n'Pipes], MusicX* David "Talin" Joiner & Craig Weeks (for Notator-X), Deluxe Music Construction Set DMCS2*, [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny c Src] [https://github.com/kas1e/midi-sequencer-amigaos/tree/master/HornyGCC HornyGCC OS4 src] [https://github.com/capehill/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny OS4 fork src] [https://www.amigans.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=8143&order=ASC&status=&mode=0 OS4 thread], HD-Rec, [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/dominatorV1_51 Dominator], [https://github.com/royaltm/Amiga-midiIn Amiga-midiIn], [ Aegis Sonix 2.0] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Rockbeat, [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/download.html Bars'n'Pipes], [https://github.com/gooofy/freeaction Horny OS4 src fork], Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->Bars'n'Pipes, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sound Sampling |<!--AROS-->[ Advanced AHI Recorder all], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/record Audio Evolution 4], [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&did=162 Quick Record], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc SOX to get AIFF 16bit files], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/tree/master/workbench/tools/AHIRecord AHIRecord], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/AudioEvolution3_src Audio Evolution 3 c src], [ Samplitude]*, Audiomaster IV*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/timoinutilis/phonolith-amigaos phonolith c src], HD-Rec, Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Audio Evolution 4, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Processing like easyeffects so having limiter, compressor, convolver, equalizer and auto volume and many other plugins |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Live Looping or Audio Misc - Groovebox like |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD burn |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility IsoTools], [https://code.google.com/p/amiga-fryingpan/ FryingPan], |<!--Amiga OS-->FryingPan, [ MakeCD], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FryingPan, AmiDVD, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.amiga.org/forums/printthread.php?t=58736 FryingPan], Jalopeano, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD audio rip |<!--AROS-->Lame, [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&cfid=0&did=167 Quick CDrip], |<!--Amiga OS-->Lame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Lame, |<!--MorphOS-->Lame, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->MP3 v1 and v2 Tagger |<!--AROS-->id3ren (v1), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/edit mp3info], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> | |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Convert |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc Sox], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBox SoundBox], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBoxKey SoundBox Key], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/SampleE SampleE], sox |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DJ mixing jamming |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/djh0ffman/PT1210 Hoffman PT1210 DJ tracker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Radio Automation Software [http://www.rivendellaudio.org/ Rivendell], [http://code.campware.org/projects/livesupport/report/3 Campware LiveSupport], [http://www.sourcefabric.org/en/airtime/ SourceFabric AirTime], [http://www.ohloh.net/p/mediabox404 MediaBox404], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speakers Audio Sonos Mains AC networked wired controlled *2005 ZP100 with ZP80 *2008 Zoneplayer ZP120 (multi-room wireless amp) ZP90 receiver only with CR100 controller, *2009 ZonePlayer S5, *2010 BR100 wireless Bridge (no support), *2011 Play:3 *2013 Bridge (no support), Play:1, *2016 Arc, Play:1, *Beam (Gen 2), Playbar, Ray, Era 100, Era 300, Roam, Move 2, *Sub (Gen 3), Sub Mini, Five, Amp S2 |<!--AROS-->SonosController |<!--Amiga OS-->SonosController |<!--AmigaOS4-->SonosController |<!--MorphOS-->SonosController |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Smart Speakers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Video Creativity and Production== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Video !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing Video |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ VAMP], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml CDXL player], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml IffAnimPlay], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frogger*, AMP2, MPlayer, RiVA*, MooViD*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->DvPlayer, MPlayer |<!--MorphOS-->MPlayer, Frogger, AMP2, VLC |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Streaming Video and game streaming like OBS studio, Parsec, [https://github.com/lizardbyte/sunshine sunshine], [https://github.com/moonlight-stream/moonlight-qt moonlight], etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing DVD |<!--AROS-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, Mplayer |<!--Amiga OS-->AMP2, Frogger |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, DvPlayer*, AMP2, |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Recording |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record Screenrecorder], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Screenrecorder, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Create Edit Individual Video - Amiga like OSs have no pro NLE |<!--AROS-->[ Mencoder], [ Quick Videos], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit AVIbuild], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc FrameBuild], FFMPEG, |<!--Amiga OS-->[ MainConcept Mainactor Broadcast*], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Toaster Video Toaster*] with [https://discreetfx.com/openvideotoaster.html some c src], MacroSystem MovieShop 4.3*, proDAD Adorage*, [ IOSpirit VHI studio]*, [Gold Disk ShowMaker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FFMpeg/GUI |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, Mencoder, FFmpeg |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Subtitle editor |<!--AROS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0 Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IP-based video production workflows with High Dynamic Range (HDR), 10-bit color collaborative NDI, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Blogging like Lemmy or kbin |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR face recognition for Vtubers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting Live2D models with Cubism type editor or [https://github.com/AyagamiDev/ayagami ayagami] like with zipped moc3 with model metadata (model3, cdi3) <pre> Model data (cmo3) Basic motions (can3) Background image (png) Set of files for embedding (runtime folder) • Model data (moc3) • Motion data (motion3.json) • Model settings file (model3.json) • Physics settings file (physics3.json) • Display auxiliary file (cdi3.json) </pre> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting chatters .VRML models - standardized 3D file format for VR avatars |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->V-tubers V-tubing like Vseeface with Openseeface tracker or Vpuppr (virtual puppet project) for online live 2d / 3d art models rigging rigged LIV |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Misc Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Management |<!--AROS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 DOpus Magellan aka DOpus 5], [ Scalos], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->DOpus2, DOpus 4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], ClassAction, FileMaster, [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=4897 DirWork 2]*, [https://github.com/RudolphRiedel/DiskMaster2 DiskMaster2 src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], Filer, AmiDisk |<!--MorphOS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Verification / Repair |<!--AROS-->[https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility md5sum], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool asum], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool workpar2] (PAR2), [http://zakalwe.fi/~shd/foss/cksfv/files/ compile cksfv from website], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Par2, |- |Application Installer |<!--AROS-->[], [ InstallerNG], |<!--Amiga OS-->InstallerNG, Grunch, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Jack |<!--MorphOS-->Jack |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Compression archiver [https://github.com/FS-make-simple/paq9a paq9a], [], |<!--AROS-->XAD system is a toolkit designed for handling various file and disk archiver |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://aminet.net/package/util/pack/decrunchmania_os4 Crunchmania CrM2 depacker], |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Binary Hexadecimal Editor |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Zaphod], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Partition Editor formatter Disk Management |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1440&highlight=partition&pid=8821#post_8821 QuickPart], [ HDToolBox] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/stefanskotte/hdpart hdpart], [https://github.com/ChuckyGang/AmiPart AmiPart], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Repair and backups |<!--AROS-->ArSFSDoctor, |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/disk/bakup/quarterback_src Quarterback Tools C and asm src], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Disk check, integrity and history [https://github.com/smartmontools/smartmontools smart tools], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Multiple File renaming |<!--AROS-->DOpus 4 or 5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Anti Virus |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->VChecker, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Random Wallpaper Desktop changer [ DOpus5], [ Scalos], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Alarm Clock, Timer, Stopwatch, Countdown |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench DClock], [http://aminet.net/util/time/AlarmClockAROS.lha AlarmClock], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} ==Misc Application 2== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ IDE Integrated Development |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/aidea/ AIDEa], [ Murks], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, [ StormC], [https://github.com/jens-maus/amide amide], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->CodeBench , [https://gitlab.com/boemann/codecraft CodeCraft], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ Text Editors |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd], [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd FrexxEd src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate] with [https://www.onyxsoft.se/files/annotate_src.lha src], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Protext], [ CED], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[https://www.onyxsoft.se/annotate.html Annotate], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Repository |<!--AROS-->[ Git] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->Git |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BASIC Computer Language |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/language Basic4SDL], [ Ace Basic], [ X-AMOS], [SDLBasic], [ Alvyn], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amiforce.de/main.php Amiblitz 3] with [https://github.com/AmiBlitz/AmiBlitz3 Asm src], [http://amos.condor.serverpro3.com/AmosProManual/contents/c1.html Amos Pro] with [https://github.com/AmiDARK/AmosProfessionalUnity-Official-Releases Asm src], [http://aminet.net/package/dev/basic/ace24dist ACE Basic], [https://github.com/gooofy/aqb aqb], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->sdlBasic |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Computer Languages Translation [https://tetracorp.github.io/guide/reverse-engineering-amiga.html], [https://amigasourcecodepreservation.gitlab.io/amiga-assembler-insider-guide/], [https://github.com/kermitfrog/Amiga-Re-Engineering Rust, Ghidra and FS-UAE], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://bitbucket.org/rhinoid/convert68000toc/src/main/ convert m68k seka asm-one to c], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Gui Creators |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/guitool MuiBuilder], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ MuiBuilder], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Catalog .cd .ct Custom App Language Editors |<!--AROS-->FlexCat, [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility Flexcat GUI], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://aminet.net/package/dev/misc/simplecat SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Cross Development |<!--AROS-->[], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/geekychris/amiga_mcp amiga_mcp], [https://github.com/mbergmann-sh/AmigaED4-IDE AmigaED4-IDE], [https://lemonspawn.com/turbo-rascal-syntax-error-expected-but-begin/ Turbo Rascal], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Misc Application 3== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System |<!--AROS-->[ SysExplorer], [ SysMon], [ Scout], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Terminals Shells CLIs |<!--AROS-->[https://tomaszstaniak.com/aros-term/ aros-term], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OSK On Screen Keyboard |<!--AROS-->[], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/util/wb/OSK.lha OSK] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Magnifier Magnifying Glass Magnification |<!--AROS-->[http://www.onyxsoft.se/files/zoomit.lha ZoomIT], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Comic Book CBR CBZ format reader viewer |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comics], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comicon], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Reader |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#legadon Legadon EPUB],[] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Converter |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text to Speech tts [https://github.com/JonathanFly/bark-installer Bark], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Echo " " >SPEAK:A1 inbuilt], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc flite], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.text2speech.com translator], [https://github.com/sidick/narrator.wyoming narrator.wyoming], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=search&tool=simple FLite] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://se.aminet.net/pub/aminet/mus/misc/ FLite] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Recognition Dictation - [http://sourceforge.net/projects/cmusphinx/files/ CMU Sphinx], [http://julius.sourceforge.jp/en_index.php?q=en/index.html Julius], [http://www.isip.piconepress.com/projects/speech/index.html ISIP], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Changer [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Display Blanker screensaver |<!--AROS-->Blanker Commodity (built in), [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/screenblanker GarshneBlanker], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gblanker/ GBlanker Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->MultiCX, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->ModernArt Blanker, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fortune Cookie Quotes Sayings |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc AFortune], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} ==Misc Application 4== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fractals mandelbrot, etc |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc], |<!--Amiga OS-->ZoneXplorer, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Landscape Rendering |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/raytrace WCS World Construction Set], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Vista Pro], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Construction_Set World Construction Set] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |<!--MorphOS-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astronomy [https://sourceforge.net/projects/skychart/ skychart freepascal], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Digital Almanac (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/search?query=planetarium Aminet search], [http://aminet.net/misc/sci/DA3V56ISO.zip Digital Almanac], [https://aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3sourceV58 Src c V58], [ Galileo renamed to Distant Suns]*, [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/digital-almanac/ Digital Almanac], Distant Suns*, [http://www.digitaluniverse.org.uk/ Digital Universe]*, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.aminet.net/misc/sci/da3.lha Digital Almanac], [http://www.aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3-mos-src Src c V56], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astrology [https://sourceforge.net/projects/skylendar/ skylendar], [https://github.com/CruiserOne/Astrolog Astrolog], [https://www.astrolog.org/astrolog/astfile.htm Astrology alt site], [https://saravali.github.io/download.html Maitreya], [https://github.com/alamahant/Asteria Asteria], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Genealogy History Family Tree Ancestry Records (FreeBMD, FreeREG, and FreeCEN file formats or GEDCOM GenTree) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> [ Origins], [ Your Family Tree], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Languages |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Fun School, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Mathematics ([http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~parisse/install_en.html Xcas], etc.), |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/scientific mathX] |<!--Amiga OS-->Maple V, mathX, Fun School, GCSE Maths, [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4-->Yacas |<!--MorphOS-->Yacas |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Maths Graph Function Plotting |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#MUIPlot MUIPlot], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->App Utility Launcher Dock toolbar |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/docky BoingBar], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/adkennan/DockBot Dockbot], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Printer [https://github.com/OrcaSlicer/OrcaSlicer OrcaSlicer] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PCB design |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Digital Signage |<!--AROS-->Hollywood, Hollywood Designer |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->HAM radio, amateur radio, packet radio, [], [], [], [https://cemaxecuter.com/ Dragon OS], [https://github.com/km4ack/73Linux with 73 link update], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAL5KNePRSg video for], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/punktniklas/NiKom NiKom], [https://www.amigarealm.com/amiga/amicomms/comm4.htm Comm4], [https://www.amigarealm.com/archives/comms/aarug/ TNC Terminal Node Controller with packets over serial connections on Yaesu or Woxum handheld], [https://aminet.net/comm/misc AmiCom], [ with 7Plus file encoder/decoder], [ mksstv], [ RTTYam], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->modern smart home network like Home Assistant Automation Yellow, Green, Mosquitto, EMQX, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/evil4dmin/ami2ha HA], [https://github.com/sidick/midge mtqq.lib], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiHomeassist-0.7 AmiHomeassist], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Teaching classroom learning training [https://github.com/moodle/moodle moodle], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Games & Emulation== Some emulators/games require OpenGL to function and to adjust ahi prefs channels, frequency and unit0 and unit1 and [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/users/shell/changetaskpri.php changetaskpri -1] Rom patching https://www.marcrobledo.com/RomPatcher.js/ https://www.romhacking.net/patch/ (ips, ups, bps, etc) and this other site supports the latter formats https://hack64.net/tools/patcher.php Free public domain roms for use with emulators can be found [http://www.pdroms.de/ here] as most of the rest are covered by copyright rules. If you like to read about old games see [http://retrogamingtimes.com/ here] and [http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/ here] and a [http://www.vintagecomputing.com/ blog] about old computers. Possibly some of the [http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-best-selling-computer-and-video-games best selling] of all time. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators Wiki] with emulated systems list. [https://archive.gamehistory.org/ Archive of VGHF], [https://library.gamehistory.org/ Video Game History Foundation Library search] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Emulation] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Amstrad CPC |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [ Caprice32 (OpenGL & pure SDL)], [ Arnold], [https://retroshowcase.gr/cpcbox-master/], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Apple2 and 2GS |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Arcade |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Mame], [ SI Emu (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->Mame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem xmame], amiarcadia, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 Mame], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 2600 [], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Stella], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 5200 [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A5200DS A5200DS], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 7800 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 400 800 130XL [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A8DS A8DS], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Atari800], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Lynx |<!--AROS-->[http://myfreefilehosting.com/f/6366e11bdf_1.93MB Handy (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Jaguar |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Bandai Wonderswan |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation BBC Micro and Acorn Electron [http://beehttps://bem-unix.bbcmicro.com/download.html BeebEm], [http://b-em.bbcmicro.com/ B-Em], [http://elkulator.acornelectron.co.uk/ Elkulator], [http://electrem.emuunlim.com/ ElectrEm], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Dragon 32 and Tandy CoCo [http://www.6809.org.uk/xroar/ xroar], [], |<!--AROS-->[], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C16 Plus4 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C64 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Vice (ABIv0 only)], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frodo, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem viceplus], |<!--MorphOS-->Vice, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore Amiga |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Janus UAE], Emumiga, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer UAE], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 UAE], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Japanese MSX MSX2 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Intelivision |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Colecovision and Adam |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Milton Bradley (MB) Vectrex [ Vectrex OpenGL], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation PICO8 Pico-8 fantasy video game console [https://github.com/egordorichev/pemsa-sdl/ pemsa-sdl], [https://github.com/jtothebell/fake-08 fake-08], [https://github.com/Epicpkmn11/fake-08/tree/wip fake-08 fork], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo Gameboy |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba no sound], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo NES |<!--AROS-->[ EmiNES], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Fceu], [https://github.com/takahirox/nes-js?tab=readme-ov-file nes-js], [https://github.com/bfirsh/jsnes jsnes], [https://github.com/angelo-wf/NesJs NesJs], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNES, [http://www.dridus.com/~nyef/darcnes/ darcNES], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem amines] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo SNES |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Zsnes], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem warpsnes] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://fabportnawak.free.fr/snes/ Snes9x], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo N64 *HLE and plugins [ mupen64], [https://github.com/ares-emulator/ares ares], [https://github.com/N64Recomp/N64Recomp N64Recomp], [https://github.com/rt64/rt64 rt64], [https://github.com/simple64/simple64 Simple64], *LLE [], |<!--AROS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/tr-981125_src TR64], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Gamecube Wii] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Wii U] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/yuzu-emu Nintendo Switch] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation NEC PC Engine |<!--AROS-->[], [], [https://github.com/yhzmr442/jspce js-pce], |[http://www.hugo.fr.fm/ Hugo], [http://mednafen.sourceforge.net/ Mednafen], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem tgemu] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Master System (SMS) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Dega], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem sms], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem osmose] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Genesis/Megadrive |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gp no sound], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem DGen], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/genplus-gx/ Genplus], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem genesisplus] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Saturn *HLE [https://mednafen.github.io/ mednafen], [http://yabause.org/ yabause], [], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://yabause.org/ Yabause], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Dreamcast *HLE [https://github.com/flyinghead/flycast flycast], [https://code.google.com/archive/p/nulldc/downloads NullDC], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair ZX80 and ZX81 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair Spectrum |[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Fuse (crackly sound)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer SimCoupe], [ FBZX slow], [https://jsspeccy.zxdemo.org/ jsspeccy], [http://torinak.com/qaop/games qaop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.lasernet.plus.com/ Asp], [http://www.zophar.net/sinclair.html Speculator], [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/x128/index.html X128], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair QL |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/QDOS4amiga1 QDOS4amiga] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation SNK NeoGeo Pocket |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gngeo], NeoPop, |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sony PlayStation |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS2] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS3] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://vita3k.org/ Sony Vita] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/shadps4-emu/shadPS4 PS4] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerine_Computer_Systems Tangerine] Oric and Atmos |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Oricutron] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Oricutron] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/oricutron Oricutron] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 99/4 99/4A [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/DS994a DS994a], [], [https://js99er.net/#/ js99er], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga TI4Amiga], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga_src TI4Amiga src in c], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation HP 38G 40GS 48 49G/50G Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 58 83 84 85 86 - 89 92 Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/ General] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Games [https://www.trackawesomelist.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games/ Open Source and others] || AROS || Amiga OS || Amiga OS4 || Morphos |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Action like [https://github.com/opentomb/OpenTomb opentomb], [https://github.com/LostArtefacts/TRX TRX formerly Tomb1Main], [https://github.com/TombEngine TombEngine], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Thrust], [https://github.com/fragglet/sdl-sopwith sdl sopwith], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action BOH], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/OpenLara/tree/amiga/src source of openlara SDL2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Adventure like [http://dotg.sourceforge.net/ DMJ], [https://github.com/kromenak/gengine Gabriel Knight 3], [http://www.sarien.net/ Sierra Sarien], [https://github.com/klembot/twinejs twine js], [https://github.com/QSPFoundation/qspgui Quest Soft Player QSP], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/adventure dmagnetic], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=browse&cat=emulation/misc ScummVM], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying frotz infocom], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Board like [https://github.com/aperture-software/colditz-escape escape from colditz], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/board], [http://amigan.1emu.net/releases Africa] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Cards |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/card], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=180&pid=12934#post_12934 Balatro], |<!--AmigaOS-->[http://home.arcor.de/amigasolitaire/e/welcome.html Reko], [https://github.com/samskivert/beschei-en beschei Src], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Misc [https://github.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games Awesome open], [https://github.com/bobeff/open-source-games General Open Source], [https://github.com/SAT-R/sa2 Sonic Advance 2], [https://github.com/velorek1/cwordle Wordle type], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games FPS like [https://aminet.net/package/game/shoot/D1X_Rebirth_AGA Descent D1X src], [https://github.com/DescentDevelopers/Descent3 Descent 3], [https://github.com/Fewnity/Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS], [https://github.com/Aleph-One-Marathon/alephone Bungie Marathon 1994], [https://zdoom.org/downloads UzDoom opengl 3.3], [https://github.com/ZDoom/gzdoom gzdoom opengl 3+], [https://zdoom.org/downloads LZDoom opengl 2.1], [https://github.com/OpenXRay/xray-16 S.T.A.L.K.E.R Xray], |<!--AROS-->Doom, Quake, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Quake 3 Arena (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Assault Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube 2 Sauerbraten (OpenGL)], [http://fodquake.net/test/ FodQuake QuakeWorld], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Duke Nukem 3D], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Darkplaces Nexuiz Xonotic], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Doom 3 SDL (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Hexenworld and Hexen 2], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Aliens vs Predator Gold 2000 avp (openGL)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Odamex (openGL doom)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/fps/ zgloom], [], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/fps/ ab3dhd], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Doom, Quake, AB3D, Fears, Breathless, Gloom, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Doom, Quake, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12 Doom], Quake, Quake 3 Arena, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games MMORG like |<!--AROS-->[ Eternal Lands (OpenGL)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Platform like |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform], [ Maze of Galious], [ Gish]*(openGL), [ Mega Mario], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ thextech SMBX], [http://www.gianas-return.de/ Giana's Return], [http://www.sqrxz.de/ Sqrxz], [www.sqrxz2.de/ Sqrxz 2], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-3/ Sqrxz 3], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-4/ Sqrxz 4], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform Cave Story], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ Frogatto], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ OpenJazz], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ pekkakana2], [ Aquaria], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ sonic CD], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Giana Sisters], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Puzzle [https://github.com/mariopartyrd/marioparty4/tree/port Party], [https://github.com/mdodis/OpenSolomonsKey OpenSolomonsKey], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle], [ Cubosphere (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle Candy Crisis], [http://bszili.morphos.me/ TailTale], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Racing [ Trigger Rally], [ VDrift], [http://www.ultimatestunts.nl/index.php?page=2&lang=en Ultimate Stunts], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/ Mania Drive], [https://github.com/plowteam/donut Simpsons Hit and Run], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Super Tux Kart (OpenGL)], [http://www.dusabledanslherbe.eu/AROSPage/F1Spirit.30.html F1 Spirit (OpenGL)], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html MultiRacer], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ Speed Dreams], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/driving/dethrace-0.10.1.x86_64-aros-v11.zip Carmageddon dethrace 64bit], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/index.php?downloads=yes maniadrive like trackmania], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html Speed Dreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html TORCS], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 1st first person DRPG [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/OpenEnroth/OpenEnroth OpenEnroth MM], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/aros-stuff Arx Libertatis], [http://www.playfuljs.com/a-first-person-engine-in-265-lines/ js raycaster], [https://github.com/Dorthu/es6-crpg webgl], [https://github.com/sonountaleban/AmiShockolate System Shock], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->Phantasie, Faery Tale, Dungeon Master, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 3rd third person action CRPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/alexbatalov/fallout1-ce fallout ce], [https://github.com/rwengine/openrw gta3], [https://github.com/gta-reversed/gta-reversed gta3 sa], [https://github.com/mrxenginner/reVC gta3 vc revc], [https://github.com/jakobharder/burntime/tree/main Burntime], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ fheroes2 homm2], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ breakhack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ devilutionx diablo 1 hellfire], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ fallout 1], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ stratagus], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ hostile-takeover], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games isometric RPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/topics/dungeon?l=javascript Dungeon], [], [https://github.com/clintbellanger/heroine-dusk JS Dusk], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying nethack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying GemRB], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games card based RPG [https://github.com/open-duelyst/duelyst Duelyst], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games turn based tactics RPG [], [], [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy UFO AI], [http://play.freeciv.org/ FreeCiv], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Strategy [http://rtsgus.org/ RTSgus], [http://stargus.sourceforge.net/ Stargus], [https://github.com/KD-lab-Open-Source/Perimeter Perimeter], [https://matty77.itch.io/conflict-3049 conflict-3049], [https://github.com/ZeroK-RTS/Zero-K Zero-K multi player rts lua], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy MegaGlest (OpenGL)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ signus], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=140&pid=12446#post_12446 Wargus warcraft 2 setup], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/game/strat/OpenDUNE_RTG OpenDUNE_RTG src] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Rhythm, Beat, Step [], [], [https://clonehero.net/ clonehero], [https://github.com/MatteoGodzilla/Dj-Engine Dj-Engine], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc Frets on Fire], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Shoot Em Ups [http://www.mhgames.org/oldies/formido/ Formido], [http://code.google.com/p/violetland/ Violetland], ||<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Open Tyrian], [http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ Alien Blaster], [https://github.com/OpenFodder/openfodder OpenFodder], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/action/ tbftss The Battle for the Solar System: the Pandora War] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ The Battle for the Solar System: the Pandora War] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Simulations [http://scp.indiegames.us/ Freespace 2], [http://www.heptargon.de/gl-117/gl-117.html GL117], [http://code.google.com/p/corsix-th/ Theme Hospital], [http://code.google.com/p/freerct/ Rollercoaster Tycoon], [http://hedgewars.org/ Hedgewars], [https://github.com/raceintospace/raceintospace raceintospace], [https://github.com/Return-To-The-Roots RTTR Settlers 2], [https://github.com/OoliteProject/oolite oolite elite], [https://github.com/fesh0r/newkind newkind elite], [https://github.com/bohemiainteractive/cwr Arma Cold War Src], [https://github.com/endless-sky/endless-sky endless-sky], [https://github.com/pioneerspacesim/pioneer pioneer space command], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SimCity, SimAnt, Sim Hospital, Theme Park, [https://github.com/angree/openttd_amiga_68k openttd amiga_68k], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Life Sim [https://github.com/ACreTeam/forest Animal Crossing], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Horror [https://github.com/Mikompilation/MikuPan Fatal Frame], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Sandbox Voxel Open World Exploration [https://github.com/ClassiCube/ Classicube],[http://www.michaelfogleman.com/craft/ Craft], [https://github.com/tothpaul/DelphiCraft DelphiCraft],[https://www.minetest.net/ Luanti formerly Minetest], [ infiniminer], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Battle Royale [https://bruh.io/ Play.Bruh.io], [https://www.coolmathgames.com/0-copter Copter Royale], [https://surviv.io/ Surviv.io], [https://nuggetroyale.io/#Ketchup Nugget Royale], [https://miniroyale2.io/ Miniroyale2.io], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Tower Defense [https://chriscourses.github.io/tower-defense/ HTML5], [https://github.com/SBardak/Tower-Defense-Game TD C++], [https://github.com/bdoms/love_defense LUA and LOVE], [https://github.com/HyOsori/Osori-WebGame HTML5], [https://github.com/PascalCorpsman/ConfigTD ConfigTD Pascal], [https://github.com/GloriousEggroll/wine-ge-custom Wine], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=180&pid=12871#post_12871 Plants vs Zombies PvZ], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/boingball/miggy-tower-defense miggy-tower-defense], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Visual Novel Engines [https://github.com/diane1f0cd/VisualNovelTemplate Visual Novel Template], [https://github.com/Kirilllive/tuesday-js Tuesday JS], [https://github.com/tejasnayak25/vnsutra vnsutra], [https://github.com/weetabix-su/renpsp-dev RenPSP], [https://github.com/Galladite27/ONScripter-EN ONScripter-EN], [https://github.com/NathanGuilhot/VNES-Raylib https://github.com/NathanGuilhot/VNES VNES in Raylib], [https://www.renpy.org/latest.html renpy ren'py python based], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Reality VR [https://gitlab.com/madsbuvi/openmw openmw vr], [https://github.com/Team-Beef-Studios/BeefRaiderXR BeefRaiderXR], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Table Top VTT [ Roll20], [https://www.owlbear.rodeo/ owlbear rodeo], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Computer assisted TableTop TTRPG OSR [https://www.rpgsolo.com/play.php RPGSolo], [https://github.com/fpsvogel/solo-ttrpgs Solo TTRPG], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 2D 3D Engines [https://github.com/fegennari/3DWorld 3DWorld], [https://github.com/GarageGames/Torque3D Torque3D], [https://github.com/gameplay3d/GamePlay GamePlay 3D], [https://www.babylonjs.com/ BabylonJS ], [ Godot], [ Ogre], [ Crystal Space], [https://github.com/JacobHess03/ Dragon-Quest like], [https://github.com/bjornbytes/lovr Lua LOVE for 2D LOVR for 3D], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arkhamdev.net/wiki.htm?id=agx Arkham Development antiryadgx 8.9 lts with register], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/alpyre/Sevgi_Engine Sevgi Engine], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games C based game frameworks [https://github.com/orangeduck/Corange Corange], [https://github.com/scottcgi/Mojoc Mojoc], [https://orx-project.org/ Orx], [https://github.com/ioquake/ioq3 Quake 3], [https://www.mapeditor.org/ Tiled], [https://www.raylib.com/ 2d Raylib], [https://github.com/Rabios/awesome-raylib other raylib], [https://github.com/MrFrenik/gunslinger Gunslinger], [https://o3de.org/ o3d], [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library GLFW], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library Raylib 5], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games RPGMaker MV/MZ-compatible projects [https://github.com/Psychronic-Games/RPGReactor RPGReactor js], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Pinball [https://github.com/vpinball/vpinball vpinball], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games unpack unarc [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} ==Application Guides== [[#top|...to the top]] ===Web Browser=== OWB is now at version 2.0 (which got an engine refresh, from July 2015 to February 2019) and 3.0. This latest version has a good support for many/most web sites, even YouTube web page now works. [https://www.bilibili.tv/en/search untested] This improved compatibility comes at the expense of higher RAM usage (now 1GB RAM is the absolute minimum). Also, keep in mind that the lack of a JIT (Just-In-Time) JS compiler on the 32 bit version, makes the web surfing a bit slow. Only the 64 bit version of OWB 2.0 will have JIT enabled, thus benefitting of more speed. There are tooltypes that can be added to the icon to provide further features JIT, MSE etc Certificates from [https://curl.se/docs/caextract.html ca certs], DNS tracking blocking with [https://easylist.to/easylist/easylist.txt easylist.txt] in PROGDIR:Conf before starting browser with enabled AdBlock [https://github.com/easylist/easylist/tree/master easylist], [https://gitlab.com/eyeo anti abp], [https://firebog.net/ big blocklist], [https://github.com/StevenBlack/hosts Steves], [], [], This can be enabled with OWB Odyssey with Windows -> Content Blocking and Windows -> Messages and enter https://www.youtube.com/api/stats/ads* https://www.youtube.com/pagead/adview* https://www.youtube.com#@##player-ads* into your custom filters Element blocker browser extension might be needed for [https://github.com/easylist/easylist/wiki/Youtube-Issues youtube], [ mid roll], [ pre roll], [ ], OWB speed is much better when running from RAM Disk, the best way is to add the below into your S:User-Startup which copies OWB drawer from Extras:Internet/OWB to RAM Disk: So add this : <pre> copy Extras:Internet/OWB Ram:OWB/ ALL CLONE >NIL: copy Extras:Internet/OWB.info Ram: >NIL: </pre> Open RAM Disk and open OWB drawer and double click on OWB icon so that the above icon tooltypes are activated Problems are that the copy time is long (around 20 seconds added in the background), but we can make it faster if we delete useless files from the OWB drawer (docs, …) If you don’t copy the drawer back onto the HD, you won’t save your cache, cookies, passwords… So you need a script for it. copy Extras:Internet/Amelinium/#? Ram:Amelinium/ ALL CLONE >NIL: Error messages SSL error "cant verify with ca-certificates", check bios clock time date is correct Error 6, try checking networking prefs settings and Save / Use preferences again or a '''few times''' otherwise the network chipset may not be compatible with Aros [https://www.google.com/search?q=%s&udm=14 Google search without AI overview] [ DuckDuckGo] [ Ecosia] [ Qwant] [ Swisscows] [ Mojeek] [ Brave Search] [ PreSearch] [ Startpage] ===E-mail=== Emailinium is now available for IMAP and POP3 based accounts YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections ====SimpleMail==== SimpleMail supports IMAP and appears to work with GMail, but it's never been reliable enough, it can crash with large mailboxes. Please read more on this [http://www.freelists.org/list/simplemail-usr User list] GMail Be sure to activate the pop3 usage in your gmail account setup / configuration first. pop3: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 smtp: smtp.gmail.com (with authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use SSL: Yes Port: 465 or 587 Hotmail/MSN/outlook/Microsoft Mail mid-2017, all outlook.com accounts will be migrated to Office 365 / Exchange Most users are currently on POP which does not allow showing folders and many other features (technical limitations of POP3). With Microsoft IMAP you will get folders, sync read/unread, and show flags. You still won't get push though, as Microsoft has not turned on the IMAP Idle command as at Sept 2013. If you want to try it, you need to first remove (you can't edit) your pop account (long-press the account on the accounts screen, delete account). Then set it up this way: 1. Email/Password 2. Manual 3. IMAP 4. * Incoming: imap-mail.outlook.com, port 993, SSL/TLS should be checked * Outgoing: smtp-mail.outlook.com, port 587, SSL/TLS should be checked * POP server name pop-mail.outlook.com, port 995, POP encryption method SSL Yahoo Mail On April 24, 2002 Yahoo ceased to offer POP access to its free mail service. Introducing instead a yearly payment feature, allowing users POP3 and IMAP server support, along with such benefits as larger file attachment sizes and no adverts. Sorry to see Yahoo leaving its users to cough up for the privilege of accessing their mail. Understandable, when competing against rivals such as Gmail and Hotmail who hold a large majority of users and were hacked in 2014 as well. Incoming Mail (IMAP) Server * Server - imap.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 993 * Requires SSL - Yes Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server * Server - smtp.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 465 or 587 * Requires SSL - Yes * Requires authentication - Yes Your login info * Email address - Your full email address (name@domain.com) * Password - Your account's password * Requires authentication - Yes Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a subscription subs fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 * Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. * “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. * “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com * “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. * Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. ====YAM Yet Another Mailer==== YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers have now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections This email client is POP3 only if the SSL library is available [http://www.freelists.org/list/yam YAM Freelists] One of the downsides of using a POP3 mailer unfortunately - you have to set an option not to delete the mail if you want it left on the server. IMAP keeps all the emails on the server. Possible issues Sending mail issues is probably a matter of using your ISP's SMTP server, though it could also be an SSL issue. getting a "Couldn't initialise TLSv1 / SSL error Use of on-line e-mail accounts with this email client is not possible as it lacks the OpenSSL AmiSSl v3 compatible library GMail Incoming Mail (POP3) Server - requires SSL: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server - requires TLS: smtp.gmail.com (use authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use STARTTLS: Yes (some clients call this SSL) Port: 465 or 587 Account Name: your Gmail username (including '@gmail.com') Email Address: your full Gmail email address (username@gmail.com) Password: your Gmail password Anyway, the SMTP is pop.gmail.com port 465 and it uses SSLLv3 Authentication. The POP3 settings are for the same server (pop.gmail.com), only on port 995 instead. Outlook.com access <pre > Outlook.com SMTP server address: smtp.live.com Outlook.com SMTP user name: Your full Outlook.com email address (not an alias) Outlook.com SMTP password: Your Outlook.com password Outlook.com SMTP port: 587 Outlook.com SMTP TLS/SSL encryption required: yes </pre > Yahoo Mail <pre > “POP3 Server” – Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. “SMTP Server” – Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. </pre > Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a monthly fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 Microsoft Outlook Express Mail 1. Get the files to your PC. By whatever method get the files off your Amiga onto your PC. In the YAM folder you have a number of different folders, one for each of your folders in YAM. Inside that is a file usually some numbers such as 332423.283. YAM created a new file for every single email you received. 2. Open up a brand new Outlook Express. Just configure the account to use 127.0.0.1 as mail servers. It doesn't really matter. You will need to manually create any subfolders you used in YAM. 3. You will need to do a mass rename on all your email files from YAM. Just add a .eml to the end of it. Amazing how PCs still rely mostly on the file name so it knows what sort of file it is rather than just looking at it! There are a number of multiple renamers online to download and free too. 4. Go into each of your folders, inbox, sent items etc. And do a select all then drag the files into Outlook Express (to the relevant folder obviously) Amazingly the file format that YAM used is very compatible with .eml standard and viola your emails appear. With correct dates and working attachments. 5. If you want your email into Microsoft Outlook. Open that up and create a new profile and a new blank PST file. Then go into File Import and choose to import from Outlook Express. And the mail will go into there. And viola.. you have your old email from your Amiga in a more modern day format. ===FTP=== Magellan has a great FTP module. It allows transferring files from/to a FTP server over the Internet or the local network and, even if FTP is perceived as a "thing of the past", its usability is all inside the client. The FTP thing has a nice side effect too, since every Icaros machine can be a FTP server as well, and our files can be easily transferred from an Icaros machine to another with a little configuration effort. First of all, we need to know the 'server' IP address. Server is the Icaros machine with the file we are about to download on another Icaros machine, that we're going to call 'client'. To do that, move on the server machine and 1) run Prefs/Services to be sure "FTP file transfer" is enabled (if not, enable it and restart Icaros); 2) run a shell and enter this command: ifconfig -a Make a note of the IP address for the network interface used by the local area network. For cabled devices, it usually is net0:. Now go on the client machine and run Magellan: Perform these actions: 1) click on FTP; 2) click on ADDRESS BOOK; 3) click on "New". You can now add a new entry for your Icaros server machine: 1) Choose a name for your server, in order to spot it immediately in the address book. Enter the IP address you got before. 2) click on Custom Options: 1) go to Miscellaneous in the left menu; 2) Ensure "Passive Transfers" is NOT selected; 3) click on Use. We need to deactivate Passive Transfers because YAFS, the FTP server included in Icaros, only allows active transfers at the current stage. Now, we can finally connect to our new file source: 1) Look into the address book for the newly introduced server, be sure that name and IP address are right, and 2) click on Connect. A new lister with server's "MyWorkspace" contents will appear. You can now transfer files over the network choosing a destination among your local (client's) volumes. Can be adapted to any FTP client on any platform of your choice, just be sure your client allows Active Transfers as well. ===IRC Internet Relay Chat=== Jabberwocky is ideal for one-to-one social media communication, use IRC if you require one to many. Just type a message in ''lowercase''' letters and it will be posted to all in the [ AROS irc channel]. Please do not use UPPER CASE as it is a sign of SHOUTING which is annoying. Other things to type in - replace <message> with a line of text and <nick> with a person's name <pre> /help /list /who /whois <nick> /msg <nick> <message> /query <nick> <message>s /query /away <message> /away /quit <going away message> </pre> [http://irchelp.org/irchelp/new2irc.html#smiley Intro guide here]. IRC Primer can be found here in [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircprimer.html html], [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/text/ircprimer.txt TXT], [http://www.kei.com/irc/IRCprimer1.1.ps PostScript]. Issue the command /me <text> where <text> is the text that should follow your nickname. Example: /me slaps ajk around a bit with a large trout /nick <newNick> /nickserv register <password> <email address> /ns instead of /nickserv, while others might need /msg nickserv /nickserv identify <password> Alternatives: /ns identify <password> /msg nickserv identify <password> ==== IRC WookieChat ==== WookieChat is the most complete internet client for communication across the IRC Network. WookieChat allows you to swap ideas and communicate in real-time, you can also exchange Files, Documents, Images and everything else using the application's DCC capabilities. add smilies drawer/directory run wookiechat from the shell and set stack to 1000000 e.g. wookiechat stack 1000000 select a server / server window * nickname * user name * real name - optional Once you configure the client with your preferred screen name, you'll want to find a channel to talk in. servers * New Server - click on this to add / add extra - change details in section below this click box * New Group * Delete Entry * Connect to server * connect in new tab * perform on connect Change details * Servername - change text in this box to one of the below Server: * Port number - no need to change * Server password * Channel - add #channel from below * auto join - can click this * nick registration password, Click Connect to server button above <pre> Server: irc.freenode.net Channel: #aros </pre> irc://irc.freenode.net/aros <pre> Server: chat.amigaworld.net Channel: #amigaworld or #amigans </pre> <pre> On Sunday evenings USA time usually starting around 3PM EDT (1900 UTC) Server:irc.superhosts.net Channel #team*amiga </pre> <pre> BitlBee and Minbif are IRCd-like gateways to multiple IM networks Server: im.bitlbee.org Port 6667 Seems to be most useful on WookieChat as you can be connected to several servers at once. One for Bitlbee and any messages that might come through that. One for your normal IRC chat server. </pre> [http://www.bitlbee.org/main.php/servers.html Other servers], <pre> #Amiga.org - irc.synirc.net eu.synirc.net dissonance.nl.eu.synirc.net (IPv6: 2002:5511:1356:0:216:17ff:fe84:68a) twilight.de.eu.synirc.net zero.dk.eu.synirc.net us.synirc.net avarice.az.us.synirc.net envy.il.us.synirc.net harpy.mi.us.synirc.net liberty.nj.us.synirc.net snowball.mo.us.synirc.net - Ports 6660-6669 7001 (SSL) </pre> <pre> Multiple server support "Perform on connect" scripts and channel auto-joins Automatic Nickserv login Tabs for channels and private conversations CTCP PING, TIME, VERSION, SOUND Incoming and Outgoing DCC SEND file transfers Colours for different events Logging and automatic reloading of logs mIRC colour code filters Configurable timestamps GUI for changing channel modes easily Configurable highlight keywords URL Grabber window Optional outgoing swear word filter Event sounds for tabs opening, highlighted words, and private messages DCC CHAT support Doubleclickable URL's Support for multiple languages using LOCALE Clone detection Auto reconnection to Servers upon disconnection Command aliases Chat display can be toggled between AmIRC and mIRC style Counter for Unread messages Graphical nicklist and graphical smileys with a popup chooser </pre> ====IRC Aircos ==== Double click on Aircos icon in Extras:Networking/Apps/Aircos. It has been set up with a guest account for trial purposes. Though ideally, choose a nickname and password for frequent use of irc. ====IRC and XMPP Jabberwocky==== Servers are setup and close down at random You sign up to a server that someone else has setup and access chat services through them. The two ways to access chat from jabberwocky <pre > Jabberwocky -> Server -> XMPP -> open and ad-free Jabberwocky -> Server -> Transports (Gateways) -> Proprietary closed systems </pre > The Jabber.org service connects with all IM services that use XMPP, the open standard for instant messaging and presence over the Internet. The services we connect with include Google Talk (closed), Live Journal Talk, Nimbuzz, Ovi, and thousands more. However, you can not connect from Jabber.org to proprietary services like AIM, ICQ, MSN, Skype, or Yahoo because they don’t yet use XMPP components (XEP-0114) '''but''' you can use Jabber.com's servers and IM gateways (MSN, ICQ, Yahoo etc.) instead. The best way to use jabberwocky is in conjunction with a public jabber server with '''transports''' to your favorite services, like gtalk, Facebook, yahoo, ICQ, AIM, etc. You have to register with one of the servers, [https://list.jabber.at/ this list] or [http://www.jabberes.org/servers/ another list], [http://xmpp.net/ this security XMPP list], Unfortunately jabberwocky can only connect to one server at a time so it is best to check what services each server offers. If you set it up with separate Facebook and google talk accounts, for example, sometimes you'll only get one or the other. Jabberwocky open a window where the Jabber server part is typed in as well as your Nickname and Password. Jabber ID (JID) identifies you to the server and other users. Once registered the next step is to goto Jabberwocky's "Windows" menu and select the "Agents" option. The "Agents List" window will open. Roster (contacts list) [http://search.wensley.org.uk/ Chatrooms] (MUC) are available File Transfer - can send and receive files through the Jabber service but not with other services like IRC, ICQ, AIM or Yahoo. All you need is an installed webbrowser and OpenURL. Clickable URLs - The message window uses Mailtext.mcc and you can set a URL action in the MUI mailtext prefs like SYS:Utils/OpenURL %s NEWWIN. There is no consistent Skype like (H.323 VoIP) video conferencing available over Jabber. The move from xmpp to Jingle should help but no support on any amiga-like systems at the moment. [http://aminet.net/package/dev/src/AmiPhoneSrc192 AmiPhone] and [http://www.lysator.liu.se/%28frame,faq,nobg,useframes%29/ahi/v4-site/ Speak Freely] was an early attempt voice only contact. SIP and Asterisk are other PBX options. Facebook If you're using the XMPP transport provided by Facebook themselves, chat.facebook.com, it looks like they're now requiring SSL transport. This means jabberwocky method below will no longer work. The best thing to do is to create an ID on a public jabber server which has a Facebook gateway. <pre > 1. launch jabberwocky 2. if the login window doesn't appear on launch, select 'account' from the jabberwocky menu 3. your jabber ID will be user@chat.facebook.com where user is your user ID 4. your password is your normal facebook password 5. to save this for next time, click the popup gadget next to the ID field 6. click the 'add' button 7. click the 'close' button 8. click the 'connect' button </pre > you're done. you can also click the 'save as default account' button if you want. jabberwocky configured to auto-connect when launching the program, but you can configure as you like. there is amigaguide documentation included with jabberwocky. [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=37085&forum=32 Read more here] for Facebook users, you can log-in directly to Facebook with jabberwocky. just sign in as @chat.facebook.com with your Facebook password as the password Twitter For a few years, there has been added a twitter transport. Servers include [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/ jabber.hot-chili.net], and . An [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/tag/how-tos/ How-to] :Read [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/2010/05/09/twitter-transport-working/ more] Instagram no support at the moment best to use a web browser based client ICQ The new version (beta) of StriCQ uses a newer ICQ protocol. Most of the ICQ Jabber Transports still use an older ICQ protocol. You can only talk one-way to StriCQ using the older Transports. Only the newer ICQv7 Transport lets you talk both ways to StriCQ. Look at the server lists in the first section to check. Register on a Jabber server, e.g. this one works: http://www.jabber.de/ Then login into Jabberwocky with the following login data e.g. xxx@jabber.de / Password: xxx Now add your ICQ account under the window->Agents->"Register". Now Jabberwocky connects via the Jabber.de server with your ICQ account. Yahoo Messenger although yahoo! does not use xmpp protocol, you should be able to use the transport methods to gain access and post your replies MSN early months of 2013 Microsoft will ditch MSN Messenger client and force everyone to use Skype...but MSN protocol and servers will keep working as usual for quite a long time.... Occasionally the Messenger servers have been experiencing problems signing in. You may need to sign in at www.outlook.com and then try again. It may also take multiple tries to sign in. (This also affects you if you’re using Skype.) You have to check each servers' Agents List to see what transports (MSN protocol, ICQ protocol, etc.) are supported or use the list address' provided in the section above. Then register with each transport (IRC, MSN, ICQ, etc.) to which you need access. After registering you can Connect to start chatting. msn.jabber.com/registered should appear in the window. From this [http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/amiga-jabberwocky/message/1378 JW group] guide which helps with this process in a clear, step by step procedure. 1. Sign up on MSN's site for a passport account. This typically involves getting a Hotmail address. 2. Log on to the Jabber server of your choice and do the following: * Select the "Windows/Agents" menu option in Jabberwocky. * Select the MSN Agent from the list presented by the server. * Click the Register button to open a new window asking for: **Username = passort account email address, typically your hotmail address. **Nick = Screen name to be shown to anyone you add to your buddy list. **Password = Password for your passport account/hotmail address. * Click the Register button at the bottom of the new window. 3. If all goes well, you will see the MSN Gateway added to your buddy list. If not, repeat part 2 on another server. Some servers may show MSN in their list of available agents, but have not updated their software for the latest protocols used by MSN. 4. Once you are registered, you can now add people to your buddy list. Note that you need to include the '''msn.''' ahead of the servername so that it knows what gateway agent to use. Some servers may use a slight variation and require '''msg.gate.''' before the server name, so try both to see what works. If my friend's msn was amiga@hotmail.co.uk and my jabber server was @jabber.meta.net.nz.. then amiga'''%'''hotmail.com@'''msn.'''jabber.meta.net.nz or another the trick to import MSN contacts is that you don't type the hotmail URL but the passport URL... e.g. Instead of: goodvibe%hotmail.com@msn.jabber.com You type: goodvibe%passport.com@msn.jabber.com And the thing about importing contacts I'm afraid you'll have to do it by hand, one at the time... Google Talk any XMPP server will work, but you have to add your contacts manually. a google talk user is typically either @gmail.com or @talk.google.com. a true gtalk transport is nice because it brings your contacts to you and (can) also support file transfers to/from google talk users. implement Jingle a set of extensions to the IETF's Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support ended early 2014 as Google moved to Google+ Hangouts which uses it own proprietary format ===Video Player MPlayer=== Many of the menu features (such as doubling) do not work with the current version of mplayer but using 4:3 mplayer -vf scale=800:600 file.avi 16:9 mplayer -vf scale=854:480 file.avi if you want gui use; mplayer -gui 1 <other params> file.avi <pre > stack 1000000 ; using AspireOS 1.xx ; copy FROM SYS:Extras/Multimedia/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 1.x ; copy FROM SYS:Tools/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 2.x ; copy FROM SYS:Utilities/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: cd RAM:MPlayer run MPlayer -gui > Nil: ;run MPlayer -gui -ao ahi_dev -playlist http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls > Nil: </pre > $ mplayer rtsp://127.0.0.1:554/sample_300kbit.mp4 MPlayer supports multicast streaming, and rtp/rtsp protocols (it might require [http://www.live555.com/openRTSP/ live555 library] to work with some streams). But you might have to build it where it's disabled. Also, multicast won't work with some AmiTCP-likes. MIAMI supported it, though. AROS supports IPv4 (old but works) and this includes the needed address space for RTP. If you mean multicast via RTP - mplayer handles it. You can even force UDP over TCP -rtsp-stream-over-tcp If the rtsp Real Time Streaming Protocol server needs authentification: -user -passwd MPlayer - Menu - Open Playlist and load already downloaded .pls or .m3u file - auto starts around 4 percent cache MPlayer - Menu - Open Stream and copy one of the .pls lines below into space allowed, press OK and press play button on main gui interface Old 8bit 16bit remixes chip tune game music http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls http://scenesat.com/ http://www.shoutcast.com/radio/Amiga http://www.theoldcomputer.com/retro_radio/RetroRadio_Main.htm http://www.kohina.com/ http://www.remix64.com/ http://retrogamer.net/forum/ http://retroasylum.podomatic.com/rss2.xml http://retrogamesquad.com/ http://www.retronauts.com/ http://monsterfeet.com/noquarter/ http://www.retrogamingradio.com/ http://www.radiofeeds.co.uk/mp3.asp [[#top|...to the top]] ====ZunePaint==== simplified typical workflow * importing and organizing and photo management * making global and regional local correction(s) - recalculation is necessary after each adjustment as it is not in real-time * exporting your images in the best format available with the preservation of metadata Whilst achieving 80% of a great photo with just a filter, the remaining 20% comes from a manual fine-tuning of specific image attributes. For photojournalism, documentary, and event coverage, minimal touching is recommended. Stick to Camera Raw for such shots, and limit changes to level adjustment, sharpness, noise reduction, and white balance correction. For fashion or portrait shoots, a large amount of adjustment is allowed and usually ends up far from the original. Skin smoothing, blemish removal, eye touch-ups, etc. are common. Might alter the background a bit to emphasize the subject. Product photography usually requires a lot of sharpening, spot removal, and focus stacking. For landscape shots, best results are achieved by doing the maximum amount of preparation before/while taking the shot. No amount of processing can match timing, proper lighting, correct gear, optimal settings, etc. Excessive post-processing might give you a dramatic shot but best avoided in the long term. * White Balance - Left Amiga or F12 and K and under "Misc color effects" tab with a pull down for White Balance - color temperature also known as AKA tint (movies) or tones (painting) - warm temp raise red reduce green blue - cool raise blue lower red green * Exposure - exposure compensation, highlight/shadow recovery * Noise Reduction - during RAW development or using external software * Lens Corrections - distortion, vignetting, chromatic aberrations * Detail - capture sharpening and local contrast enhancement * Contrast - black point, levels (sliders) and curves tools (F12 and K) * Framing - straighten () and crop (F12 and F) * Refinements - color adjustments and selective enhancements - Left Amiga or F12 and K for RGB and YUV histogram tabs - * Resizing - enlarge for a print or downsize for the web or email (F12 and D) * Output Sharpening - customized for your subject matter and print/screen size White Balance - F12 and K scan your image for a shade which was meant to be white (neutral with each RGB value being equal) like paper or plastic which is in the same light as the subject of the picture. Use the dropper tool to select this color, similar colours will shift and you will have selected the perfect white balance for your part of the image - for the whole picture make sure RAZ or CLR button at the bottom is pressed before applying to the image above. Exposure correction F12 and K - YUV Y luminosity - RGB extra red tint - move red curve slightly down and move blue green curves slightly up Workflows in practice * Undo - Right AROS key or F12 and Z * Redo - Right AROS key or F12 and R First flatten your image (if necessary) and then do a rotation until the picture looks level. * Crop the picture. Click the selection button and drag a box over the area of the picture you want to keep. Press the crop button and the rest of the photo will be gone. * Adjust your saturation, exposure, hue levels, etc., (right AROS Key and K for color correction) until you are happy with the photo. Make sure you zoom in all of the way to 100% and look the photo over, zoom back out and move around. Look for obvious problems with the picture. * After coloring and exposure do a sharpen (Right AROS key and E for Convolution and select drop down option needed), e.g. set the matrix to 5x5 (roughly equivalent Amount to 60%) and set the Radius to 1.0. Click OK. And save your picture Implemented or would like to see for simplification and ease of use basic filters (presets) like black and white, monochrome, edge detection (sobel), motion/gaussian blur, * negative, sepiatone, retro vintage, night vision, colour tint, color gradient, color temperature, glows, fire, lightning, lens flare, emboss, filmic, pixelate mezzotint, antialias, etc. adjust / cosmetic tools such as crop, * reshaping tools, straighten, smear, smooth, perspective, liquify, bloat, pucker, push pixels in any direction, dispersion, transform like warp, blending with soft light, page-curl, whirl, ripple, fisheye, neon, etc. * red eye fixing, blemish remover, skin smoothing, teeth whitener, make eyes look brighter, desaturate, effects like oil paint, cartoon, pencil sketch, charcoal, noise/matrix like sharpen/unsharpen, (right AROS key with A for Artistic effects) * blend two image, gradient blend, masking blend, explode, implode, custom collage, surreal painting, comic book style, needlepoint, stained glass, watercolor, mosaic, stencil/outline, crayon, chalk, etc. borders such as * dropshadow, rounded, blurred, color tint, picture frame, film strip polaroid, bevelled edge, etc. brushes e.g. * frost, smoke, etc. and manual control of fix lens issues including vignetting (darkening), color fringing and barrel distortion, and chromatic and geometric aberration - lens and body profiles perspective correction levels - directly modify the levels of the tone-values of an image, by using sliders for highlights, midtones and shadows curves - Color Adjustment and Brightness/Contrast color balance one single color transparent (alpha channel (color information/selections) for masking and/or blending ) for backgrounds, etc. Threshold indicates how much other colors will be considered mixture of the removed color and non-removed colors decompose layer into a set of layers with each holding a different type of pattern that is visible within the image any selection using any selecting tools like lasso tool, marquee tool etc. the selection will temporarily be save to alpha If you create your image without transparency then the Alpha channel is not present, but you can add later. File formats like .psd (Photoshop file has layers, masks etc. contains edited sensor data. The original sensor data is no longer available) .xcf .raw .hdr Image Picture Formats * low dynamic range (JPEG, PNG, TIFF 8-bit), 16-bit (PPM, TIFF), typically as a 16-bit TIFF in either ProPhoto or AdobeRGB colorspace - TIFF files are also fairly universal – although, if they contain proprietary data, such as Photoshop Adjustment Layers or Smart Filters, then they can only be opened by Photoshop making them proprietary. * linear high dynamic range (HDR) images (PFM, [http://www.openexr.com/ ILM .EXR], jpg, [http://aminet.net/util/dtype cr2] (canon tiff based), hdr, NEF, CRW, ARW, MRW, ORF, RAF (Fuji), PEF, DCR, SRF, ERF, DNG files are RAW converted to an Adobe proprietary format - a container that can embed the raw file as well as the information needed to open it) An old version of [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert dcraw] There is no single RAW file format. Each camera manufacturer has one or more unique RAW formats. RAW files contain the brightness levels data captured by the camera sensor. This data cannot be modified. A second smaller file, separate XML file, or within a database with instructions for the RAW processor to change exposure, saturation etc. The extra data can be changed but the original sensor data is still there. RAW is technically least compatible. A raw file is high-bit (usually 12 or 14 bits of information) but a camera-generated TIFF file will be usually converted by the camera (compressed, downsampled) to 8 bits. The raw file has no embedded color balance or color space, but the TIFF has both. These three things (smaller bit depth, embedded color balance, and embedded color space) make it so that the TIFF will lose quality more quickly with image adjustments than the raw file. The camera-generated TIFF image is much more like a camera processed JPEG than a raw file. A strong advantage goes to the raw file. The power of RAW files, such as the ability to set any color temperature non-destructively and will contain more tonal values. The principle of preserving the maximum amount of information to as late as possible in the process. The final conversion - which will always effectively represent a "downsampling" - should prevent as much loss as possible. Once you save it as TIFF, you throw away some of that data irretrievably. When saving in the lossy JPEG format, you get tremendous file size savings, but you've irreversibly thrown away a lot of image data. As long as you have the RAW file, original or otherwise, you have access to all of the image data as captured. Keyboard equivalence with Photoshop(tm) would help File PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Ctrl+n New Open Ctrl+o Open Close Ctrl+w Close Save Ctrl+s Save Save as Shift+Ctrl+s Save as Revert F12 Revert Print Ctrl+p Print Exit Ctrl+q Quit Edit PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Undo/Redo (1 level) Ctrl+z Undo (Redo is Shift+Ctrl+z) Cut Ctrl+x Cut Copy Ctrl+c Copy Paste Ctrl+v Paste Paste Into Shift+Ctrl+v Paste Into Fill with FG color Alt+Backspace Fill with FG color Fill with BG color Control+Backspace Fill with BG color Image/Colors PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Levels Ctrl+l Levels Auto Contrast Shift+Ctrl+Alt+l Stretch Contrast (same?) Curves Ctrl+m Curves Color Balance Ctrl+b Color Balance Hue/Saturation Ctrl+u Hue-Saturation Desaturate Shift+Ctrl+u Desaturate Invert Ctrl+i Invert Default Colors d Default Colors Switch Colors x Switch Colors Layer PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Layer Shift+Ctrl+n New Layer Layer via Copy Ctrl+j Duplicate Layer Bring (layer) to Front Shift+Ctrl+] Layer to Top Send (layer) to Back Shift+Ctrl+[ Layer to Bottom Bring (layer) Forward Ctrl+] Raise Layer Send (layer) Backward Ctrl+[ Lower Layer Select Top Layer Shift+Alt+] Select Top Layer Select Bottom Layer Shift+Alt+[ Select Bottom Layer Select One Layer Forward Alt+] Select Previous Layer Select One Layer Backward Alt+[ Select Next Layer Merge Down Ctrl+e Merge Down Merge Visible Shift+Ctrl+e Merge Visible Preserve Transparency / Keep Transparency Cycle Modes Forwards Shift+= Next Layer Mode Cycle Modes Backwards Shift+- Previous Layer Mode Select PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Select All Ctrl+a Select All Deselect Ctrl+d Select None Inverse Shift+Ctrl+i Invert Feather Ctrl+Alt+d Feather View PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Zoom In Ctrl+= Zoom In Zoom Out Ctrl+- Zoom Out Fit on Screen Ctrl+0 Zoom to Fit Window Actual Pixels Ctrl+Alt+0 Zoom 1:1 Show/Hide Extras Ctrl+h Toggle Show Selection (close enough?) Show/Hide Guides Ctrl+' Toggle Show Guides Show/Hide Grid Ctrl+Alt+' Toggle Show Grid Show/Hide Rulers Ctrl+r Toggle Show Rulers Snap Ctrl+; Snap to Guides Scroll View Up Page Up Scroll Page Up Scroll View Down Page Down Scroll Page Down Scroll View Left Ctrl+Page Up Scroll Page Left Scroll View Right Ctrl+Page Down Scroll Page Right Window/Dialogs PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP ? F5 Tools Dialog Color Tab F6 Colors Dialog Layers Tab F7 Layers Dialog Info Tab F8 Image Information Tools PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Rectangular Marquee Tool m Rect Select Tool Elliptical Marquee Tool Shift+m Ellipse Select Tool *This is a toggle between 'Elliptical Marquee Tool' and 'Rectangular Marquee Tool' in Photoshop Move Tool v Move Tool Lasso Tool l Free Select Tool Magic Wand Tool w Fuzzy Select Tool Crop Tool c Crop & Resize Tool Airbrush Tool j Airbrush Tool Paintbrush Tool b Paintbrush Tool Clone Stamp Tool s Clone Stamp Tool Eraser Tool e Eraser Tool Gradient Tool g Blend Tool Paint Bucket Tool Shift+g Bucket Fill Tool *This is a toggle between 'Paint Bucket Tool' and 'Gradient Tool' in Photoshop Blur Tool r Convolve Tool Dodge Tool o DodgeBurn Tool Type Tool t Text Tool Pen Tool p Bezier Select Tool Eye Dropper Tool i Color Picker Tool Zoom Tool z Magnify Tool Previous Brush , Previous Brush Next Brush . Next Brush First Brush Shift+< First Brush Last Brush Shift+> Last Brush Decrease Brush Size [ Decrease Brush Size Increase Brush Size ] Increase Brush Size Decrease Brush Hardness { Decrease Brush Hardness Increase Brush Hardness } Increase Brush Hardness Help PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Help F1 Help Context Help Shift+F1 Context Help Misc. PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Last Filter Ctrl+f Repeat Last Filter ? Shift+Ctrl+f Reshow Last Filter Preferences Ctrl+k Preferences Liquify Shift+Ctrl+x IWarp (close enough?) Toggle Quick Mask q Toggle Quick Mask Spotlights - triangle of white opaque shape Cutting out and/or replacing unwanted background or features - select large areas with the selection option like the Magic Wand tool (aka Color Range) or the Lasso (quick and fast) with feather 2 to soften edge or the pen tool which adds points/lines/Bézier curves (better control but slower), hold down the shift button as you click to add extra points/areas of the subject matter to remove. Increase the tolerance to cover more areas. To subtract from your selection hold down alt as you're clicking. * Layer masks are a better way of working than Erase they clip (black hides/hidden white visible/reveal). Clone Stamp can be simulated by and brushes for other areas. * Leave the fine details like hair, fur, etc. to later with lasso and the shift key to draw a line all the way around your subject. Gradient Mapping - Inverse - Mask. i.e. Refine your selected image with edge detection and using the radius and edge options / adjuster (increase/decrease contrast) so that you will capture more fine detail from the background allowing easier removal. Remove fringe/halo saving image as png rather than jpg/jpeg to keep transparency background intact. Implemented [http://colorizer.org/ colour model representations] [http://paulbourke.net/texture_colour/colourspace/ Mathematical approach] - Photo stills are spatially 2d (h and w), but are colorimetrically 3d (r g and b, or H L S, or Y U V etc.) as well. * RGB - split cubed mapped color model for photos and computer graphics hardware using the light spectrum (adding and subtracting) * YUV - Y-Lightness U-blue/yellow V-red/cyan (similar to YPbPr and YCbCr) used in the PAL, NTSC, and SECAM composite digital TV color [http://crewofone.com/2012/chroma-subsampling-and-transcoding/#comment-7299 video] Histograms White balanced (neutral) if the spike happens in the same place in each channel of the RGB graphs. If not, you're not balanced. If you have sky you'll see the blue channel further off to the right. RGB is best one to change colours. These elements RGB is a 3-channel format containing data for Red, Green, and Blue in your photo scale between 0 and 255. The area in a picture that appears to be brighter/whiter contains more red color as compared to the area which is relatively darker. Similarly in the green channel the area that appears to be darker contains less amount of green color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Similarly in the blue channel the area appears to be darker contains less amount of blue color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Brightness luminance histogram also matches the green histogram more than any other color - human eye interprets green better e.g. RGB rough ratio 15/55/30% RGBA (RGB+A, A means alpha channel) . The alpha channel is used for "alpha compositing", which can mostly be associated as "opacity". AROS deals in RGB with two digits for every color (red, green, blue), in ARGB you have two additional hex digits for the alpha channel. The shadows are represented by the left third of the graph. The highlights are represented by the right third. And the midtones are, of course, in the middle. The higher the black peaks in the graph, the more pixels are concentrated in that tonal range (total black area). By moving the black endpoint, which identifies the shadows (darkness) and a white light endpoint (brightness) up and down either sides of the graph, colors are adjusted based on these points. By dragging the central one, can increased the midtones and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . RGB Curves * Move left endpoint (black point) up or right endpoint (white point) up brightens * Move left endpoint down or right endpoint down darkens Color Curves * Dragging up on the Red Curve increases the intensity of the reds in the image but * Dragging down on the Red Curve decreases the intensity of the reds and thus increases the apparent intensity of its complimentary color, cyan. Green’s complimentary color is magenta, and blue’s is yellow. <pre> Red <-> Cyan Green <->Magenta Blue <->Yellow </pre> YUV Best option to analyse and pull out statistical elements of any picture (i.e. separate luminance data from color data). The line in Y luma tone box represents the brightness of the image with the point in the bottom left been black, and the point in the top right as white. A low-contrast image has a concentrated clump of values nearer to the center of the graph. By comparison, a high-contrast image has a wider distribution of values across the entire width of the Histogram. A histogram that is skewed to the right would indicate a picture that is a bit overexposed because most of the color data is on the lighter side (increase exposure with higher value F), while a histogram with the curve on the left shows a picture that is underexposed. This is good information to have when using post-processing software because it shows you not only where the color data exists for a given picture, but also where any data has been clipped (extremes on edges of either side): that is, it does not exist and, therefore, cannot be edited. By dragging the endpoints of the line and as well as the central one, can increased the dark/shadows, midtones and light/bright parts and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . The U and V chroma parts show color difference components of the image. It’s useful for checking whether or not the overall chroma is too high, and also whether it’s being limited too much Can be used to create a negative image but also With U (Cb), the higher value you are, the more you're on the blue primary color. If you go to the low values then you're on blue complementary color, i.e. yellow. With V (Cr), this is the same principle but with Red and Cyan. e.g. If you push U full blue and V full red, you get magenta. If you push U full yellow and V full Cyan then you get green. YUV simultaneously adds to one side of the color equation while subtracting from the other. using YUV to do color correction can be very problematic because each curve alters the result of each other: the mutual influence between U and V often makes things tricky. You may also be careful in what you do to avoid the raise of noise (which happens very easily). Best results are obtained with little adjustments sunset that looks uninspiring and needs some color pop especially for the rays over the hill, a subtle contrast raise while setting luma values back to the legal range without hard clipping. ====Lunapaint==== Pixel based drawing app with onion-skin animation function Blocking, Shading, Coloring, adding detail <pre> b BRUSH e ERASER alt eyedropper v layer tool z ZOOM / MAGNIFY < > n spc panning m marque q lasso w same color selection / region </pre> <pre> , LM RM v V f filter F . size p , pick color [] last / next color </pre> There is not much missing in Lunapaint to be as good as FlipBook and then you have to take into account that Flipbook is considered to be amongst the best and easiest to use animation software out there. Ok to be honest Flipbook has some nice features that require more heavy work but those aren't so much needed right away, things like camera effects, sound, smart fill, export to different movie file formats etc. Tried Flipbook with my tablet and compared it to Luna. The feeling is the same when sketching. LunaPaint is very responsive/fluent to draw with. Just as Flipbook is, and that responsiveness is something its users have mentioned as one of the positive sides of said software. author was learning MUI. Some parts just have to be rewritten with proper MUI classes before new features can be added. * add [Frame Add] / [Frame Del] * whole animation feature is impossible to use. If you draw 2 color maybe but if you start coloring your cells then you get in trouble * pickup the entire image as a brush, not just a selection ? And consequently remove the brush from memory when one doesn't need it anymore. can pick up a brush and put it onto a new image but cropping isn't possible, nor to load/save brushes. * Undo is something I longed for ages in Lunapaint. * to import into the current layer, other types of images (e.g. JPEG) besides RAW64. * implement graphic tablet features support **GENERAL DRAWING** Miss it very much: UNDO ERASER COLORPICKER - has to show on palette too which color got picked. BACKGROUND COLOR -Possibility to select from "New project screen" Miss it somewhat: ICON for UNDO ICON for ERASER ICON for CLEAR SCREEN ( What can I say? I start over from scratch very often ) BRUSH - possibility to cut out as brush not just copy off image to brush **ANIMATING** Miss it very much: NUMBER OF CELLS - Possibity to change total no. of cells during project ANIM BRUSH - Possibility to pick up a selected part of cells into an animbrush Miss it somewhat: ADD/REMOVE FRAMES: Add/remove single frame In general LunaPaint is really well done and it feels like a new DeluxePaint version. It works with my tablet. Sure there's much missing of course but things can always be added over time. So there is great potential in LunaPaint that's for sure. Animations could be made in it and maybe put together in QuickVideo, saving in .gif or .mng etc some day. LAYERS -Layers names don't get saved globally in animation frames -Layers order don't change globally in an animation (perhaps as default?). EXPORTING IMAGES -Exporting frames to JPG/PNG gives problems with colors. (wrong colors. See my animatiopn --> My robot was blue now it's "gold" ) I think this only happens if you have layers. -Trying to flatten the layers before export doesn't work if you have animation frames only the one you have visible will flatten properly all other frames are destroyed. (Only one of the layers are visible on them) -Exporting images filenames should be for example e.g. file0001, file0002...file0010 instead as of now file1, file2...file10 LOAD/SAVE (Preferences) -Make a setting for the default "Work" folder. * Destroyed colors if exported image/frame has layers * mystic color cycling of the selected color while stepping frames back/forth (annoying) <pre> Deluxe Paint II enhanced key shortcuts NOTE: @ denotes the ALT key [Technique] F1 - Paint F2 - Single Colour F3 - Replace F4 - Smear F5 - Shade F6 - Cycle F7 - Smooth M - Colour Cycle [Brush] B - Restore O - Outline h - Halve brush size H - Double brush size x - Flip brush on X axis X - Double brush size on X axis only y - Flip on Y Y - Double on Y z - Rotate brush 90 degrees Z - Stretch [Stencil] ` - Stencil On [Miscellaneous] F9 - Info Bar F10 - Selection Bar @o - Co-Ordinates @a - Anti-alias @r - Colourise @t - Translucent TAB - Colour Cycle [Picture] L - Load S - Save j - Page to Spare(Flip) J - Page to Spare(Copy) V - View Page Q - Quit [General Keys] m - Magnify < - Zoom In > - Zoom Out [ - Palette Colour Up ] - Palette Colour Down ( - Palette Colour Left ) - Palette Colour Right , - Eye Dropper . - Pixel / Brush Toggle / - Symmetry | - Co-Ordinates INS - Perspective Control +/- - Brush Size (Fine Control) w - Unfilled Polygon W - Filled Polygon e - Unfilled Ellipse E - Filled Ellipse r - Unfilled Rectangle R - Filled Rectangle t - Type/text tool a - Select Font u/U - Undo d - Brush D - Filled Non-Uniform Polygon f/F - Fill Options g/G - Grid h/H - Brush Size (Coarse Control) K - Clear c - Unfilled Circle C - Filled Circle v - Line b - Scissor Select and Toggle B - Brush {,} - Toggle between two background colours </pre> ====Lodepaint==== Pixel based painting artwork app ====Grafx2==== Pixel based painting artwork app aesprite like [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59Y6OTzNrhk aesprite workflow keys and tablet use], [], ====Vector Graphics ZuneFIG==== Vector Image Editing of files .svg .ps .eps *Objects - raise lower rotate flip aligning snapping *Path - unify subtract intersect exclude divide *Colour - fill stroke *Stroke - size *Brushes - *Layers - *Effects - gaussian bevels glows shadows *Text - *Transform - AmiFIG ([http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/frm_introduction.html xfig manual]) [[File:MyScreen.png|thumb|left|alt=Showing all Windows open in AmiFIG.|All windows available to AmiFIG.]] for drawing simple to intermediate vector graphic images for scientific and technical uses and for illustration purposes for those with talent ;Menu options * Load - fig format but import(s) SVG * Save - fig format but export(s) eps, ps, pdf, svg and png * PAN = Ctrl + Arrow keys * Deselect all points There is no selected object until you apply the tool, and the selected object is not highlighted. ;Metrics - to set up page and styles - first window to open on new drawings ;Tools - Drawing Primitives - set Attributes window first before clicking any Tools button(s) * Shapes - circles, ellipses, arcs, splines, boxes, polygon * Lines - polylines * Text "T" button * Photos - bitmaps * Compound - Glue, Break, Scale * POINTs - Move, Add, Remove * Objects - Move, Copy, Delete, Mirror, Rotate, Paste use right mouse button to stop extra lines, shapes being formed and the left mouse to select/deselect tools button(s) * Rotate - moves in 90 degree turns centered on clicked POINT of a polygon or square ;Attributes which provide change(s) to the above primitives * Color * Line Width * Line Style * arrowheads ;Modes Choose from freehand, charts, figures, magnet, etc. ;Library - allows .fig clip-art to be stored * compound tools to add .fig(s) together ;FIG 3.2 [http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/fig-format.html Format] as produced by xfig version 3.2.5 <pre> Landscape Center Inches Letter 100.00 Single -2 1200 2 4 0 0 50 -1 0 12 0.0000 4 135 1050 1050 2475 This is a test.01 </pre> # change the text alignment within the textbox. I can choose left, center, or right aligned by either changing the integer in the second column from 0 (left) to 1 or 2 (center, or right). # The third integer in the row specifies fontcolor. For instance, 0 is black, but blue is 1 and Green3 is 13. # The sixth integer in the bottom row specifies fontface. 0 is Times-Roman, but 16 is Helvetica (a MATLAB default). # The seventh number is fontsize. 12 represents a 12pt fontsize. Changing the fontsize of an item really is as easy as changing that number to 20. # The next number is the counter-clockwise angle of the text. Notice that I have changed the angle to .7854 (pi/4 rounded to four digits=45 degrees). # twelfth number is the position according to the standard “x-axis” in Xfig units from the left. Note that 1200 Xfig units is equivalent to once inch. # thirteenth number is the “y-position” from the top using the same unit convention as before. * The nested text string is what you entered into the textbox. * The “01″ present at the end of that line in the .fig file is the closing tag. For instance, a change to \100 appends a @ symbol at the end of the period of that sentence. ; Just to note there are no layers, no 3d functions, no shading, no transparency, no animation [[#top|...to the top]] ===Audio=== # AHI uses linear panning/balance, which means that in the center, you will get -6dB. If an app uses panning, this is what you will get. Note that apps like Audio Evolution need panning, so they will have this problem. # When using AHI Hifi modes, mixing is done in 32-bit and sent as 32-bit data to the driver. The Envy24HT driver uses that to output at 24-bit (always). # For the Envy24/Envy24HT, I've made 16-bit and 24-bit inputs (called Line-in 16-bit, Line-in 24-bit etc.). There is unfortunately no app that can handle 24-bit recording. ====Music Mods==== Digital module (mods) trackers are music creation software using samples and sometimes soundfonts, audio plugins (VST, AU or RTAS), MIDI. Generally, MODs are similar to MIDI in that they contain note on/off and other sequence messages that control the mod player. Unlike (most) midi files, however, they also contain sound samples that the sequence information actually plays. MOD files can have many channels (classic amiga mods have 4, corresponding to the inbuilt sound channels), but unlike MIDI, each channel can typically play only one note at once. However, since that note might be a sample of a chord, a drumloop or other complex sound, this is not as limiting as it sounds. Like MIDI, notes will play indefinitely if they're not instructed to end. Most trackers record this information automatically if you play your music in live. If you're using manual note entry, you can enter a note-off command with a keyboard shortcut - usually Caps Lock. In fact when considering file size MOD is not always the best option. Even a dummy song wastes few kilobytes for nothing when a simple SID tune could be few hundreds bytes and not bigger than 64kB. AHX is another small format, AHX tunes are never larger than 64kB excluding comments. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXXsZfwgil Protrekkr] (previously aka [w:Juan_Antonio_Arguelles_Rius|NoiseTrekkr]) If Protrekkr does not start, please check if the Unit 0 has been setup in the AHI prefs and still not, go to the directory utilities/protrekkr and double click on the Protrekkr icon *Sample *Note - Effect *Track (column) - Pattern - Order It all starts with the Sample which is used to create Note(s) in a Track (column of a tracker) The Note can be changed with an Effect. A Track of Note(s) can be collected into a Pattern (section of a song) and these can be given Order to create the whole song. Patience (notes have to be entered one at a time) or playing the bassline on a midi controller (faster - see midi section above). Best approach is to wait until a melody popped into your head. *Up-tempo means the track should be reasonably fast, but not super-fast. *Groovy and funky imply the track should have some sort of "swing" feel, with plenty of syncopation or off beat emphasis and a recognizable, melodic bass line. *Sweet and happy mean upbeat melodies, a major key and avoiding harsh sounds. *Moody - minor key First, create a quick bass sound, which is basically a sine wave, but can be hand drawn for a little more variance. It could also work for the melody part, too. This is usually a bass guitar or some kind of synthesizer bass. The bass line is often forgotten by inexperienced composers, but it plays an important role in a musical piece. Together with the rhythm section the bass line forms the groove of a song. It's the glue between the rhythm section and the melodic layer of a song. The drums are just pink noise samples, played at different frequencies to get a slightly different sound for the kick, snare, and hihats. Instruments that fall into the rhythm category are bass drums, snares, hi-hats, toms, cymbals, congas, tambourines, shakers, etc. Any percussive instrument can be used to form part of the rhythm section. The lead is the instrument that plays the main melody, on top of the chords. There are many instruments that can play a lead section, like a guitar, a piano, a saxophone or a flute. The list is almost endless. There is a lot of overlap with instruments that play chords. Often in one piece an instrument serves both roles. The lead melody is often played at a higher pitch than the chords. Listened back to what was produced so far, and a counter-melody can be imagined, which can be added with a triangle wave. To give the ends of phrases some life, you can add a solo part with a crunchy synth. By hitting random notes in the key of G, then edited a few of them. For the climax of the song, filled out the texture with a gentle high-pitch pad… …and a grungy bass synth. The arrow at A points at the pattern order list. As you see, the patterns don't have to be in numerical order. This song starts with pattern "00", then pattern "02", then "03", then "01", etcetera. Patterns may be repeated throughout a song. The B arrow points at the song title. Below it are the global BPM and speed parameters. These determine the tempo of the song, unless the tempo is altered through effect commands during the song. The C arrow points at the list of instruments. An instrument may consist of multiple samples. Which sample will be played depends on the note. This can be set in the Instrument Editing screen. Most instruments will consist of just one sample, though. The sample list for the selected instrument can be found under arrow D. Here's a part of the main editing screen. This is where you put in actual notes. Up to 32 channels can be used, meaning 32 sounds can play simultaneously. The first six channels of pattern "03" at order "02" are shown here. The arrow at A points at the row number. The B arrow points at the note to play, in this case a C4. The column pointed at by the C arrow tells us which instrument is associated with that note, in this case instrument #1 "Kick". The column at D is used (mainly) for volume commands. In this case it is left empty which means the instrument should play at its default volume. You can see the volume column being used in channel #6. The E column tells us which effect to use and any parameters for that effect. In this case it holds the "F" effect, which is a tempo command. The "04" means it should play at tempo 4 (a smaller number means faster). Base pattern When I create a new track I start with what I call the base pattern. It is worthwhile to spend some time polishing it as a lot of the ideas in the base pattern will be copied and used in other patterns. At least, that's how I work. Every musician will have his own way of working. In "Wild Bunnies" the base pattern is pattern "03" at order "02". In the section about selecting samples I talked about the four different categories of instruments: drums, bass, chords and leads. That's also how I usually go about making the base pattern. I start by making a drum pattern, then add a bass line, place some chords and top it off with a lead. This forms the base pattern from which the rest of the song will grow. Drums Here's a screenshot of the first four rows of the base pattern. I usually reserve the first four channels or so for the drum instruments. Right away there are a couple of tricks shown here. In the first channel the kick, or bass drum, plays some notes. Note the alternating F04 and F02 commands. The "F" command alters the tempo of the song and by quickly alternating the tempo; the song will get some kind of "swing" feel. In the second channel the closed hi-hat plays a fairly simple pattern. Further down in the channel, not shown here, some open hi-hat notes are added for a bit of variation. In the third and fourth channel the snare sample plays. The "8" command is for panning. One note is panned hard to the left and the other hard to the right. One sample is played a semitone lower than the other. This results in a cool flanging effect. It makes the snare stand out a little more in the mix. Bass line There are two different instruments used for the bass line. Instrument #6 is a pretty standard synthesized bass sound. Instrument #A sounds a bit like a slap bass when used with a quick fade out. By using two different instruments the bass line sounds a bit more ”human”. The volume command is used to cut off the notes. However, it is never set to zero. Setting the volume to a very small value will result in a reverb-like effect. This makes the song sound more "live". The bass line hints at the chords that will be played and the key the song will be in. In this case the key of the song is D-major, a positive and happy key. Chords The D major chords that are being played here are chords stabs; short sounds with a quick decay (fade out). Two different instruments (#8 and #9) are used to form the chords. These instruments are quite similar, but have a slightly different sound, panning and volume decay. Again, the reason for this is to make the sound more human. The volume command is used on some chords to simulate a delay, to achieve more of a live feel. The chords are placed off-beat making for a funky rhythm. Lead Finally the lead melody is added. The other instruments are invaluable in holding the track together, but the lead melody is usually what catches people's attention. A lot of notes and commands are used here, but it looks more complex than it is. A stepwise ascending melody plays in channel 13. Channel 14 and 15 copy this melody, but play it a few rows later at a lower volume. This creates an echo effect. A bit of panning is used on the notes to create some stereo depth. Like with the bass line, instead of cutting off notes the volume is set to low values for a reverb effect. The "461" effect adds a little vibrato to the note, which sounds nice on sustained notes. Those paying close attention may notice the instrument used here for the lead melody is the same as the one used for the bass line (#6 "Square"), except played two or three octaves higher. This instrument is a looped square wave sample. Each type of wave has its own quirks, but the square wave (shown below) is a really versatile wave form. Song structure Good, catchy songs are often carefully structured into sections, some of which are repeated throughout the song with small variations. A typical pop-song structure is: Intro - Verse - Chorus - Verse - Chorus - Bridge - Chorus. Other single sectional song structures are <pre> Strophic or AAA Song Form - oldest story telling with refrain (often title of the song) repeated in every verse section melody AABA Song Form - early popular, jazz and gospel fading during the 1960s AB or Verse/Chorus Song Form - songwriting format of choice for modern popular music since the 1960s Verse/Chorus/Bridge Song Form ABAB Song Form ABAC Song Form ABCD Song Form AAB 12-Bar Song Form - three four-bar lines or sub-sections 8-Bar Song Form 16-Bar Song Form Hybrid / Compound Song Forms </pre> The most common building blocks are: #INTRODUCTION(INTRO) #VERSE #REFRAIN #PRE-CHORUS / RISE / CLIMB #CHORUS #BRIDGE #MIDDLE EIGHT #SOLO / INSTRUMENTAL BREAK #COLLISION #CODA / OUTRO #AD LIB (OFTEN IN CODA / OUTRO) The chorus usually has more energy than the verse and often has a memorable melody line. As the chorus is repeated the most often during the song, it will be the part that people will remember. The bridge often marks a change of direction in the song. It is not uncommon to change keys in the bridge, or at least to use a different chord sequence. The bridge is used to build up tension towards the big finale, the last repetition of chorus. Playing RCTRL: Play song from row 0. LSHIFT + RCTRL: Play song from current row. RALT: Play pattern from row 0. LSHIFT + RALT: Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on '>': Play song from row 0. Right mouse on '>': Play song from current row. Left mouse on '|>': Play pattern from row 0. Right mouse on '|>': Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on 'Edit/Record': Edit mode on/off. Right mouse on 'Edit/Record': Record mode on/off. Editing LSHIFT + ESCAPE: Switch large patterns view on/off TAB: Go to next track LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. track LCTRL + TAB: Go to next note in track LCTRL + LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. note in track SPACE: Toggle Edit mode On & Off (Also stop if the song is being played) SHIFT SPACE: Toggle Record mode On & Off (Wait for a key note to be pressed or a midi in message to be received) DOWN ARROW: 1 Line down UP ARROW: 1 Line up LEFT ARROW: 1 Row left RIGHT ARROW: 1 Row right PREV. PAGE: 16 Arrows Up NEXT PAGE: 16 Arrows Down HOME / END: Top left / Bottom right of pattern LCTRL + HOME / END: First / last track F5, F6, F7, F8, F9: Jump to 0, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 lines of the patterns + - (Numeric keypad): Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous position LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous instrument LSHIFT + M: Toggle mute state of the current channel LCTRL + LSHIFT + M: Solo the current track / Unmute all LSHIFT + F1 to F11: Select a tab/panel LCTRL + 1 to 4: Select a copy buffer Tracking 1st and 2nd keys rows: Upper octave row 3rd and 4th keys rows: Lower octave row RSHIFT: Insert a note off / and * (Numeric keypad) or F1 F2: -1 or +1 octave INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current track or current selected block. LSHIFT + INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current pattern DELETE (NOT BACKSPACE): Empty a column or a selected block. Blocks (Blocks can also be selected with the mouse by holding the right button and scrolling the pattern with the mouse wheel). LCTRL + A: Select entire current track LCTRL + LSHIFT + A: Select entire current pattern LALT + A: Select entire column note in a track LALT + LSHIFT + A: Select all notes of a track LCTRL + X: Cut the selected block and copy it into the block-buffer LCTRL + C: Copy the selected block into the block-buffer LCTRL + V: Paste the data from the block buffer into the pattern LCTRL + I: Interpolate selected data from the first to the last row of a selection LSHIFT + ARROWS PREV. PAGE NEXT PAGE: Select a block LCTRL + R: Randomize the select columns of a selection, works similar to CTRL + I (interpolating them) LCTRL + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher LCTRL + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher LCTRL + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + W: Save the current selection into a file Misc LALT + ENTER: Switch between full screen / windowed mode LALT + F4: Exit program (Windows only) LCTRL + S: Save current module LSHIFT + S: Switch top right panel to synths list LSHIFT + I: Switch top right panel to instruments list <pre> C-x xh xx xx hhhh Volume B-x xh xx xx hhhh Jump to A#x xh xx xx hhhh hhhh Slide F-x xh xx xx hhhh Tempo D-x xh xx xx hhhh Pattern Break G#x xh xx xx hhhh </pre> h Hex 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 d Dec 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 The Set Volume command: C. Input a note, then move the cursor to the effects command column and type a C. Play the pattern, and you shouldn't be able to hear the note you placed the C by. This is because the effect parameters are 00. Change the two zeros to a 40(Hex)/64(Dec), depending on what your tracker uses. Play back the pattern again, and the note should come in at full volume. The Position Jump command next. This is just a B followed by the position in the playing list that you want to jump to. One thing to remember is that the playing list always starts at 0, not 1. This command is usually in Hex. Onto the volume slide command: A. This is slightly more complex (much more if you're using a newer tracker, if you want to achieve the results here, then set slides to Amiga, not linear), due to the fact it depends on the secondary tempo. For now set a secondary tempo of 06 (you can play around later), load a long or looped sample and input a note or two. A few rows after a note type in the effect command A. For the parameters use 0F. Play back the pattern, and you should notice that when the effect kicks in, the sample drops to a very low volume very quickly. Change the effect parameters to F0, and use a low volume command on the note. Play back the pattern, and when the slide kicks in the volume of the note should increase very quickly. This because each part of the effect parameters for command A does a different thing. The first number slides the volume up, and the second slides it down. It's not recommended that you use both a volume up and volume down at the same time, due to the fact the tracker only looks for the first number that isn't set to 0. If you specify parameters of 8F, the tracker will see the 8, ignore the F, and slide the volume up. Using a slide up and down at same time just makes you look stupid. Don't do it... The Set Tempo command: F, is pretty easy to understand. You simply specify the BPM (in Hex) that you want to change to. One important thing to note is that values of lower than 20 (Hex) sets the secondary tempo rather than the primary. Another useful command is the Pattern Break: D. This will stop the playing of the current pattern and skip to the next one in the playing list. By using parameters of more than 00 you can also specify which line to begin playing from. Command 3 is Portamento to Note. This slides the currently playing note to another note, at a specified speed. The slide then stops when it reaches the desired note. <pre> C-2 1 000 - Starts the note playing --- 000 C-3 330 - Starts the slide to C-3 at a speed of 30. --- 300 - Continues the slide --- 300 - Continues the slide </pre> Once the parameters have been set, the command can be input again without any parameters, and it'll still perform the same function unless you change the parameters. This memory function allows certain commands to function correctly, such as command 5, which is the Portamento to Note and Volume Slide command. Once command 3 has been set up command 5 will simply take the parameters from that and perform a Portamento to Note. Any parameters set up for command 5 itself simply perform a Volume Slide identical to command A at the same time as the Portamento to Note. This memory function will only operate in the same channel where the original parameters were set up. There are various other commands which perform two functions at once. They will be described as we come across them. C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 02 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 05 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 08 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0A C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0D C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 (You can also switch on the Slider Rec to On, and perform parameter-live-recording, such as cutoff transitions, resonance or panning tweaking, etc..) Note: this command only works for volume/panning and fx datas columns. The next command we'll look at is the Portamento up/down: 1 and 2. Command 1 slides the pitch up at a specified speed, and 2 slides it down. This command works in a similar way to the volume slide, in that it is dependent on the secondary tempo. Both these commands have a memory dependent on each other, if you set the slide to a speed of 3 with the 1 command, a 2 command with no parameters will use the speed of 3 from the 1 command, and vice versa. Command 4 is Vibrato. Vibrato is basically rapid changes in pitch, just try it, and you'll see what I mean. Parameters are in the format of xy, where x is the speed of the slide, and y is the depth of the slide. One important point to remember is to keep your vibratos subtle and natural so a depth of 3 or less and a reasonably fast speed, around 8, is usually used. Setting the depth too high can make the part sound out of tune from the rest. Following on from command 4 is command 6. This is the Vibrato and Volume Slide command, and it has a memory like command 5, which you already know how to use. Command 7 is Tremolo. This is similar to vibrato. Rather than changing the pitch it slides the volume. The effect parameters are in exactly the same format. vibrato effect (0x1dxy) x = speed y = depth (can't be used if arpeggio (0x1b) is turned on) <pre> C-7 00 .. .. 1B37 <- Turn Arpeggio effect on --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B38 <- Change datas --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B00 <- Turn it off </pre> Command 9 is Sample Offset. This starts the playback of the sample from a different place than the start. The effect parameters specify the sample offset, but only very roughly. Say you have a sample which is 8765(Hex) bytes long, and you wanted it to play from position 4321(Hex). The effect parameter could only be as accurate as the 43 part, and it would ignore the 21. Command B is the Playing List/Order Jump command. The parameters specify the position in the Playing List/Order to jump to. When used in conjunction with command D you can specify the position and the line to play from. Command E is pretty complex, as it is used for a lot of different things, depending on what the first parameter is. Let's take a trip through each effect in order. Command E0 controls the hardware filter on an Amiga, which, as a low pass filter, cuts off the highest frequencies being played back. There are very few players and trackers on other system that simulate this function, not that you should need to use it. The second parameter, if set to 1, turns on the filter. If set to 0, the filter gets turned off. Commands E1/E2 are Fine Portamento Up/Down. Exactly the same functions as commands 1/2, except that they only slide the pitch by a very small amount. These commands have a memory the same as 1/2 as well. Command E3 sets the Glissando control. If parameters are set to 1 then when using command 3, any sliding will only use the notes in between the original note and the note being slid to. This produces a somewhat jumpier slide than usual. The best way to understand is to try it out for yourself. Produce a slow slide with command 3, listen to it, and then try using E31. Command E4 is the Set Vibrato Waveform control. This command controls how the vibrato command slides the pitch. Parameters are 0 - Sine, 1 - Ramp Down (Saw), 2 - Square. By adding 4 to the parameters, the waveform will not be restarted when a new note is played e.g. 5 - Sine without restart. Command E5 sets the Fine Tune of the instrument being played, but only for the particular note being played. It will override the default Fine Tune for the instrument. The parameters range from 0 to F, with 0 being -8 and F being +8 Fine Tune. A parameter of 8 gives no Fine Tune. If you're using a newer tracker that supports more than -8 to +8 e.g. -128 to +128, these parameters will give a rough Fine Tune, accurate to the nearest 16. Command E6 is the Jump Loop command. You mark the beginning of the part of a pattern that you want to loop with E60, and then specify with E6x the end of the loop, where x is the number of times you want it to loop. Command E7 is the Set Tremolo Waveform control. This has exactly the same parameters as command E4, except that it works for Tremolo rather than Vibrato. Command E9 is for Retriggering the note quickly. The parameter specifies the interval between the retrigs. Use a value of less than the current secondary tempo, or else the note will not get retrigged. Command EA/B are for Fine Volume Slide Up/Down. Much the same as the normal Volume Slides, except that these are easier to control since they don't depend on the secondary tempo. The parameters specify the amount to slide by e.g. if you have a sample playing at a volume of 08 (Hex) then the effect EA1 will slide this volume to 09 (Hex). A subsequent effect of EB4 would slide this volume down to 05 (Hex). Command EC is the Note Cut. This sets the volume of the currently playing note to 0 at a specified tick. The parameters should be lower than the secondary tempo or else the effect won't work. Command ED is the Note Delay. This should be used at the same time as a note is to be played, and the parameters will specify the number of ticks to delay playing the note. Again, keep the parameters lower than the secondary tempo, or the note won't get played! Command EE is the Pattern Delay. This delays the pattern for the amount of time it would take to play a certain number of rows. The parameters specify how many rows to delay for. Command EF is the Funk Repeat command. Set the sample loop to 0-1000. When EFx is used, the loop will be moved to 1000- 2000, then to 2000-3000 etc. After 9000-10000 the loop is set back to 0- 1000. The speed of the loop "movement" is defined by x. E is two times as slow as F, D is three times as slow as F etc. EF0 will turn the Funk Repeat off and reset the loop (to 0-1000). effects 0x41 and 0x42 to control the volumes of the 2 303 units There is a dedicated panel for synth parameter editing with coherent sections (osc, filter modulation, routing, so on) the interface is much nicer, much better to navigate with customizable colors, the reverb is now customizable (10 delay lines), It accepts newer types of Waves (higher bit rates, at least 24). Has a replay routine. It's pretty much your basic VA synth. The problem isn't with the sampler being to high it's the synth is tuned two octaves too low, but if you want your samples tuned down just set the base note down 2 octaves (in the instrument panel). so the synth is basically divided into 3 sections from left to right: oscillators/envelopes, then filter and LFO's, and in the right column you have mod routings and global settings. for the oscillator section you have two normal oscillators (sine, saw, square, noise), the second of which is tunable, the first one tunes with the key pressed. Attached to OSC 1 is a sub-oscillator, which is a sawtooth wave tuned one octave down. The phase modulation controls the point in the duty cycle at which the oscillator starts. The ADSR envelope sliders (grouped with oscs) are for modulation envelope 1 and 2 respectively. you can use the synth as a sampler by choosing the instrument at the top. In the filter column, the filter settings are: 1 = lowpass, 2 = highpass, 3 = off. cutoff and resonance. For the LFOs they are LFO 1 and LFO 2, the ADSR sliders in those are for the LFO itself. For the modulation routings you have ENV 1, LFO 1 for the first slider and ENV 2, LFO 2 for the second, you can cycle through the individual routings there, and you can route each modulation source to multiple destinations of course, which is another big plus for this synth. Finally the glide time is for portamento and master volume, well, the master volume... it can go quite loud. The sequencer is changed too, It's more like the one in AXS if you've used that, where you can mute tracks to re-use patterns with variation. <pre> Support for the following modules formats: 669 (Composer 669, Unis 669), AMF (DSMI Advanced Module Format), AMF (ASYLUM Music Format V1.0), APUN (APlayer), DSM (DSIK internal format), FAR (Farandole Composer), GDM (General DigiMusic), IT (Impulse Tracker), IMF (Imago Orpheus), MOD (15 and 31 instruments), MED (OctaMED), MTM (MultiTracker Module editor), OKT (Amiga Oktalyzer), S3M (Scream Tracker 3), STM (Scream Tracker), STX (Scream Tracker Music Interface Kit), ULT (UltraTracker), UNI (MikMod), XM (FastTracker 2), Mid (midi format via timidity) </pre> Possible plugin options include [http://lv2plug.in/ LV2], ====Midi - Musical Instrument Digital Interface==== A midi file typically contains music that plays on up to 16 channels (as per the midi standard), but many notes can simultaneously play on each channel (depending on the limit of the midi hardware playing it). '''Timidity''' Although usually already installed, you can uncompress the [http://www.libsdl.org/projects/SDL_mixer/ timidity.tar.gz (14MB)] into a suitable drawer like below's SYS:Extras/Audio/ assign timidity: SYS:Extras/Audio/timidity added to SYSːs/User-Startup '''WildMidi playback''' '''Audio Evolution 4 (2003) 4.0.23 (from 2012)''' *Sync Menu - CAMD Receive, Send checked *Options Menu - MIDI Machine Control - Midi Bar Display - Select CAMD MIDI in / out - Midi Remote Setup MCB Master Control Bus *Sending a MIDI start-command and a Song Position Pointer, you can synchronize audio with an external MIDI sequencer (like B&P). *B&P Receive, start AE, add AudioEvolution.ptool in Bars&Pipes track, press play / record in AE then press play in Pipes *CAMD Receive, receive MIDI start or continue commands via camd.library sync to AE *MIDI Machine Control *Midi Bar Display *Select CAMD MIDI in / out *Midi Remote Setup - open requester for external MIDI controllers to control app mixer and transport controls cc remotely Channel - mixer(vol, pan, mute, solo), eq, aux, fx, Subgroup - Volume, Mute, Solo Transport - Start, End, Play, Stop, Record, Rewind, Forward Misc - Master vol., Bank Down, Bank up <pre> q - quit First 3 already opened when AE started F1 - timeline window F2 - mixer F3 - control F4 - subgroups F5 - aux returns F6 - sample list i - Load sample to use space - start/stop play b - reset time 0:00 s - split mode r - open recording window a - automation edit mode with p panning, m mute and v volume [ / ] - zoom in / out : - previous track * - next track x c v f - cut copy paste cross-fade g - snap grid </pre> '''[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars n Pipes sequencer]''' BarsnPipes debug ... in shell Menu (right mouse) *Song - Songs load and save in .song format but option here to load/save Midi_Files .mid in FORMAT0 or FORMAT1 *Track - *Edit - *Tool - *Timing - SMTPE Synchronizing *Windows - *Preferences - Multiple MIDI-in option Windows (some of these are usually already opened when Bars n Pipes starts up for the first time) *Workflow -> Tracks, .... Song Construction, Time-line Scoring, Media Madness, Mix Maestro, *Control -> Transport (or mini one), Windows (which collects all the Windows icons together-shortcut), .... Toolbox, Accessories, Metronome, Once you have your windows placed on the screen that suits your workflow, Song -> Save as Default will save the positions, colors, icons, etc as you'd like them If you need a particular setup of Tracks, Tools, Tempos etc, you save them all as a new song you can load each time Right mouse menu -> Preferences -> Environment... -> ScreenMode - Linkages for Synch (to Slave) usbmidi.out.0 and Send (Master) usbmidi.in.0 - Clock MTC '''Tracks''' #Double-click on B&P's icon. B&P will then open with an empty Song. You can also double-click on a song icon to open a song in B&P. #Choose a track. The B&P screen will contain a Tracks Window with a number of tracks shown as pipelines (Track 1, Track 2, etc...). To choose a track, simply click on the gray box to show an arrow-icon to highlight it. This icon show whether a track is chosen or not. To the right of the arrow-icon, you can see the icon for the midi-input. If you double-click on this icon you can change the MIDI-in setup. #Choose Record for the track. To the right of the MIDI-input channel icon you can see a pipe. This leads to another clickable icon with that shows either P, R or M. This stands for Play, Record or Merge. To change the icon, simply click on it. If you choose P, this track can only play the track (you can't record anything). If you choose R, you can record what you play and it overwrites old stuff in the track. If you choose M, you merge new records with old stuff in the track. Choose R now to be able to make a record. #Chose MIDI-channel. On the most right part of the track you can see an icon with a number in it. This is the MIDI-channel selector. Here you must choose a MIDI-channel that is available on your synthesizer/keyboard. If you choose General MIDI channel 10, most synthesizer will play drum sounds. To the left of this icon is the MIDI-output icon. Double-click on this icon to change the MIDI-output configuration. #Start recording. The next step is to start recording. You must then find the control buttons (they look like buttons on a CD-player). To be able to make a record. you must click on the R icon. You can simply now press the play button (after you have pressed the R button) and play something on you keyboard. To playback your composition, press the Play button on the control panel. #Edit track. To edit a track, you simply double click in the middle part of a track. You will then get a new window containing the track, where you can change what you have recorded using tools provided. Take also a look in the drop-down menus for more features. Videos to help understand [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6gVTX-9900 small intro], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4&t=3s Overview], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixOVutKsYQo Workplace Setup CC PC Sysex], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDnJLYPaZTs Import Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BC3kkzPLkv4 Tempo Mapping], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd23kqMYPDs ptool Arpeggi-8], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDJq-YxgwQg PlayMidi Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DY9Pu5P9TaU Amiga Midi], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4 Learning Amiga bars and Pipes], Groups like [https://groups.io/g/barsnpipes/topics this] could help '''Tracks window''' * blue "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Group" and transport tape deck VCR-type controls * Flags * [http://theproblem.alco-rhythm.com/org/bp.html Track 1, Track2, to Track 16, on each Track there are many options that can be activated] Each Track has a *Left LHS - Click in grey box to select what Track to work on, Midi-In ptool icon should be here (5pin plug icon), and many more from the Toolbox on the Input Pipeline *Middle - (P, R, M) Play, Record, Merge/Multi before the sequencer line and a blue/red/yellow (Thru Mute Play) Tap *Right RHS - Output pipeline, can have icons placed uopn it with the final ptool icon(s) being the 5pin icon symbol for Midi-OUT Clogged pipelines may need Esc pressed several times '''Toolbox (tools affect the chosen pipeline)''' After opening the Toolbox window you can add extra Tools (.ptool) for the pipelines like keyboard(virtual), midimonitor, quick patch, transpose, triad, (un)quantize, feedback in/out, velocity etc right mouse -> Toolbox menu option -> Install Tool... and navigate to Tool drawer (folder) and select requried .ptool Accompany B tool to get some sort of rythmic accompaniment, Rythm Section and Groove Quantize are examples of other tools that make use of rythms [https://aminet.net/search?query=bars Bars & Pipes pattern format .ptrn] for drawer (folder). Load from the Menu as Track or Group '''Accessories (affect the whole app)''' Accessories -> Install... and goto the Accessories drawer for .paccess like adding ARexx scripting support '''Song Construction''' <pre> F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Duplicator F5 Eraser F6 Toolpad F7 Bounding box F8 Lock to A-B-A A-B-A strip, section, edit flags, white boxes, </pre> Bars&Pipes Professional offers three track formats; basic song tracks, linear tracks — which don't loop — and finally real‑time tracks. The difference between them is that both song and linear tracks respond to tempo changes, while real‑time tracks use absolute timing, always trigger at the same instant regardless of tempo alterations '''Tempo Map''' F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Eraser F5 Curve F6 Toolpad Compositions Lyrics, Key, Rhythm, Time Signature '''Master Parameters''' Key, Scale/Mode '''Track Parameters''' Dynamics '''Time-line Scoring''' '''Media Madness''' '''Mix Maestro''' *ACCESSORIES Allows the importation of other packages and additional modules *CLIPBOARD Full cut, copy and paste operations, enabling user‑definable clips to be shared between tracks. *INFORMATION A complete rundown on the state of the current production and your machine. *MASTER PARAMETERS Enables global definition of time signatures, lyrics, scales, chords, dynamics and rhythm changes. *MEDIA MADNESS A complete multimedia sequencer which allows samples, stills, animation, etc *METRONOME Tempo feedback via MIDI, internal Amiga audio and colour cycling — all three can be mixed and matched as required. *MIX MAESTRO Completely automated mixdown with control for both volume and pan. All fader alterations are memorised by the software *RECORD ACTIVATION Complete specification of the data to be recorded/merged. Allows overdubbing of pitch‑bend, program changes, modulation etc *SET FLAGS Numeric positioning of location and edit flags in either SMPTE or musical time *SONG CONSTRUCTION Large‑scale cut and paste of individual measures, verses or chorus, by means of bounding box and drag‑n‑drop mouse selections *TEMPO MAP Tempo change using a variety of linear and non‑linear transition curves *TEMPO PALETTE Instant tempo changes courtesy of four user‑definable settings. *TIMELINE SCORING Sequencing of a selection of songs over a defined period — ideal for planning an entire set for a live performance. *TOOLBOX Selection screen for the hundreds of signal‑processing tools available *TRACKS Opens the main track window to enable recording, editing and the use of tools. *TRANSPORT Main playback control window, which also provides access to user‑ defined flags, loop and punch‑in record modes. Bars and Pipes Pro 2.5 is using internal 4-Byte IDs, to check which kind of data are currently processed. Especially in all its files the IDs play an important role. The IDs are stored into the file in the same order they are laid out in the memory. In a Bars 'N' Pipes file (no matter which kind) the ID "NAME" (saved as its ANSI-values) is stored on a big endian system (68k-computer) as "NAME". On a little endian system (x86 PC computer) as "EMAN". The target is to make the AROS-BnP compatible to songs, which were stored on a 68k computer (AMIGA). If possible, setting MIDI channels for Local Control for your keyboard http://www.fromwithin.com/liquidmidi/archive.shtml MIDI files are essentially a stream of event data. An event can be many things, but typically "note on", "note off", "program change", "controller change", or messages that instruct a MIDI compatible synth how to play a given bit of music. * Channel - 1 to 16 - * Messages - PC presets, CC effects like delays, reverbs, etc * Sequencing - MIDI instruments, Drums, Sound design, * Recording - * GUI - Piano roll or Tracker, Staves and Notes MIDI events/messages like step entry e.g. Note On, Note Off MIDI events/messages like PB, PC, CC, Mono and Poly After-Touch, Sysex, etc MIDI sync - Midi Clocks (SPS Measures), Midi Time Code (h, m, s and frames) SMPTE Individual track editing with audition edits so easier to test any changes. Possible to stop track playback, mix clips from the right edit flag and scroll the display using arrow keys. Step entry, to extend a selected note hit the space bar and the note grows accordingly. Ability to cancel mouse‑driven edits by simply clicking the right mouse button — at which point everything snaps back into its original form. Lyrics can now be put in with syllable dividers, even across an entire measure or section. Autoranging when you open a edit window, the notes are automatically displayed — working from the lowest upwards. Flag editing, shift‑click on a flag immediately open the bounds window, ready for numeric input. Ability to cancel edits using the right‑hand mouse button, plus much improved Bounding Box operations. Icons other than the BarsnPipes icon -> PUBSCREEN=BarsnPipes (cannot choose modes higher than 8bit 256 colors) Preferences -> Menu in Tracks window - Send MIDI defaults OFF Prefs -> Environment -> screenmode (saved to BarsnPipes.prefs binary file) Customization -> pics in gui drawer (folder) - Can save as .song files and .mid General Midi SMF is a “Standard Midi File” ([http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~ich/classes/mumt306/StandardMIDIfileformat.html SMF0, SMF1 and SMF2]), [https://github.com/stump/libsmf libsmf], [https://github.com/markc/midicomp MIDIcomp], [https://github.com/MajicDesigns/MD_MIDIFile C++ src], [], [https://github.com/newdigate/midi-smf-reader Midi player], * SMF0 All MIDI data is stored in one track only, separated exclusively by the MIDI channel. * SMF1 The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks/channels. * SMF2 (rarely used) The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks, which are additionally wrapped in containers, so it's possible to have e.g. several tracks using the same MIDI channels. Would it be possible to enrich Bars N’Pipes with software synth and sample support along with audio recording and mastering tools like in the named MAC or PC music sequencers? On the classic AMIGA-OS this is not possible because of missing CPU-power. The hardware of the classic AMIGA is not further developed. So we must say (unfortunately) that those dreams can’t become reality BarsnPipes is best used with external MIDI-equipment. This can be a keyboard or synthesizer with MIDI-connectors. <pre> MIDI can control 16 channels There are USB-MIDI-Interfaces on the market with 16 independent MIDI-lines (multi-port), which can handle 16 MIDI devices independently – 16×16 = 256 independent MIDI-channels or instruments handle up to 16 different USB-MIDI-Interfaces (multi-device). That is: 16X16X16 = 4096 independent MIDI-channels – theoretically </pre> <pre> Librarian MIDI SYStem EXplorer (sysex) - PatchEditor and used to be supplied as a separate program like PatchMeister but currently not at present It should support MIDI.library (PD), BlueRibbon.library (B&P), TriplePlayPlus, and CAMD.library (DeluxeMusic) and MIDI information from a device's user manual and configure a custom interface to access parameters for all MIDI products connected to the system Supports ALL MIDI events and the Patch/Librarian data is stored in MIDI standard format Annette M.Crowling, Missing Link Software, Inc. </pre> Composers <pre> [https://x.com/hirasawa/status/1403686519899054086 Susumu Hirasawa] </pre> <pre> 1988 Todor Fay and his wife Melissa Jordan Gray, who founded the Blue Ribbon Inc 1992 Bars&Pipes Pro published November 2000, Todor Fay announcement to release the sourcecode of Bars&Pipes Pro 2.5c beta end of May 2001, the source of the main program and the sources of some tools and accessories were in a complete and compileable state end of October 2009 stop further development of BarsnPipes New for now on all supported systems and made freeware 2013 Alfred Faust diagnosed with incureable illness, called „Myastenia gravis“ (weak muscles) </pre> Protrekkr How to use Midi In/Out in Protrekkr ? First of all, midi in & out capabilities of this program are rather limited. # Go to Misc. Setup section and select a midi in or out device to use (ptk only supports one device at a time). # Go to instrument section, and select a MIDI PRG (the default is N/A, which means no midi program selected). # Go to track section and here you can assign a midi channel to each track of ptk. # Play notes :]. Note off works. F'x' note cut command also works too, and note-volume command (speed) is supported. Also, you can change midicontrollers in the tracker, using '90' in the panning row: <pre> C-3 02 .. .. 0000.... --- .. .. 90 xxyy.... << This will set the value --- .. .. .. 0000.... of the controller n.'xx' to 'yy' (both in hex) --- .. .. .. 0000.... </pre> So "--- .. .. 90 2040...." will set the controller number $20(32) to $40(64). You will need the midi implementation table of your gear to know what you can change with midi controller messages. N.B. Not all MIDI devices are created equal! Although the MIDI specification defines a large range of MIDI messages of various kinds, not every MIDI device is required to work in exactly the same way and respond to all the available messages and ways of working. For example, we don't expect a wind synthesiser to work in the same way as a home keyboard. Some devices, the older ones perhaps, are only able to respond to a single channel. With some of those devices that channel can be altered from the default of 1 (probably) to another channel of the 16 possible. Other devices, for instance monophonic synthesisers, are capable of producing just one note at a time, on one MIDI channel. Others can produce many notes spread across many channels. Further devices can respond to, and transmit, "breath controller" data (MIDI controller number 2 (CC#2)) others may respond to the reception of CC#2 but not be able to create and to send it. A controller keyboard may be capable of sending "expression pedal" data, but another device may not be capable of responding to that message. Some devices just have the basic GM sound set. The "voice" or "instrument" is selected using a "Program Change" message on its own. Other devices have a greater selection of voices, usually arranged in "banks", and the choice of instrument is made by responding to "Bank Select MSB" (MIDI controller 0 (CC#0)), others use "Bank Select LSB" (MIDI controller number 32 (CC#32)), yet others use both MSB and LSB sent one after the other, all followed by the Program Change message. The detailed information about all the different voices will usually be available in a published MIDI Data List. MIDI Implementation Chart But in the User Manual there is sometimes a summary of how the device works, in terms of MIDI, in the chart at the back of the manual, the MIDI Implementation Chart. If you require two devices to work together you can compare the two implementation charts to see if they are "compatible". In order to do this we will need to interpret that chart. The chart is divided into four columns headed "Function", "Transmitted" (or "Tx"), "Received" (or "Rx"), or more correctly "Recognised", and finally, "Remarks". <pre> The left hand column defines which MIDI functions are being described. The 2nd column defines what the device in question is capable of transmitting to another device. The 3rd column defines what the device is capable of responding to. The 4th column is for explanations of the values contained within these previous two columns. </pre> There should then be twelve sections, with possibly a thirteenth containing extra "Notes". Finally there should be an explanation of the four MIDI "modes" and what the "X" and the "O" mean. <pre> Mode 1: Omni On, Poly; Mode 2: Omni On, Mono; Mode 3: Omni Off, Poly; Mode 4: Omni Off, Mono. </pre> O means "yes" (implemented), X means "no" (not implemented). Sometimes you will find a row of asterisks "**************", these seem to indicate that the data is not applicable in this case. Seen in the transmitted field only (unless you've seen otherwise). Lastly you may find against some entries an asterisk followed by a number e.g. *1, these will refer you to further information, often on a following page, giving more detail. Basic Channel But the very first set of boxes will tell us the "Basic Channel(s)" that the device sends or receives on. "Default" is what happens when the device is first turned on, "changed" is what a switch of some kind may allow the device to be set to. For many devices e.g. a GM sound module or a home keyboard, this would be 1-16 for both. That is it can handle sending and receiving on all MIDI channels. On other devices, for example a synthesiser, it may by default only work on channel 1. But the keyboard could be "split" with the lower notes e.g. on channel 2. If the synth has an arppegiator, this may be able to be set to transmit and or receive on yet another channel. So we might see the default as "1" but the changed as "1-16". Modes. We need to understand Omni On and Off, and Mono and Poly, then we can decipher the four modes. But first we need to understand that any of these four Mode messages can be sent to any MIDI channel. They don't necessarily apply to the whole device. If we send an "Omni On" message (CC#125) to a MIDI channel of a device, we are, in effect, asking it to respond to e.g. a Note On / Off message pair, received on any of the sixteen channels. Sound strange? Read it again. Still strange? It certainly is. We normally want a MIDI channel to respond only to Note On / Off messages sent on that channel, not any other. In other words, "Omni Off". So "Omni Off" (CC#124) tells a channel of our MIDI device to respond only to messages sent on that MIDI channel. "Poly" (CC#127) is for e.g. a channel of a polyphonic sound module, or a home keyboard, to be able to respond to many simultaneous Note On / Off message pairs at once and produce musical chords. "Mono" (CC#126) allows us to set a channel to respond as if it were e.g. a flute or a trumpet, playing just one note at a time. If the device is capable of it, then the overlapping of notes will produce legato playing, that is the attack portion of the second note of two overlapping notes will be removed resulting in a "smoother" transition. So a channel with a piano voice assigned to it will have Omni Off, Poly On (Mode 3), a channel with a saxophone voice assigned could be Omni Off, Mono On (Mode 4). We call these combinations the four modes, 1 to 4, as defined above. Most modern devices will have their channels set to Mode 3 (Omni Off, Poly) but be switchable, on a per channel basis, to Mode 4 (Omni Off, Mono). This second section of data will include first its default value i.e. upon device switch on. Then what Mode messages are acceptable, or X if none. Finally, in the "Altered" field, how a Mode message that can't be implemented will be interpreted. Usually there will just be a row of asterisks effectively meaning nothing will be done if you try to switch to an unimplemented mode. Note Number <pre> The next row will tell us which MIDI notes the device can send or receive, normally 0-127. The second line, "True Voice" has the following in the MIDI specification: "Range of received note numbers falling within the range of true notes produced by the instrument." My interpretation is that, for instance, a MIDI piano may be capable of sending all MIDI notes (0 to 127) by transposition, but only responding to the 88 notes (21 to 108) of a real piano. </pre> Velocity This will tell us whether the device we're looking at will handle note velocity, and what range from 1-127, or maybe just 64, it transmits or will recognise. So usually "O" plus a range or "X" for not implemented. After touch This may have one or two lines two it. If a one liner the either "O" or "X", yes or no. If a two liner then it may include "Keys" or "Poly" and "Channel". This will show whether the device will respond to Polyphonic after touch or channel after touch or neither. Pitch Bend Again "O" for implemented, "X" for not implemented. (Many stage pianos will have no pitch bend capability.) It may also, in the notes section, state whether it will respond to the full 14 bits, or not, as usually encoded by the pitch bend wheel. Control Change This is likely to be the largest section of the chart. It will list all those controllers, starting from CC#0, Bank Select MSB, which the device is capable of sending, and those that it will respond to using "O" or "X" respectively. You will, almost certainly, get some further explanation of functionality in the remarks column, or in more detail elsewhere in the documentation. Of course you will need to know what all the various controller numbers do. Lots of the official technical specifications can be found at the [www.midi.org/techspecs/ MMA], with the table of messages and control change [www.midi.org/techspecs/midimessages.php message numbers] Program Change Again "O" or "X" in the Transmitted or Recognised column to indicate whether or not the feature is implemented. In addition a range of numbers is shown, typically 0-127, to show what is available. True # (number): "The range of the program change numbers which correspond to the actual number of patches selected." System Exclusive Used to indicate whether or not the device can send or recognise System Exclusive messages. A short description is often given in the Remarks field followed by a detailed explanation elsewhere in the documentation. System Common - These include the following: <pre> MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame messages (device synchronisation). Song Position Pointer Song Select Tune Request </pre> The section will indicate whether or not the device can send or respond to any of these messages. System Real Time These include the following: <pre> Timing Clock - often just written as "Clock" Start Stop Continue </pre> These three are usually just referred to as "Commands" and listed. Again the section will indicate which, if any, of these messages the device can send or respond to. <pre> Aux. Messages Again "O" or "X" for implemented or not. Aux. = Auxiliary. Active Sense = Active Sensing. </pre> Often with an explanation of the action of the device. Notes The "Notes" section can contain any additional comments to clarify the particular implementation. Some of the explanations have been drawn directly from the MMA MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification. And the detailed explanation of some of the functions will be found there, or in the General MIDI System Level 1 or General MIDI System Level 2 documents also published by the MMA. OFFICIAL MIDI SPECIFICATIONS SUMMARY OF MIDI MESSAGES Table 1 - Summary of MIDI Messages The following table lists the major MIDI messages in numerical (binary) order (adapted from "MIDI by the Numbers" by D. Valenti, Electronic Musician 2/88, and updated by the MIDI Manufacturers Association.). This table is intended as an overview of MIDI, and is by no means complete. WARNING! Details about implementing these messages can dramatically impact compatibility with other products. We strongly recommend consulting the official MIDI Specifications for additional information. MIDI 1.0 Specification Message Summary Channel Voice Messages [nnnn = 0-15 (MIDI Channel Number 1-16)] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1000nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note Off event. This message is sent when a note is released (ended). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1001nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note On event. This message is sent when a note is depressed (start). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1010nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Polyphonic Key Pressure (Aftertouch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Control Change. This message is sent when a controller value changes. Controllers include devices such as pedals and levers. Controller numbers 120-127 are reserved as "Channel Mode Messages" (below). (ccccccc) is the controller number (0-119). (vvvvvvv) is the controller value (0-127). |- |<!--Status-->1100nnnn || <!--Data-->0ppppppp || <!--Description-->Program Change. This message sent when the patch number changes. (ppppppp) is the new program number. |- |<!--Status-->1101nnnn || <!--Data-->0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Pressure (After-touch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". This message is different from polyphonic after-touch. Use this message to send the single greatest pressure value (of all the current depressed keys). (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1110nnnn || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Pitch Bend Change. This message is sent to indicate a change in the pitch bender (wheel or lever, typically). The pitch bender is measured by a fourteen bit value. Center (no pitch change) is 2000H. Sensitivity is a function of the receiver, but may be set using RPN 0. (lllllll) are the least significant 7 bits. (mmmmmmm) are the most significant 7 bits. |} Channel Mode Messages (See also Control Change, above) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Mode Messages. This the same code as the Control Change (above), but implements Mode control and special message by using reserved controller numbers 120-127. The commands are: *All Sound Off. When All Sound Off is received all oscillators will turn off, and their volume envelopes are set to zero as soon as possible c = 120, v = 0: All Sound Off *Reset All Controllers. When Reset All Controllers is received, all controller values are reset to their default values. (See specific Recommended Practices for defaults) c = 121, v = x: Value must only be zero unless otherwise allowed in a specific Recommended Practice. *Local Control. When Local Control is Off, all devices on a given channel will respond only to data received over MIDI. Played data, etc. will be ignored. Local Control On restores the functions of the normal controllers. c = 122, v = 0: Local Control Off c = 122, v = 127: Local Control On * All Notes Off. When an All Notes Off is received, all oscillators will turn off. c = 123, v = 0: All Notes Off (See text for description of actual mode commands.) c = 124, v = 0: Omni Mode Off c = 125, v = 0: Omni Mode On c = 126, v = M: Mono Mode On (Poly Off) where M is the number of channels (Omni Off) or 0 (Omni On) c = 127, v = 0: Poly Mode On (Mono Off) (Note: These four messages also cause All Notes Off) |} System Common Messages System Messages (0xF0) The final status nybble is a “catch all” for data that doesn’t fit the other statuses. They all use the most significant nybble (4bits) of 0xF, with the least significant nybble indicating the specific category. The messages are denoted when the MSB of the second nybble is 1. When that bit is a 0, the messages fall into two other subcategories. System Common If the MSB of the second second nybble (4 bits) is not set, this indicates a System Common message. Most of these are messages that include some additional data bytes. System Common Messages Type Status Byte Number of Data Bytes Usage <pre> Time Code Quarter Frame 0xF1 1 Indicates timing using absolute time code, primarily for synthronization with video playback systems. A single location requires eight messages to send the location in an encoded hours:minutes:seconds:frames format*. Song Position 0xF2 2 Instructs a sequencer to jump to a new position in the song. The data bytes form a 14-bit value that expresses the location as the number of sixteenth notes from the start of the song. Song Select 0xF3 1 Instructs a sequencer to select a new song. The data byte indicates the song. Undefined 0xF4 0 Undefined 0xF5 0 Tune Request 0xF6 0 Requests that the receiver retunes itself**. </pre> *MIDI Time Code (MTC) is significantly complex. Please see the MIDI Specification **While modern digital instruments are good at staying in tune, older analog synthesizers were prone to tuning drift. Some analog synthesizers had an automatic tuning operation that could be initiated with this command. System Exclusive If you’ve been keeping track, you’ll notice there are two status bytes not yet defined: 0xf0 and 0xf7. These are used by the System Exclusive message, often abbreviated at SysEx. SysEx provides a path to send arbitrary data over a MIDI connection. There is a group of predefined messages for complex data, like fine grained control of MIDI Time code machinery. SysEx is also used to send manufacturer defined data, such as patches, or even firmware updates. System Exclusive messages are longer than other MIDI messages, and can be any length. The messages are of the following format: 0xF0, 0xID, 0xdd, ...... 0xF7 The message is bookended with distinct bytes. It opens with the Start Of Exclusive (SOX) data byte, 0xF0. The next one to three bytes after the start are an identifier. Values from 0x01 to 0x7C are one-byte vendor IDs, assigned to manufacturers who were involved with MIDI at the beginning. If the ID is 0x00, it’s a three-byte vendor ID - the next two bytes of the message are the value. <pre> ID 0x7D is a placeholder for non-commercial entities. ID 0x7E indicates a predefined Non-realtime SysEx message. ID 0x7F indicates a predefined Realtime SysEx message. </pre> After the ID is the data payload, sent as a stream of bytes. The transfer concludes with the End of Exclusive (EOX) byte, 0xF7. The payload data must follow the guidelines for MIDI data bytes – the MSB must not be set, so only 7 bits per byte are actually usable. If the MSB is set, it falls into three possible scenarios. An End of Exclusive byte marks the ordinary termination of the SysEx transfer. System Real Time messages may occur within the transfer without interrupting it. The recipient should handle them independently of the SysEx transfer. Other status bytes implicitly terminate the SysEx transfer and signal the start of new messages. Some inexpensive USB-to-MIDI interfaces aren’t capable of handling messages longer than four bytes. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11110000 || <!--Data-->0iiiiiii [0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii] 0ddddddd --- --- 0ddddddd 11110111 || <!--Description-->System Exclusive. This message type allows manufacturers to create their own messages (such as bulk dumps, patch parameters, and other non-spec data) and provides a mechanism for creating additional MIDI Specification messages. The Manufacturer's ID code (assigned by MMA or AMEI) is either 1 byte (0iiiiiii) or 3 bytes (0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii). Two of the 1 Byte IDs are reserved for extensions called Universal Exclusive Messages, which are not manufacturer-specific. If a device recognizes the ID code as its own (or as a supported Universal message) it will listen to the rest of the message (0ddddddd). Otherwise, the message will be ignored. (Note: Only Real-Time messages may be interleaved with a System Exclusive.) |- |<!--Status-->11110001 || <!--Data-->0nnndddd || <!--Description-->MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame. nnn = Message Type dddd = Values |- |<!--Status-->11110010 || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Song Position Pointer. This is an internal 14 bit register that holds the number of MIDI beats (1 beat= six MIDI clocks) since the start of the song. l is the LSB, m the MSB. |- |<!--Status-->11110011 || <!--Data-->0sssssss || <!--Description-->Song Select. The Song Select specifies which sequence or song is to be played. |- |<!--Status-->11110100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Tune Request. Upon receiving a Tune Request, all analog synthesizers should tune their oscillators. |- |<!--Status-->11110111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->End of Exclusive. Used to terminate a System Exclusive dump. |} System Real-Time Messages {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11111000 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Timing Clock. Sent 24 times per quarter note when synchronization is required. |- |<!--Status-->11111001 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111010 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Start. Start the current sequence playing. (This message will be followed with Timing Clocks). |- |<!--Status-->11111011 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Continue. Continue at the point the sequence was Stopped. |- |<!--Status-->11111100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Stop. Stop the current sequence. |- |<!--Status-->11111101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Active Sensing. This message is intended to be sent repeatedly to tell the receiver that a connection is alive. Use of this message is optional. When initially received, the receiver will expect to receive another Active Sensing message each 300ms (max), and if it does not then it will assume that the connection has been terminated. At termination, the receiver will turn off all voices and return to normal (non- active sensing) operation. |- |<!--Status-->11111111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Reset. Reset all receivers in the system to power-up status. This should be used sparingly, preferably under manual control. In particular, it should not be sent on power-up. |} Advanced Messages Polyphonic Pressure (0xA0) and Channel Pressure (0xD0) Some MIDI controllers include a feature known as Aftertouch. While a key is being held down, the player can press harder on the key. The controller measures this, and converts it into MIDI messages. Aftertouch comes in two flavors, with two different status messages. The first flavor is polyphonic aftertouch, where every key on the controller is capable of sending its own independent pressure information. The messages are of the following format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xkk, 0xpp n is the status (0xA) c is the channel nybble kk is the key number (0 to 127) pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Polyphonic aftertouch is an uncommon feature, usually found on premium quality instruments, because every key requires a separate pressure sensor, plus the circuitry to read them all. Much more commonly found is channel aftertouch. Instead of needing a discrete sensor per key, it uses a single, larger sensor to measure pressure on all of the keys as a group. The messages omit the key number, leaving a two-byte format <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xD) c is the channel number pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Pitch Bend (0xE0) Many keyboards have a wheel or lever towards the left of the keys for pitch bend control. This control is usually spring-loaded, so it snaps back to the center of its range when released. This allows for both upward and downward bends. Pitch Bend Wheel The wheel sends pitch bend messages, of the format <pre> 0xnc, 0xLL, 0xMM n is the status (0xE) c is the channel number LL is the 7 least-significant bits of the value MM is the 7 most-significant bits of the value </pre> You’ll notice that the bender data is actually 14 bits long, transmitted as two 7-bit data bytes. This means that the recipient needs to reassemble those bytes using binary manipulation. 14 bits results in an overall range of 214, or 0 to 16,383. Because it defaults to the center of the range, the default value for the bender is halfway through that range, at 8192 (0x2000). Control Change (0xB0) In addition to pitch bend, MIDI has provisions for a wider range of expressive controls, sometimes known as continuous controllers, often abbreviated CC. These are transmitted by the remaining knobs and sliders on the keyboard controller shown below. Continuous Controllers These controls send the following message format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xcc, 0xvv n is the status (0xB) c is the MIDI channel cc is the controller number (0-127) vv is the controller value (0-127) </pre> Typically, the wheel next to the bender sends controller number one, assigned to modulation (or vibrato) depth. It is implemented by most instruments. The remaining controller number assignments are another point of confusion. The MIDI specification was revised in version 2.0 to assign uses for many of the controllers. However, this implementation is not universal, and there are ranges of unassigned controllers. On many modern MIDI devices, the controllers are assignable. On the controller keyboard shown in the photos, the various controls can be configured to transmit different controller numbers. Controller numbers can be mapped to particular parameters. Virtual synthesizers frequently allow the user to assign CCs to the on-screen controls. This is very flexible, but it might require configuration on both ends of the link and completely bypasses the assignments in the standard. Program Change (0xC0) Most synthesizers have patch storage memory, and can be told to change patches using the following command: <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xc) c is the channel pp is the patch number (0-127) </pre> This allows for 128 sounds to be selected, but modern instruments contain many more than 128 patches. Controller #0 is used as an additional layer of addressing, interpreted as a “bank select” command. Selecting a sound on such an instrument might involve two messages: a bank select controller message, then a program change. Audio & Midi are not synchronized, what I can do ? Buy a commercial software package but there is a nasty trick to synchronize both. It's a bit hardcore but works for me: Simply put one line down to all midi notes on your pattern (use Insert key) and go to 'Misc. Setup', adjust the latency and just search a value that will make sound sync both audio/midi. The stock Sin/Saw/Pulse and Rnd waveforms are too simple/common, is there a way to use something more complex/rich ? You have to ability to redirect the waveforms of the instruments through the synth pipe by selecting the "wav" option for the oscillator you're using for this synth instrument, samples can be used as wavetables to replace the stock signals. Sound banks like soundfont (sf2) or Kontakt2 are not supported at the moment ====DAW Audio Evolution 4==== Audio Evolution 4 gives you unsurpassed power for digital audio recording and editing on the Amiga. The latest release focusses on time-saving non-linear and non-destructive editing, as seen on other platforms. Besides editing, Audio Evolution 4 offers a wide range of realtime effects, including compression, noise gate, delays, reverb, chorus and 3-band EQ. Whether you put them as inserts on a channel or use them as auxillaries, the effect parameters are realtime adjustable and can be fully automated. Together with all other mixing parameters, they can even be controlled remotely, using more ergonomic MIDI hardware. Non-linear editing on the time line, including cut, copy, paste, move, split, trim and crossfade actions The number of tracks per project(s) is unlimited .... AHI limits you to recording only two at a time. i.e. not on 8 track sound cards like the Juli@ or Phase 88. sample file import is limited to 16bit AIFF (not AIFC, important distinction as some files from other sources can be AIFC with aiff file extension). and 16bit WAV (pcm only) Most apps use the Music Unit only but a few apps also use Unit (0-3) instead or as well. * Set up AHI prefs so that microphone is available. (Input option near the bottom) stereo++ allows the audio piece to be placed anywhere and the left-right adjusted to sound positionally right hifi best for music playback if driver supports this option Load 16bit .aif .aiff only sample(s) to use not AIFC which can have the same ending. AIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format sox recital.wav recital.aiff sox recital.wav −b 16 recital.aiff channels 1 rate 16k fade 3 norm sox input.wav output.aiff bass −b 16 rate 48k performs the same format translation, but also applies four effects (down-mix to one channel, sample rate change, fade-in, nomalize), and stores the result at a bit-depth of 16. rec −c 2 radio.aiff trim 0 30:00 records half an hour of stereo audio play existing-file.wav 24bit PCM WAV or AIFF do not work *No stream format handling. So no way to pass on an AC3 encoded stream unmodified to the digital outputs through AHI. *No master volume handling. Each application has to set its own volume. So each driver implements its own custom driver-mixer interface for handling master volumes, mute and preamps. *Only one output stream. So all input gets mixed into one output. *No automatic handling of output direction based on connected cables. *No monitor input selection. Only monitor volume control. select the correct input (Don't mistake enabled sound for the correct input.) The monitor will feedback audio to the lineout and hp out no matter if you have selected the correct input to the ADC. The monitor will provide sound for any valid input. This will result in free mixing when recording from the monitor input instead of mic/line because the monitor itself will provide the hardware mixing for you. Be aware that MIC inputs will give two channel mono. Only Linein will give real stereo. Now for the not working part. Attempt to record from linein in the AE4 record window, the right channel is noise and the left channel is distorted. Even with the recommended HIFI 16bit Stereo++ mode at 48kHz. Channels Monitor Gain Inout Output Advanced settings - Debugging via serial port * Options -> Soundcard In/Out * Options -> SampleRate * Options -> Preferences F6 for Sample File List Setting a grid is easy as is measuring the BPM by marking a section of the sample. Is your kick drum track "not in time" ? If so, you're stumped in AE4 as it has no fancy variable time signatures and definitely no 'track this dodgy rhythm' function like software of the nature of Logic has. So if your drum beat is freeform you will need to work in freeform mode. (Real music is free form anyway). If the drum *is* accurate and you are just having trouble measuring the time, I usually measure over a range of bars and set the number of beats in range to say 16 as this is more accurate, Then you will need to shift the drum track to match your grid *before* applying the grid. (probably an iterative process as when the grid is active samples snap to it, and when inactive you cannot see it). AE4 does have ARexx but the functions are more for adding samples at set offsets and starting playback / recording. These are the usual features found in DAWs... * Recording digital audio, midi sequencer and mixer * virtual VST instruments and plug-ins * automation, group channels, MIDI channels, FX sends and returns, audio and MIDI editors and music notation editor * different track views * mixer and track layout (but not the same as below) * traditional two windows (track and mixer) Mixing - mixdown Could not figure out how to select what part I wanted to send to the aux, set it to echo and return. Pretty much the whole echo effect. Or any effect. Take look at page17 of the manual. When you open the EQ / Aux send popup window you will see 4 sends. Now from the menu choose the windows menu. Menus->Windows-> Aux Returns Window or press F5 You will see a small window with 4 volume controls and an effects button for each. Click a button and add an effects to that aux channel, then set it up as desired (note the reverb effect has a special AUX setting that improves its use with the aux channel, not compulsory but highly useful). You set the amount of 'return' on the main mix in the Aux Return window, and the amount sent from each main mixer channel in the popup for that channel. Again the aux sends are "prefade" so the volume faders on each channel do not affect them. Tracking Effects - fade in To add some echoes to some vocals, tried to add an effect on a track but did not come out. This is made more complicated as I wanted to mute a vocal but then make it echo at the muting point. Want to have one word of a vocal heard and then echoed off. But when the track is mute the echo is cancelled out. To correctly understand what is happening here you need to study the figure at the bottom of page 15 on the manual. You will see from that that the effects are applied 'prefade' So the automation you applied will naturally mute the entire signal. There would be a number of ways to achieve the goal, You have three real time effects slots, one for smoothing like so Sample -> Amplify -> Delay Then automate the gain of the amplify block so that it effectively mutes the sample just before the delay at the appropriate moment, the echo effect should then be heard. Getting the effects in the right order will require experimentation as they can only be added top down and it's not obvious which order they are applied to the signal, but there only two possibilities, so it wont take long to find out. Using MUTE can cause clicks to the Amplify can be used to mute more smoothly so that's a secondary advantage. Signal Processing - Overdub [[#top|...to the top]] ===Office=== ====Spreadsheet Leu==== Support for some xlsx, and ods functions ====Spreadsheet Ignition==== ; Needs ABIv1 to be completed before more can be done File formats supported * ascii #?.txt and #?.csv (single sheets with data only). * igs and TurboCalc(WIP) #?.tc for all sheets with data, formats and formulas. There is '''no''' support for xls, xlsx, ods or uos ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Office_Format Uniform Unified Office Format]) at the moment. * Always use Esc key after editing Spreadsheet cells. * copy/paste seems to copy the first instance only so go to Edit -> Clipboard to manage the list of remembered actions. * Right mouse click on row (1 or 2 or 3) or column header (a or b or c) to access optimal height or width of the row or column respectively * Edit -> Insert -> Row seems to clear the spreadsheet or clears the rows after the inserted row until undo restores as it should be... Change Sheet name by Object -> Sheet -> Properties Click in the cell which will contain the result, and click '''down arrow button''' to the right of the formula box at the bottom of the spreadsheet and choose the function required from the list provided. Then click on the start cell and click on the bottom right corner, a '''very''' small blob, which allows stretching a bounding box (thick grey outlines) across many cells This grey bounding box can be used to '''copy a formula''' to other cells. Object -> Cell -> Properties to change cell format - Currency only covers DM and not $, Euro, Renminbi, Yen or Pound etc. Shift key and arrow keys selects a range of cells, so that '''formatting can be done to all highlighted cells'''. View -> Overview then select ALL with one click (in empty cell in the top left hand corner of the sheet). Default mode is relative cell referencing e.g. a1+a2 but absolute e.g. $a$1+$a$2 can be entered. * #sheet-name to '''absolute''' reference another sheet-name cell unless reference() function used. ;Graphs use shift key and arrow keys to select a bunch of cells to be graph'ed making sure that x axes represents and y axes represents * value() - 0 value, 1 percent, 2 date, 3 time, 4 unit ... ;Dates * Excel starts a running count from the 1st Jan 1900 and Ignition starts from 1st Jan 1AD '''(maybe this needs to change)''' Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put date in days ;Time Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put time in seconds taken ;Database (to be done by someone else) type - standard, reference (bezug), search criterion (suchkriterium), * select a bunch of cells and Object -> Database -> Define to set Datenbank (database) and Felder (fields not sure how?) * Neu (new) or loschen (delete) to add/remove database headings e.g. Personal, Start Date, Finish Date (one per row?) * Object -> Database -> Index to add fields (felder) like Surname, First Name, Employee ID, etc. to ? Filtering done with dbfilter(), dbproduct() and dbposition(). Activities with dbsum(), dbaverage(), dbmin() and dbmax(). Table sorting - ;Scripts (Arexx) ;Excel(TM) to Ignition - commas ''',''' replaced by semi-colons ''';''' to separate values within functions *SUM(), *AVERAGE(), MAX(), MIN(), INT(), PRODUCT(), MEDIAN(), VAR() becomes Variance(), Percentile(), *IF(), AND, OR, NOT *LEFT(), RIGHT(), MID() becomes MIDDLE(), LEN() becomes LENGTH(), *LOWER() becomes LOWERCASE(), UPPER() becomes UPPERCASE(), * DATE(yyyy,mm,dd) becomes COMPUTEDATE(dd;mm;yyyy), *TODAY(), DAY(),WEEK(), MONTH(),=YEAR(TODAY()), *EOMONTH() becomes MONTHLENGTH(), *NOW() should be date and time becomes time only, SECOND(), MINUTE(), HOUR(), *DBSUM() becomes DSUM(), ;Missing and possibly useful features/functions needed for ignition to have better support of Excel files There is no Merge and Join Text over many cells, no protect and/or freeze row or columns or books but can LOCK sheets, no define bunch of cells as a name, Macros (Arexx?), conditional formatting, no Solver, no Goal Seek, no Format Painter, no AutoFill, no AutoSum function button, no pivot tables, (30 argument limit applies to Excel) *HLOOKUP(), VLOOKUP(), [http://production-scheduling.com/excel-index-function-most-useful/ INDEX(), MATCH()], CHOOSE(), TEXT(), *TRIM(), FIND(), SUBSTITUTE(), CONCATENATE() or &, PROPER(), REPT(), *[https://acingexcel.com/excel-sumproduct-function/ SUMPRODUCT()], ROUND(), ROUNDUP(), *ROUNDDOWN(), COUNT(), COUNTA(), SUMIF(), COUNTIF(), COUNTBLANK(), TRUNC(), *PMT(), PV(), FV(), POWER(), SQRT(), MODE(), TRUE, FALSE, *MODE(), LARGE(), SMALL(), RANK(), STDEV(), *DCOUNT(), DCOUNTA(), WEEKDAY(), ;Excel Keyboard [http://dmcritchie.mvps.org/excel/shortx2k.htm shortcuts needed to aid usability in Ignition] <pre> Ctrl Z - Undo Ctrl D - Fill Down Ctrl R - Fill right Ctrl F - Find Ctrl H - Replace Ctrl 1 - Formatting of Cells CTRL SHIFT ~ Apply General Formatting ie a number Ctrl ; - Todays Date F2 - Edit cell F4 - toggle cell absolute / relative cell references </pre> ====Document Scanning - Scandal==== Scanner usually needs to be connected via a USB port and not via a hub or extension lead. Check in Trident Prefs -> Devices that the USB Scanner is not bound to anything (e.g. Bindings None) If not found then reboot the computer and recheck. Start Scandal, choose Settings from Menu strip at top of screen and in Scanner Driver choose the ?#.device of the scanner (e.g. epson2.device). The next two boxes - leave empty as they are for morphos SCSI use only or put ata.device (use the selection option in bigger box below) and Unit as 0 this is needed for gt68xx * gt68xx - no editing needed in s/gt68xx.conf but needs a firmware file that corresponds to the scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx firmwares] in sys:s/gt68xx. * epson2 - Need to edit the file epson2.conf in sys/s that corresponds to the scanner being used '''Save''' the settings but do not press the Use button (aros freezes) Back to the Picture Scan window and the right-hand sections. Click on the '''Information''' tab and press Connect button and the scanner should now be detected. Go next to the '''Scanner''' tab next to Information Tab should have Color, Black and White, etc. and dpi settings now. Selecting an option Color, B/W etc. can cause dpi settings corruption (especially if the settings are in one line) so set '''dpi first'''. Make sure if Preview is set or not. In the '''Scan''' Tab, press Scan and the scanner will do its duty. Be aware that nothing is saved to disk yet. In the Save tab, change format JPEG, PNG or IFF DEEP. Tick incremental and base filename if necessary and then click the Save button. The image will now be saved to permanent storage. The driver ignores a device if it is already bond to another USB class, rejects it from being usable. However, open Trident prefs, select your device and use the right mouse button to open. Select "NONE" to prevent poseidon from touching the device. Now save settings. It should always work now. [[#top|...to the top]] ===Emulators=== ==== Amiberry ==== ==== Amiga Emu - Janus UAE ==== With Amibridge, AROS attempts to make the UAE emulator seem embedded within but it still is acting as an app There is no dynarec m68k for each hardware that Aros supports or direct patching of motorola calls to AROS hardware accelerated ones unless the emulator has that included Try starting Janus with a priority of -1 like this little script: <pre> cd sys:system/AmiBridge/emulator changetaskpri -1 run janus-uae -f my_uaerc.config >nil: cd sys:prefs endcli </pre> This stops Janus hogging all the CPU time. ===Miscellaneous=== ====Screensaver Blanker==== Most blankers on the amiga (i.e. aros) run as commodities (they are in the tools/commodities drawer). Double click on blanker. Control is with an app called Exchange, which you need to run first (double click on app) or run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Exchange >NIL: but subsequently can use (Cntrl Alt h). Icon tool types (may be broken) or command line options <pre> seconds=number </pre> Once the timing is right then add the following to s:icaros-sequence or s:user-startup e.g. for 5 minutes run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Blanker seconds=300 >NIL: *[http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/screenblanker/gblanker.i386-aros.zip Garshneblanker] can make Aros unstable or slow. Certain blankers crashes in Icaros 2.0.x like Dragon, Executor. *[ Acuario AROS version], the aquarium screen saver. Startup: extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Kill: c:break name=extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Managed to start Acuario by the Executor blanker. <pre> cx_priority= cx_popkey= ie CX_POPKEY="Shift F1" cx_popup=Yes or No </pre> <pre> Qualifier String Input Event Class ---------------- ----------------- "lshift" IEQUALIFIER_LSHIFT "rshift" IEQUALIFIER_RSHIFT "capslock" IEQUALIFIER_CAPSLOCK "control" IEQUALIFIER_CONTROL "lalt" IEQUALIFIER_LALT "ralt" IEQUALIFIER_RALT "lcommand" IEQUALIFIER_LCOMMAND "rcommand" IEQUALIFIER_RCOMMAND "numericpad" IEQUALIFIER_NUMERICPAD "repeat" IEQUALIFIER_REPEAT "midbutton" IEQUALIFIER_MIDBUTTON "rbutton" IEQUALIFIER_RBUTTON "leftbutton" IEQUALIFIER_LEFTBUTTON "relativemouse" IEQUALIFIER_RELATIVEMOUSE </pre> <pre> Synonym Synonym String Identifier ------- ---------- "shift" IXSYM_SHIFT /* look for either shift key */ "caps" IXSYM_CAPS /* look for either shift key or capslock */ "alt" IXSYM_ALT /* look for either alt key */ Highmap is one of the following strings: "space", "backspace", "tab", "enter", "return", "esc", "del", "up", "down", "right", "left", "f1", "f2", "f3", "f4", "f5", "f6", "f7", "f8", "f9", "f10", "help". </pre> [[#top|...to the top]] ==== World Construction Set WCS (Version 2.031) ==== WCS is a fractal landscape software such as Scenery Animator, Vista Pro and Panorama. Open sourced February 2022, World Construction Set [https://3dnature.com/downloads/legacy-software/ legally and for free] and [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/3DNature c source]. Announced August 1994 this version dates from April 1996 developed by Gary R. Huber and Chris "Xenon" Hanson" from Questar <pre> Assign "WCSProjects:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSProjects" Assign "WCSFrames:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSFrames" </pre> <pre> Load projects .proj by accessing pull down menu Project -> Open then click on CanyonSunset.proj OK to changing .par file and enlarge Status Log window to show what is happening Render by pull down menu Modules -> Render with End equal 1 not 300 then click bottom middle button Render </pre> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxQDmf1ZWG0 Youtube walkthrough of above], [], [], Also try working with the already built file ColoDemo - Then open with the drop-down menu: Project/Open, then WCSProject:ColoDemo.proj Which allows you to use altimetric DEM files already included and Loading scene parameters from ColoDemo.par Once this is done, save everything with a new name to start working exclusively on your project. Then drop-down menu and select Save As ("NewName".proj name), then drop-down menu to open parameter and select Save All ( .par name) After launching the software, there is a the Module Control Panel composed of five icons. It is a dock type shortcut of the first few functions of the drop-down menu *Database - Load (#?.proj), Append, Create, Edit, Save, Dir List (of WCSProject drawer), *Data Ops - Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats *Map View - Database file Loader leading to Map View Control with option to the Database Editor *Parameters - Editor for Motion, Color, Ecosystem, Clouds, Waves, management of altimeter files DEM, sclock settings etc *Render - rendering terrain These are more in the pull down menu but not in the dock *Motion Editor *Color Editor *Ecosys Editor Simple minimal workflow *Load database (1st icon - 1st) *Set parameters and save .par file (4th icon) *Render scene (5th icon) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbTwwR2qcc4 Youtube], [], <pre> .proj new project name which creates a drawer of additional files .binary array, ascii array .xyz , z buffer, DTED .dt0, vista 1990s dem, iff conversion .Obj with .elev, .frd with .hdr maps, - digital elevation model (DEM) is a 3D representation of elevation data in various formats USGS 7.5MinDEM, .par </pre> Since for the time being no project is loaded, a query window indicates a procedural error when clicking on the rendering icon (right end of the bar). The menu is quite traditional; it varies according to the activity of the windows. To display any altimetric file in the "Mapview" (third icon of the panel), There are three possibilities: * Loading of a demonstration project. * The import of a DEM file, followed by texturing and packaging from the "Database-Editor" and the "Color-Editor". * The creation of an altimetric file in WCS format, then texturing. The altimeter file editing (display in the menu) is only made possible if the "Mapview" window is active. The software is made up of many windows and won't be able to describe them all. Know that "Color-Editor" and the "Data-Editor" comprise sufficient functions for obtaining an almost real rendering quality. You have the possibility of inserting vector objects in the "Data-Editor" (creation of roads, railways, etc.) The Map View (MapView) window *Database - Objects and Topos *View - Align, Center, Zoom, Pan, Move *Draw - Maps and distance *Object - Find, highlight, add points, conform topo, duplicate *Motion - Camera, Focus, path, elevation *Windows - DEM designer, Cloud (.cld) and wave (.wve) editor, You will notice that by selecting this window and simply moving the pointer to various points on the map you will see latitude and longitude values ​​change, along with the height. Drop-down menu and Modules, then select MapView and change the width of the window with the map to arrange it in the best way on the screen. With the Auto button the center. Window that then displays the contents of my DEM file, in this case the Grand Canyon. MapView allows you to observe the shape of the landscape from above ZOOM button Press the Zoom button and then with the pointer position on a point on the map, press the left mouse button and then move to the opposite corner to circumscribe the chosen area and press the left mouse button again, then we will see the enlarged area selected on the map. Would add that there is a box next to the Zoom button that allows the direct insertion of a value which, the larger it is, the smaller the magnification and the smaller the value, the stronger the magnification. At each numerical change you will need to press the DRAW button to update the view. PAN button Under Zoom you will find the PAN button which allows you to move the map at will in all directions by the amount you want. This is done by drawing a line in one direction, then press PAN and point to an area on the map with the pointer and press the left mouse button. At this point, leave it and move the pointer in one direction by drawing a line and press the left mouse button again to trigger the movement of the map on the screen (origin and end points). Do some experiments and then use the Auto button immediately below to recenter everything. There are parameters such as TOPO, VEC to be left checked and immediately below one that allows different views of the map with the Style command (Single, Multi, Surface, Emboss, Slope, Contour), each with its own particularities to highlight different details. Now you have the first basics to manage your project visually on the map. Close the MapView window and go further... Let's start working on ECOSYSTEMS If we select Emboss from the MapView Style command we will have a clear idea of ​​how the landscape appears, realizing that it is a predominantly desert region of our planet. Therefore we will begin to act on any vegetation present and the appearance of the landscape. With WCS we will begin to break down the elements of the landscape by assigning defined characteristics. It will be necessary to determine the classes of the ecosystem (Class) with parameters of Elevation Line (maximum altitude), Relative Elevation (arrangement on basins or convexities with respectively positive or negative parameters), Min Slope and Max Slope (slope). WCS offers the possibility of making ecosystems coexist on the same terrain with the UnderEco function, by setting a Density value. Ecosys Ecosystem Editor Let's open it from Modules, then Ecosys Editor. In the left pane you will find the list of ecosystems referring to the files present in our project. It will be necessary to clean up that box to leave only the Water and Snow landscapes and a few other predefined ones. We can do this by selecting the items and pressing the Remove button (be careful not for all elements the button is activated, therefore they cannot all be eliminated). Once this is done we can start adding new ecosystems. Scroll through the various Unused and as soon as the Name item at the top is activated allowing you to write, type the name of your ecosystem, adding the necessary parameters. <pre> Ecosystem1: Name: RockBase Class: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 15 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem2: Name: RockIncl Clss: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 30 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem3: Name: Grass Class Low Veg Density: 50 Height: 1 Elev Line : 1500 Rel El Eff: 5 Max Slope: 10 – Min Slope: 0 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema4: Name: Shrubs Class: Low Veg Density: 40 Height: 8 Elev Line: 3000 Rel El Eff: -2 Max Slope: 20 Min Slope : 5 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema5: Name: Terrain Class: Ground Density: 100 UnderEco: Terrain </pre> Now we need to identify an intermediate ecosystem that guarantees a smooth transition between all, therefore we select as Understory Ecosystem the one called Terrain in all ecosystems, except Snow and Water . Now we need to 'emerge' the Colorado River in the Canyon and we can do this by raising the sea level to 900 (Sea Level) in the Ecosystem called Water. Please note that the order of the ecosystem list gives priority to those that come after. So our list must have the following order: Water, Snow, Shrubs, RockIncl, RockBase, Terrain. It is possible to carry out all movements with the Swap button at the bottom. To put order you can also press Short List. Press Keep to confirm all the work done so far with Ecosystem Editor. Remember every now and then to save both the Project 'Modules/Save' and 'Parameter/Save All' EcoModels are made up of .etp .fgp .iff8 for each model Color Editor Now it's time to define the colors of our scene and we can do this by going to Modules and then Color Editor. In the list we focus on our ecosystems, created first. Let's go to the bottom of the list and select the first white space, assigning the name 'empty1', with a color we like and then we will find this element again in other environments... It could serve as an example for other situations! So we move to 'grass' which already exists and assign the following colors: R 60 G 70 B50 <pre> 'shrubs': R 60 G 80 B 30 'RockIncl' R 110 G 65 B 60 'RockBase' R 110 G 80 B 80 ' Terrain' R 150 G 30 B 30 <pre> Now we can work on pre-existing colors <pre> 'SunLight' R 150 G 130 B 130 'Haze and Fog' R 190 G 170 B 170 'Horizon' R 209 G 185 B 190 'Zenith' R 140 G 150 B 200 'Water' R 90 G 125 B 170 </pre> Ambient R 0 G 0 B 0 So don't forget to close Color Editor by pressing Keep. Go once again to Ecosystem Editor and assign the corresponding color to each environment by selecting it using the Ecosystem Color button. Press it several times until the correct one appears. Then save the project and parameters again, as done previously. Motion Editor Now it's time to take care of the framing, so let's go to Modules and then to Motion Editor. An extremely feature-rich window will open. Following is the list of parameters regarding the Camera, position and other characteristics: <pre> -Camera Altitude: 7.0 -Camera Latitude: 36.075 -Camera Longitude: 112.133 -Focus Attitude: -2.0 -Focus Latitude: 36.275 -Focus Longitude: 112.386 -Camera : 512 → rendering window -Camera Y: 384 → rendering window -View Arc: 80 → View width in degrees -Sun Longitude: 172 -Sun Latitude: -0.9 -Haze Start: 3.8 -Haze Range: 78, 5 </pre> As soon as the values ​​shown in the relevant sliders have been modified, we will be ready to open the CamView window to observe the wireframe preview. Let's not consider all the controls that will appear. Well from the Motion Editor if you have selected Camera Altitude and open the CamView panel, you can change the height of the camera by holding down the right mouse button and moving the mouse up and down. To update the view, press the Terrain button in the adjacent window. As soon as you are convinced of the position, confirm again with Keep. You can carry out the same work with the other functions of the camera, such as Focus Altitude... Let's now see the next positioning step on the Camera map, but let's leave the CamView preview window open while we go to Modules to open the window at the same time MapView. We will thus be able to take advantage of the view from the other together with a subjective one. From the MapView window, select with the left mouse button and while it is pressed, move the Camera as desired. To update the subjective preview, always click on Terrain. While with the same procedure you can intervene on the direction of the camera lens, by selecting the cross and with the left button pressed you can choose the desired view. So with the pressure of Terrain I update the Preview. Possibly can enlarge or reduce the Map View using the Zoom button, for greater precision. Also write that the circle around the cameras indicates the beginning of the haze, there are two types (haze and fog) linked to the altitude. Would also add that the camera height is editable through the Motion Editor panel. The sun Let's see that changing the position of the sun from the Motion Editor. Press the SUN button at the bottom right and set the time and the date. Longitude and latitude are automatically obtained by the program. Always open the View Arc command from the Motion Editor panel, an item present in the Parameter List box. Once again confirm everything with Keep and then save again. Animation The animation part is not left-back and also occupies a window. The settings possibilities are enormous. A time line with dragging functions ("slide", "drag"...) comparable to that of LightWave completes this window. A small window is available for positioning the stars as a function of a date, in order to vary the seasons and their various events (and yes...). At the bottom of the "Motion-Editor", a "cam-view" function will give you access to a control panel. Different preview modes are possible. The rendering is also accessible through a window. No less than nine pages compose it. At this level, you will be able to determine the backup name of your images ("path"), the type of texture to be calculated, the resolution of the images, activate or deactivate functions such as the depth buffer ("zbuffer"), the blur, the background image, etc. Once all these parameters have been set, all you have to do is click on the "Render" button. For rendering go to Modules and then Render. Select the resolution, then under IMA select the name of the image. Move to FRA and indicate the level of fractal detail which of 4 is quite good. Then Keep to confirm and then reopen the window, pressing Render you will see the result. The image will be opened with any viewing program. Strengths: * Multi-window. * Quality of rendering. * Accuracy. * Opening, preview and rendering on CyberGraphX screen. * Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats * The "zbuffer" function. Weaknesses: * No OpenGL management * Calculation time. * No network computing tool. ====Writing CD / DVD - Frying Pan==== Can be backup DVDs (4GB ISO size limit due to use of FileInfoBlock), create audio cds from mp3's, and put .iso files on discs If using for the first time - click Drive button and Device set to ata.device and unit to 0 (zero) Click Tracks Button - Drive 1 - Create New Disc or Import Existing Disc Image (iso bin/cue etc.) - Session File open cue file If you're making a data cd, with files and drawers from your hard drive, you should be using the ISO Builder.. which is the MUI page on the left. ("Data/Audio Tracks" is on the right). You should use the "Data/Audio tracks" page if you want to create music cds with AIFF/WAV/MP3 files, or if you download an .iso file, and you want to put it on a cd. Click WRITE Button - set write speed - click on long Write button Examples Easiest way would be to burn a DATA CD, simply go to "Tracks" page "ISO Builder" and "ADD" everything you need to burn. On the "Write" page i have "Masterize Disc (DAO)", "Close Disc" and "Eject after Write" set. One must not "Blank disc before write" if one uses a CDR AUDIO CD from MP3's are as easy but tricky to deal with. FP only understands one MP3 format, Layer II, everything else will just create empty tracks Burning bootable CD's works only with .iso files. Go to "Tracks" page and "Data/Audio Tracks" and add the .iso ====odf==== Every ODF file is a collection of several subdocuments within a package (ZIP file), each of which stores part of the complete document. * content.xml – Document content and automatic styles used in the content. * styles.xml – Styles used in the document content and automatic styles used in the styles themselves. * meta.xml – Document meta information, such as the author or the time of the last save action. * settings.xml – Application-specific settings, such as the window size or printer information. To read document follow these steps: * Extracting .ods file. * Getting content.xml file (which contains sheets data). * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Creating DataSet (that represent Spreadsheet file). * With XmlDocument select “table:table” elements, and then create adequate DataTables. * Parse child’s of “table:table” element and fill DataTables with those data. * At the end, return DataSet and show it in application’s interface. To write document follow these steps: * Extracting template.ods file (.ods file that we use as template). * Getting content.xml file. * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Erasing all “table:table” elements from the content.xml file. * Reading data from our DataSet and composing adequate “table:table” elements. * Adding “table:table” elements to content.xml file. * Zipping that file as new .ods file. XLS file format The XLS file format contains streams, substreams, and records. These sheet substreams include worksheets, macro sheets, chart sheets, dialog sheets, and VBA module sheets. All the records in an XLS document start with a 2-byte unsigned integer to specify Record Type (rt), and another for Count of Bytes (cb). A record cannot exceed 8224 bytes. If larger than the rest is stored in one or more continue records. * Workbook stream **Globals substream ***BoundSheet8 record - info for Worksheet substream i.e. name, location, type, and visibility. (4bytes the lbPlyPos FilePointer, specifies the position in the Workbook stream where the sheet substream starts) **Worksheet substream (sheet) - Cell Table - Row record - Cells (2byte=row 2byte=column 2byte=XF format) ***Blank cell record ***RK cell record 32-bit number. ***BoolErr cell record (2-byte Bes structure that may be either a Boolean value or an error code) ***Number cell record (64-bit floating-point number) ***LabelSst cell record (4-byte integer that specifies a string in the Shared Strings Table (SST). Specifically, the integer corresponds to the array index in the RGB field of the SST) ***Formula cell record (FormulaValue structure in the 8 bytes that follow the cell structure. The next 6 bytes can be ignored, and the rest of the record is a CellParsedFormula structure that contains the formula itself) ***MulBlank record (first 2 bytes give the row, and the next 2 bytes give the column that the series of blanks starts at. Next, a variable length array of cell structures follows to store formatting information, and the last 2 bytes show what column the series of blanks ends on) ***MulRK record ***Shared String Table (SST) contains all of the string values in the workbook. ACCRINT(), ACCRINTM(), AMORDEGRC(), AMORLINC(), COUPDAYBS(), COUPDAYS(), COUPDAYSNC(), COUPNCD(), COUPNUM(), COUPPCD(), CUMIPMT(), CUMPRINC(), DB(), DDB(), DISC(), DOLLARDE(), DOLLARFR(), DURATION(), EFFECT(), FV(), FVSCHEDULE(), INTRATE(), IPMT(), IRR(), ISPMT(), MDURATION(), MIRR(), NOMINAL(), NPER(), NPV(), ODDFPRICE(), ODDFYIELD(), ODDLPRICE(), ODDLYIELD(), PMT(), PPMT(), PRICE(), PRICEDISC(), PRICEMAT(), PV(), RATE(), RECEIVED(), SLN(), SYD(), TBILLEQ(), TBILLPRICE(), TBILLYIELD(), VDB(), XIRR(), XNPV(), YIELD(), YIELDDISC(), YIELDMAT(), <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> {{BookCat}} ry3yywvnhe7gtdkv1u6nllml6srxnt0 4671805 4671803 2026-09-22T19:13:38Z Jeff1138 301139 4671805 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== [[#Graphical Image Editing Art]] [[#Office Application]] [[#Audio]] [[#Misc Application]] [[#Games & Emulation]] [[#Application Guides]] [[#top|...to the top]] [[#top|...to the top]] Most apps can be opened on the Workbench (aka publicscreen pubscreen) which is the default display option but can offer a custom one set to your configurations (aka custom screen mode promotion). These custom ones tend to stack so the possible use of A-M/A-N method of switching between full screens and the ability to pull down screens as well If you are interested in creating or porting new software, see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Aros/Developer/Docs here] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Internet Applications !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Web Online Browser [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Amelinium], Odyssey 2.0, [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1175&highlight=odyssey&rowstart=100 Odyssey 3.0], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://juen.in/ Amelinium], [https://blog.alb42.de/programs/amifox/ amifox] with [https://github.com/alb42/wrp wrp server], IBrowse*, [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager], [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ AWeb 3.6 src], [https://github.com/matjam/aweb AWeb Src], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/www/NetSurf-m68k-sources Netsurf], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ Odyssey OWB], [ Timberwolf (Firefox port 2011)], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?forum=32&topic_id=32847 OWB-mui], [http://strohmayer.org/owb/ OWB-Reaction], IBrowse*, [http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=network/browser/aweb.lha AWeb], Voyager, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser Netsurf], |<!--MorphOS-->Wayfarer, [http://fabportnawak.free.fr/owb/ Odyssey OWB], [ Netsurf], IBrowse*, AWeb, [], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->YouTube, Dailymotion website downloading videos audio [https://github.com/yt-dlp/yt-dlp yt-dlp], [https://clipgrab.org/ clipgrab], |<!--AROS-->[], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [ smtube], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], getVideo, Tubexx, [https://github.com/walkero-gr/aiostreams aiostreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ytsearch], [https://blog.alb42.de/amitube/ Amitube], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 getVideo], Tubexx |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Old style E-mailing SMTP POP3 IMAP based |<!--AROS-->Emailinium, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/email SimpleMail], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ src], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--Amiga OS-->Emailinium, [http://sourceforge.net/projects/simplemail/files/ SimpleMail], [https://github.com/jens-maus/yam YAM] |<!--AmigaOS4-->SimpleMail, YAM, |<!--MorphOS--> SimpleMail, YAM |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IRC, ICB, |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat WookieChat], [https://sourceforge.net/projects/wookiechat/ Wookiechat src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat AiRcOS], Jabberwocky, |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/charabaruk/WookieChat Wookiechat], AmIRC |<!--AmigaOS4-->Wookiechat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Wookiechat], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 AmIRC], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Instant Messaging IM like [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amidon Hollywood lang based Mastodon client], BlueSky AT protocol, Facebook(TM), Twitter X (TM), Bitlbee IRC Gateway and others |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/kaffeine1/telegram-amiga telegram-amiga], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/chat jabberwocky], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], CLIMM, SabreMSN, [https://sourceforge.net/projects/ajabberwocky/ jabberwocky], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], SabreMSN, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amitwitter.sourceforge.net/ AmiTwitter], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 PolyglotNG], SabreMSN, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Torrents |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/p2p ArTorr], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->CTorrent, Transmission |<!--MorphOS-->MLDonkey, Beehive, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Transmission], CTorrent, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->FTP |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], MarranoFTP, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/wput-0.3.4c.i386-aros wput i386 c src] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP AmiFTP], AmiTradeCenter, ncFTP, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/sana2-tftpclient sana2 tftpclient c src] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], |<!--MorphOS-->[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=5 Pftp], [http://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiFTP-1.935-OS4 AmiFTP], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->WYSIWYG Web Site Editor |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Internet Radio Streaming Audio [http://www.gnu.org/software/gnump3d/ gnump3d], [http://www.icecast.org/ Icecast2] Server (Broadcast) and Client (Listen), [ mpd], [http://darkice.sourceforge.net/ DarkIce], [http://www.dyne.org/software/muse/ Muse], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc], Mplayer (Icecast Client only), |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinder TuneFinder C Src], [https://github.com/sandlbn/TuneFinderMUI TuneFinderMUI], [http://amigazeux.net/anr/ AmiNetRadio], [https://github.com/boingball/MintAMP MintAMP], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.tunenet.co.uk/ Tunenet], |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer, AmiNetRadio, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VoIP (Voice over IP) with SIP Client (Session Initiation Protocol) or Asterisk IAX2 Clients Softphone (skype like) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiPhone with Speak Freely, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Weather Forecast |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ WeatherBar], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench AWeather], [] |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], [https://github.com/emartisoft/AmiWeatherForecasts AmiWeatherForecasts src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/flipclock.lha FlipClock], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://amigazeux.net/wetter/ Wetter], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Street Road Maps Route Planning GPS Tracking |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/muimapparium/ MuiMapparium] [https://build.alb42.de/ Build of MuiMapp versions], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiAtlas*, UKRoutePlus*, [http://blog.alb42.de/ AmOSM], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://blog.alb42.de/programs/mapparium/ Mapparium], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Clock and Date setting from the internet (either ntp or websites) [https://www.timeanddate.com/worldclock/ World Clock], [http://www.time.gov/ NIST], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc ntpsync], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=utility/workbench/amitimekeeper.i386-aros.lha amitimekeeper with c src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->ntpsync, [http://aminet.net/package/util/cdity/AmiTimeKeeper amitimekeeper], [http://aminet.net/comm/misc/netclock netclock], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/net/sntp sntp], [http://aminet.net/package/util/time/ScreenTime ScreenTime], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Newsgroups |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://newscoaster.sourceforge.net/ Newscoaster], [https://github.com/jens-maus/newsrog NewsRog], [ WorldNews], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->RSS |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/Team-Boingo/AmiRSS AmiRSS src] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->AI |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/murinsel/AmigaAI Claude], [https://github.com/geekychris/amiga_mcp AI on host machine], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BBS |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Graphical Image Editing Art== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Image Editing !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Pixel Raster Artwork [https://github.com/LibreSprite/LibreSprite LibreSprite based on GPL aseprite], [https://github.com/abetusk/hsvhero hsvhero], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ZunePaint/ ZunePaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LunaPaint], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit GrafX2], [ LodePaint needs OpenGL], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amigaforever.com/classic/download.html PPaint], GrafX2, [https://github.com/grovdata/Amiga_Sources/blob/master/software.md DeluxePaint], [http://www.amiforce.de/perfectpaint/perfectpaint.php PerfectPaint], Zoetrope, Brilliance2*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit LodePaint], GrafX2, |<!--MorphOS-->Sketch, Pixel*, GrafX2, [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 LunaPaint] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Image viewing |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LookHere], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer LoView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer PicShow] , [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--Amiga OS-->PicShow, PicView, Photoalbum, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, PicShow, flPhoto, Thumbs, [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?mode=viewtopic&topic_id=31400&forum=32&start=80&viewmode=flat&order=0#583458 Picture Album] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Photography retouching / Image Manipulation like Photoshop(tm) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOEffects], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Tecsoft Video Paint aka TVPaint], Photogenics*, ArtEffect*, ImageFX*, XiPaint, fxPaint, ImageMasterRT, Opalpaint, |<!--AmigaOS4-->WarpView, flPhoto, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit Photocrop] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 ShowGirls], ImageFX*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Manage RAW picture folder galleries like Darktable, RAWtherapy, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Graphic Format Converter - ICC profile support sRGB, Adobe RGB, XYZ and linear RGB |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->GraphicsConverter, ImageStudio, [http://www.coplabs.org/artpro.html ArtPro] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Thumbnail Generator [], |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/ ZuneView], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/shell Thumbnail Generator] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Icon Editor |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit Archives], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench Icon Toolbox], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/iconedit IconEditor] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Pixel Art Animation |<!--AROS-->Lunapaint |<!--Amiga OS-->PPaint, AnimatED, Scala*, GoldDisk MovieSetter*, Walt Disney's Animation Studio*, ProDAD*, [https://github.com/historicalsource/DeluxePaint DeluxePaint src], Brilliance |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=3 Titler] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D SVG based MovieSetter type |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->MovieSetter*, Fantavision* |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Morphing |<!--AROS-->[ GLMorph] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->2D Cad (qcad->LibreCAD, etc.) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Xcad, MaxonCAD |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Cad like FreeCad, BRL-CAD, OpenSCAD, AvoCADo, etc. using dxf, obj (vertices), blend, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->XCad3d*, DynaCADD*, [https://aminet.net/package/gfx/3d/Cycas178_EN Cycas]*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Model Rendering of glft (json) gbl (png jpg), usdz (USD files with materials, textures, and animations), FBX Filmbox is a proprietary Autodesk format, |<!--AROS-->POV-Ray |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.discreetfx.com./amigaproducts.html CINEMA 4D]*, POV-Ray, Lightwave3D*, Real3D*, Caligari24*, Reflections/Monzoom*, [https://github.com/privatosan/RayStorm Raystorm src], Tornado 3D, [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/Eric-Graham-1987-Juggler-Raytracer-1.0 Eric-Graham-1987-Juggler-Raytracer-1.0] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, POV-Ray, Yafray |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Format Converter [], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ 3doc.i386-aros], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/convert/ivcon.lha IVCon] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen grabbing display |<!--AROS-->[ Screengrabber], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc snapit], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record screen recorder], [] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Grab graphics music from apps [https://github.com/Malvineous/ripper6 ripper6], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Office Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Office !width:10%;|AROS (x86) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga_software Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1] (68k) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS_4 Hyperion OS4] (PPC) !width:10%;|[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS MorphOS] (PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Suite |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Softwood Final Office], [ Wordworth Office], [ Digita Office], [ The Works!], [ Europress Mini Office], [], [ Papyrus Office Demo], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Word-processing |<!--AROS-->[https://finalwriter.godaddysites.com/ Final Writer 7*], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1995&rowstart=20&pid=12668#post_12668 Slovo], [https://github.com/sodero/MUI-Vim/releases MUI-Vim], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/wordprocessing Cinnamon Writer], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->[ Softwood FinalCopy II*], Haage AmigaWriter*, Digita WordWorth*, Softwood FinalWriter*, Micro-Systems Excellence 3*, Arnor Protext, Rashumon, [ InterWord], [ KindWords], [WordPerfect], [ New Horizons Flow], [ CygnusEd Pro], [ Micro-systems Scribble], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AbiWord, [ CinnamonWriter], |<!--MorphOS-->[ Cinnamon Writer], [http://www.meta-morphos.org/viewtopic.php?topic=1246&forum=53 scriba], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/index.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Spreadsheets |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/leu/ Leu], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/spreadsheet ], |<!--AmigaOS-->[https://aminet.net/package/biz/spread/ignition-src Ignition Src 1.3], [MaxiPlan 500 Plus], [OXXI Plan/IT v2.0 Speadsheet], [ Superplan], [ Creative Developments TurboCalc], [ ProCalc], [ InterSpread], [Digita DGCalc], [ Gold Disk Advantage], [ Micro-systems Analyze!] |<!--AmigaOS4-->Gnumeric, [https://ignition-amiga.sourceforge.net/ Ignition], |<!--MorphOS-->[ ignition], [http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php Papyrus Office], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Presentations |<!--AROS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, [https://github.com/evaneykelen/mediapoint-amiga MediaPoint C and asm], PointRider, Scala*, |<!--Amiga OS4-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.hollywoood-mal.com/ Hollywood]*, PointRider |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Databases |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/database BeeBase], |<!--Amiga OS-->Precision Superbase 4 Pro*, Arnor Prodata*, [https://sourceforge.net/projects/beebase/ BeeBase], Datastore, FinalData*, AmigaBase, Fiasco, Twist2*, [Digita DGBase], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->BeeBase, SQLite, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=6 BeeBase], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PDF Viewing and editing digital signatures |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/tomaszstaniak/aros-foliopdf aros-foliopdf version of mupdf], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/arospdf/ ArosPDF via splash], [https://github.com/wattoc/AROS-vpdf vpdf], |<!--Amiga OS-->APDF |<!--AmigaOS4-->AmiPDF |<!--MorphOS-->APDF, vPDF, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Note Taking markdown support like Obsidian like, joplin, OneNote, EverNotes, xournalpp, etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Study and analyse, collect, organize, annotate, cite, and share |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PIM Personal Information Manager - Day Diary Planner Calendar App Filofax like |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->Digita Organiser*, On The Ball, Everyday Organiser, [ Contact Manager], |<!--AmigaOS4-->AOrganiser, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://polymere.free.fr/orga_en.html PolyOrga], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Accounting |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=office/misc ETB], LoanCalc, [ ], [ ], [ ], |[ Digita Home Accounts2], Accountant, Small Business Accounts, Account Master, [ Amigabok], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Project Management Research |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SuperGantt, SuperPlan, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Desktop |<!--AROS-->Wanderer, Scalos, Workbook, DOpus5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[https://github.com/zapek/Ambient Ambient Src] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Search |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool Finder], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Wide Dictionary - multilingual [http://sourceforge.net/projects/babiloo/ Babiloo], [http://code.google.com/p/stardict-3/ StarDict], |<!--AROS-->[ ], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System wide Thesaurus - multi lingual |<!--AROS-->[ ], |Kuma K-Roget*, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sticky Desktop Notes (post it type) |<!--AROS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.i386-aros AmiMemos], [https://aminet.net/package/util/wb/amimemos.src-aros AmiMemos Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/util/wb/StickIt-2.00 StickIt v2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DTP Desktop Publishing |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit RNOPublisher], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]*, Professional Pro Page*, Saxon Publisher, Pagesetter, PenPal, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |<!--MorphOS-->[http://pagestream.org/ Pagestream]* |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Printing |<!--AROS-->Postscript 3 laser printers, [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT MintPRINT AirPrint IPP], [ Ghostscript], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT MintPRINT IPP], [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirprint AmiAirprint], [http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_what.htm TurboPrint]*, [ GutenPrint], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/NetPrinter NetPrinter LPR], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->(some native drivers), |<!--MorphOS-->early TurboPrint included, [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/NetPrinter NetPrinter LPR], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Scanning |<!--AROS-->[ SCANdal], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->FxScan*, ScanQuix*, [https://github.com/boingball/MintSCAN MintSCAN], |<!--AmigaOS4-->SCANdal (Sane) |<!--MorphOS-->SCANdal |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OCR |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert gOCR] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos-files.net/categories/office/text Tesseract] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text Editing |<!--AROS-->Jano Editor (already installed as Editor), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit EdiSyn], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Vim], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd] [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd src], [ NoWinEd], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/TurboText20 TurboText20 ttx], Annotate, MicroGoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Protext*, NoWinED, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Notepad, Annotate, CygnusED*, NoWinED, |<!--MorphOS-->MorphOS ED, NoWinED, GoldED/CubicIDE*, CygnusED*, Annotate, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Office Fonts [http://sourceforge.net/projects/fontforge/files/fontforge-source/ Font Designer] |<!--AROS-->[ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS-->TypeSmith*, SaxonScript (GetFont Adobe Type 1), |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Drawing Vector |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/amifig/ ZuneFIG previously AmiFIG], [https://github.com/serk118/designworks-aros designworks aros 64bit] |<!--Amiga OS-->Drawstudio*, ProVector*, ArtExpression*, Professional Draw*, AmiFIG, MetaView, [https://gitlab.com/amigasourcecodepreservation/designworks Design Works Src], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MindSpace, [http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit amifig], |<!--MorphOS-->SteamDraw, [http://aminet.net/package/gfx/edit/amifig amiFIG], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->video conferencing (jitsi) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->source code hosting |<!--AROS-->Gitlab, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (server) |<!--AROS-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Server ArosVNCServer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/avnc/index.html AVNC] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://s.guillard.free.fr/AmiVNC/AmiVNC.htm AmiVNC] |MorphVNC, vncserver |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Remote Desktop (client) login and connect to another machine |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/zunetools/files/VNC_Client/ ArosVNC], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/misc rdesktop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://dspach.free.fr/amiga/vva/index.html VVA], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |[http://twinvnc.free.fr/index.php?menu=01&lang=eng TwinVNC], [http://www.hd-zone.com/ RDesktop] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->notifications |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Ranchero |<!--AmigaOS4-->Ringhio |<!--MorphOS-->MagicBeacon |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Biometric facial logins and fingerprint security features |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Audio== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Audio !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing playback Audio like MP3, [https://github.com/chrg127/gmplayer NSF], [https://github.com/kode54/lazyusf miniusf .usflib] [https://gitlab.com/kode54/psflib with pfslib], [], [], etc |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ HarmonyPlayer hp], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/audio/index.xhtml playcdda] CDs, [ WildMidi Player], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ UADE mod player], [], [ RNOTunes], [ mp3Player], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNetRadio, AmigaAmp, playOGG, [https://codeberg.org/tygre/amimodradio amimodradio] |<!--AmigaOS4-->TuneNet, SimplePlay, AmigaAmp, TKPlayer |AmiNetRadio, Mplayer, Kaya, AmigaAmp |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Audio |<!--AROS-->[ Audio Evolution 4] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec Src], [http://www.sonicpulse.de/eng/news.html SoundFX], [ Samplitude], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/hd-rec/ HD-Rec], AmiSoundED, [http://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/audioevolution4.lha Audio Evolution 4] |[http://www.hd-rec.de/HD-Rec/index.php?site=home HD-Rec], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Tracker Music |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/hitchhikr/protrekkr Protrekkr], [ Schism Tracker], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/tracker MilkyTracker], [http://www.hivelytracker.com/ HivelyTracker], [ Radium in AROS already], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/development/index.xhtml libMikMod], |<!--Amiga OS-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, DigiBooster, Octamed SoundStudio, [https://github.com/elindstrom/soundtracker soundtracker], |<!--AmigaOS4-->MilkyTracker, HivelyTracker, GoatTracker |MilkyTracker, GoatTracker, DigiBooster, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Editing Music [], [https://github.com/kmatheussen/camd CAMD] and/or staves and musical notes on manuscript [https://github.com/ratchov/midish midish] midi sequencer |<!--AROS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars and Pipes], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars'n'Pipes], MusicX* David "Talin" Joiner & Craig Weeks (for Notator-X), Deluxe Music Construction Set DMCS2*, [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny c Src] [https://github.com/kas1e/midi-sequencer-amigaos/tree/master/HornyGCC HornyGCC OS4 src] [https://github.com/capehill/midi-sequencer-amigaos Horny OS4 fork src] [https://www.amigans.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=8143&order=ASC&status=&mode=0 OS4 thread], HD-Rec, [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/dominatorV1_51 Dominator], [https://github.com/royaltm/Amiga-midiIn Amiga-midiIn], [ Aegis Sonix 2.0] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Rockbeat, [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/download.html Bars'n'Pipes], [https://github.com/gooofy/freeaction Horny OS4 src fork], Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->Bars'n'Pipes, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Sound Sampling |<!--AROS-->[ Advanced AHI Recorder all], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/record Audio Evolution 4], [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&did=162 Quick Record], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc SOX to get AIFF 16bit files], [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/tree/master/workbench/tools/AHIRecord AHIRecord], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/AudioEvolution3_src Audio Evolution 3 c src], [ Samplitude]*, Audiomaster IV*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://github.com/timoinutilis/phonolith-amigaos phonolith c src], HD-Rec, Audio Evolution 4, |<!--MorphOS-->[https://sourceforge.net/p/hd-rec/code/HEAD/tree/ HD-Rec Src], Audio Evolution 4, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Processing like easyeffects so having limiter, compressor, convolver, equalizer and auto volume and many other plugins |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Live Looping or Audio Misc - Groovebox like |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD burn |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility IsoTools], [https://code.google.com/p/amiga-fryingpan/ FryingPan], |<!--Amiga OS-->FryingPan, [ MakeCD], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FryingPan, AmiDVD, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.amiga.org/forums/printthread.php?t=58736 FryingPan], Jalopeano, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->CD/DVD audio rip |<!--AROS-->Lame, [http://www.imica.net/SitePortalPage.aspx?siteid=1&cfid=0&did=167 Quick CDrip], |<!--Amiga OS-->Lame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Lame, |<!--MorphOS-->Lame, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->MP3 v1 and v2 Tagger |<!--AROS-->id3ren (v1), [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/edit mp3info], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> | |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Audio Convert |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc Sox], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBox SoundBox], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/misc/SoundBoxKey SoundBox Key], [http://aminet.net/package/mus/edit/SampleE SampleE], sox |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->DJ mixing jamming |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/djh0ffman/PT1210 Hoffman PT1210 DJ tracker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Radio Automation Software [http://www.rivendellaudio.org/ Rivendell], [http://code.campware.org/projects/livesupport/report/3 Campware LiveSupport], [http://www.sourcefabric.org/en/airtime/ SourceFabric AirTime], [http://www.ohloh.net/p/mediabox404 MediaBox404], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speakers Audio Sonos Mains AC networked wired controlled *2005 ZP100 with ZP80 *2008 Zoneplayer ZP120 (multi-room wireless amp) ZP90 receiver only with CR100 controller, *2009 ZonePlayer S5, *2010 BR100 wireless Bridge (no support), *2011 Play:3 *2013 Bridge (no support), Play:1, *2016 Arc, Play:1, *Beam (Gen 2), Playbar, Ray, Era 100, Era 300, Roam, Move 2, *Sub (Gen 3), Sub Mini, Five, Amp S2 |<!--AROS-->SonosController |<!--Amiga OS-->SonosController |<!--AmigaOS4-->SonosController |<!--MorphOS-->SonosController |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Smart Speakers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Video Creativity and Production== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Video !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing Video |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/play Mplayer], [ VAMP], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml CDXL player], [http://www.a500.org/downloads/video/index.xhtml IffAnimPlay], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frogger*, AMP2, MPlayer, RiVA*, MooViD*, |<!--AmigaOS4-->DvPlayer, MPlayer |<!--MorphOS-->MPlayer, Frogger, AMP2, VLC |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Streaming Video and game streaming like OBS studio, Parsec, [https://github.com/lizardbyte/sunshine sunshine], [https://github.com/moonlight-stream/moonlight-qt moonlight], etc |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Playing DVD |<!--AROS-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, Mplayer |<!--Amiga OS-->AMP2, Frogger |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://a-mc.biz/ AMC]*, DvPlayer*, AMP2, |<!--MorphOS-->Mplayer |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Recording |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=video/record Screenrecorder], [ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Screenrecorder, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Create Edit Individual Video - Amiga like OSs have no pro NLE |<!--AROS-->[ Mencoder], [ Quick Videos], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/edit AVIbuild], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc FrameBuild], FFMPEG, |<!--Amiga OS-->[ MainConcept Mainactor Broadcast*], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Toaster Video Toaster*] with [https://discreetfx.com/openvideotoaster.html some c src], MacroSystem MovieShop 4.3*, proDAD Adorage*, [ IOSpirit VHI studio]*, [Gold Disk ShowMaker], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->FFMpeg/GUI |<!--MorphOS-->Blender, Mencoder, FFmpeg |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Subtitle editor |<!--AROS-->[https://aminet.net/package/text/edit/Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0 Slarti_Arosx86ABIv0], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->IP-based video production workflows with High Dynamic Range (HDR), 10-bit color collaborative NDI, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Blogging like Lemmy or kbin |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR face recognition for Vtubers |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting Live2D models with Cubism type editor or [https://github.com/AyagamiDev/ayagami ayagami] like with zipped moc3 with model metadata (model3, cdi3) <pre> Model data (cmo3) Basic motions (can3) Background image (png) Set of files for embedding (runtime folder) • Model data (moc3) • Motion data (motion3.json) • Model settings file (model3.json) • Physics settings file (physics3.json) • Display auxiliary file (cdi3.json) </pre> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->VR chatting chatters .VRML models - standardized 3D file format for VR avatars |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->V-tubers V-tubing like Vseeface with Openseeface tracker or Vpuppr (virtual puppet project) for online live 2d / 3d art models rigging rigged LIV |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. [[#top|...to the top]] ==Misc Application== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1 (68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Management |<!--AROS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 DOpus Magellan aka DOpus 5], [ Scalos], [ Diskmaster], |<!--Amiga OS-->DOpus2, DOpus 4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], ClassAction, FileMaster, [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=4897 DirWork 2]*, [https://github.com/RudolphRiedel/DiskMaster2 DiskMaster2 src], |<!--AmigaOS4-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], Filer, AmiDisk |<!--MorphOS-->DOpus4, [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/dopus5 Dopus5 Magellan], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->File Verification / Repair |<!--AROS-->[https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility md5sum], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool asum], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/filetool workpar2] (PAR2), [http://zakalwe.fi/~shd/foss/cksfv/files/ compile cksfv from website], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->Par2, |- |Application Installer |<!--AROS-->[], [ InstallerNG], |<!--Amiga OS-->InstallerNG, Grunch, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Jack |<!--MorphOS-->Jack |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Compression archiver [https://github.com/FS-make-simple/paq9a paq9a], [], |<!--AROS-->XAD system is a toolkit designed for handling various file and disk archiver |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[https://aminet.net/package/util/pack/decrunchmania_os4 Crunchmania CrM2 depacker], |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Binary Hexadecimal Editor |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/edit Zaphod], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Partition Editor formatter Disk Management |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1440&highlight=partition&pid=8821#post_8821 QuickPart], [ HDToolBox] |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/stefanskotte/hdpart hdpart], [https://github.com/ChuckyGang/AmiPart AmiPart], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Filesystem Repair and backups |<!--AROS-->ArSFSDoctor, |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/disk/bakup/quarterback_src Quarterback Tools C and asm src], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System Disk check, integrity and history [https://github.com/smartmontools/smartmontools smart tools], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Multiple File renaming |<!--AROS-->DOpus 4 or 5, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Anti Virus |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->VChecker, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Random Wallpaper Desktop changer [ DOpus5], [ Scalos], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Alarm Clock, Timer, Stopwatch, Countdown |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/workbench DClock], [http://aminet.net/util/time/AlarmClockAROS.lha AlarmClock], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} ==Misc Application 2== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ IDE Integrated Development |<!--AROS-->[https://sourceforge.net/projects/aidea/ AIDEa], [ Murks], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, [ StormC], [https://github.com/jens-maus/amide amide], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->CodeBench , [https://gitlab.com/boemann/codecraft CodeCraft], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://devplex.awardspace.biz/cubic/index.html Cubic IDE]*, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->C/C++ Text Editors |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit FrexxEd], [https://github.com/vidarh/FrexxEd FrexxEd src], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/text/edit Annotate] with [https://www.onyxsoft.se/files/annotate_src.lha src], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Protext], [ CED], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[https://www.onyxsoft.se/annotate.html Annotate], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Repository |<!--AROS-->[ Git] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->Git |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->BASIC Computer Language |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/language Basic4SDL], [ Ace Basic], [ X-AMOS], [SDLBasic], [ Alvyn], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.amiforce.de/main.php Amiblitz 3] with [https://github.com/AmiBlitz/AmiBlitz3 Asm src], [http://amos.condor.serverpro3.com/AmosProManual/contents/c1.html Amos Pro] with [https://github.com/AmiDARK/AmosProfessionalUnity-Official-Releases Asm src], [http://aminet.net/package/dev/basic/ace24dist ACE Basic], [https://github.com/gooofy/aqb aqb], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->sdlBasic |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Computer Languages Translation [https://tetracorp.github.io/guide/reverse-engineering-amiga.html], [https://amigasourcecodepreservation.gitlab.io/amiga-assembler-insider-guide/], [https://github.com/kermitfrog/Amiga-Re-Engineering Rust, Ghidra and FS-UAE], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://bitbucket.org/rhinoid/convert68000toc/src/main/ convert m68k seka asm-one to c], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Gui Creators |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/guitool MuiBuilder], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[ MuiBuilder], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Catalog .cd .ct Custom App Language Editors |<!--AROS-->FlexCat, [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility Flexcat GUI], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://aminet.net/package/dev/misc/simplecat SimpleCat], FlexCat |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.geit.de/deu_simplecat.html SimpleCat], FlexCat |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Cross Development |<!--AROS-->[], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/geekychris/amiga_mcp amiga_mcp], [https://github.com/mbergmann-sh/AmigaED4-IDE AmigaED4-IDE], [https://lemonspawn.com/turbo-rascal-syntax-error-expected-but-begin/ Turbo Rascal], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Misc Application 3== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->System |<!--AROS-->[ SysExplorer], [ SysMon], [ Scout], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Terminals Shells CLIs |<!--AROS-->[https://tomaszstaniak.com/aros-term/ aros-term], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->OSK On Screen Keyboard |<!--AROS-->[], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/util/wb/OSK.lha OSK] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Magnifier Magnifying Glass Magnification |<!--AROS-->[http://www.onyxsoft.se/files/zoomit.lha ZoomIT], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Comic Book CBR CBZ format reader viewer |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comics], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/viewer comicon], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Reader |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#legadon Legadon EPUB],[] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Ebook Converter |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Text to Speech tts [https://github.com/JonathanFly/bark-installer Bark], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Echo " " >SPEAK:A1 inbuilt], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=audio/misc flite], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.text2speech.com translator], [https://github.com/sidick/narrator.wyoming narrator.wyoming], [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=search&tool=simple FLite] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://se.aminet.net/pub/aminet/mus/misc/ FLite] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Recognition Dictation - [http://sourceforge.net/projects/cmusphinx/files/ CMU Sphinx], [http://julius.sourceforge.jp/en_index.php?q=en/index.html Julius], [http://www.isip.piconepress.com/projects/speech/index.html ISIP], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Speech Voice Changer [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Screen Display Blanker screensaver |<!--AROS-->Blanker Commodity (built in), [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/screenblanker GarshneBlanker], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gblanker/ GBlanker Src], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->MultiCX, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->ModernArt Blanker, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fortune Cookie Quotes Sayings |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/misc AFortune], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} ==Misc Application 4== {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:30%;|Misc Application !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|Commodore-Amiga OS 3.1(68k) !width:10%;|Hyperion OS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Fractals mandelbrot, etc |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/misc], |<!--Amiga OS-->ZoneXplorer, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Landscape Rendering |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/raytrace WCS World Construction Set], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Vista Pro], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Construction_Set World Construction Set] |<!--AmigaOS4-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |<!--MorphOS-->[ WCS World Construction Set], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astronomy [https://sourceforge.net/projects/skychart/ skychart freepascal], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Digital Almanac (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/search?query=planetarium Aminet search], [http://aminet.net/misc/sci/DA3V56ISO.zip Digital Almanac], [https://aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3sourceV58 Src c V58], [ Galileo renamed to Distant Suns]*, [], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://sourceforge.net/projects/digital-almanac/ Digital Almanac], Distant Suns*, [http://www.digitaluniverse.org.uk/ Digital Universe]*, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://www.aminet.net/misc/sci/da3.lha Digital Almanac], [http://www.aminet.net/package/misc/sci/da3-mos-src Src c V56], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Astrology [https://sourceforge.net/projects/skylendar/ skylendar], [https://github.com/CruiserOne/Astrolog Astrolog], [https://www.astrolog.org/astrolog/astfile.htm Astrology alt site], [https://saravali.github.io/download.html Maitreya], [https://github.com/alamahant/Asteria Asteria], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Genealogy History Family Tree Ancestry Records (FreeBMD, FreeREG, and FreeCEN file formats or GEDCOM GenTree) |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> [ Origins], [ Your Family Tree], [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Languages |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->Fun School, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Mathematics ([http://www-fourier.ujf-grenoble.fr/~parisse/install_en.html Xcas], etc.), |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/scientific mathX] |<!--Amiga OS-->Maple V, mathX, Fun School, GCSE Maths, [ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4-->Yacas |<!--MorphOS-->Yacas |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Maths Graph Function Plotting |<!--AROS-->[https://blog.alb42.de/programs/#MUIPlot MUIPlot], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->App Utility Launcher Dock toolbar |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=utility/docky BoingBar], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/adkennan/DockBot Dockbot], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->3D Printer [https://github.com/OrcaSlicer/OrcaSlicer OrcaSlicer] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->PCB design |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[ ], [ ], [ ], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Digital Signage |<!--AROS-->Hollywood, Hollywood Designer |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->HAM radio, amateur radio, packet radio, [], [], [], [https://cemaxecuter.com/ Dragon OS], [https://github.com/km4ack/73Linux with 73 link update], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAL5KNePRSg video for], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/punktniklas/NiKom NiKom], [https://www.amigarealm.com/amiga/amicomms/comm4.htm Comm4], [https://www.amigarealm.com/archives/comms/aarug/ TNC Terminal Node Controller with packets over serial connections on Yaesu or Woxum handheld], [https://aminet.net/comm/misc AmiCom], [ with 7Plus file encoder/decoder], [ mksstv], [ RTTYam], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->modern smart home network like Home Assistant Automation Yellow, Green, Mosquitto, EMQX, |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/evil4dmin/ami2ha HA], [https://github.com/sidick/midge mtqq.lib], [https://aminet.net/package/comm/tcp/AmiHomeassist-0.7 AmiHomeassist], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Teaching classroom learning training [https://github.com/moodle/moodle moodle], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> Commercial product. ==Games & Emulation== Some emulators/games require OpenGL to function and to adjust ahi prefs channels, frequency and unit0 and unit1 and [http://aros.sourceforge.net/documentation/users/shell/changetaskpri.php changetaskpri -1] Rom patching https://www.marcrobledo.com/RomPatcher.js/ https://www.romhacking.net/patch/ (ips, ups, bps, etc) and this other site supports the latter formats https://hack64.net/tools/patcher.php Free public domain roms for use with emulators can be found [http://www.pdroms.de/ here] as most of the rest are covered by copyright rules. If you like to read about old games see [http://retrogamingtimes.com/ here] and [http://www.armchairarcade.com/neo/ here] and a [http://www.vintagecomputing.com/ blog] about old computers. Possibly some of the [http://www.answers.com/topic/list-of-best-selling-computer-and-video-games best selling] of all time. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_system_emulators Wiki] with emulated systems list. [https://archive.gamehistory.org/ Archive of VGHF], [https://library.gamehistory.org/ Video Game History Foundation Library search] {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Emulation] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Amstrad CPC |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [ Caprice32 (OpenGL & pure SDL)], [ Arnold], [https://retroshowcase.gr/cpcbox-master/], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Apple2 and 2GS |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Arcade |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Mame], [ SI Emu (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS-->Mame, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem xmame], amiarcadia, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 Mame], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 2600 [], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Stella], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 5200 [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A5200DS A5200DS], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 7800 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari 400 800 130XL [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/A8DS A8DS], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Atari800], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Lynx |<!--AROS-->[http://myfreefilehosting.com/f/6366e11bdf_1.93MB Handy (ABIv0 only)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Atari Jaguar |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Bandai Wonderswan |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation BBC Micro and Acorn Electron [http://beehttps://bem-unix.bbcmicro.com/download.html BeebEm], [http://b-em.bbcmicro.com/ B-Em], [http://elkulator.acornelectron.co.uk/ Elkulator], [http://electrem.emuunlim.com/ ElectrEm], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Dragon 32 and Tandy CoCo [http://www.6809.org.uk/xroar/ xroar], [], |<!--AROS-->[], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C16 Plus4 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore C64 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Vice (ABIv0 only)], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Frodo, |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem viceplus], |<!--MorphOS-->Vice, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Commodore Amiga |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Janus UAE], Emumiga, |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer UAE], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=2 UAE], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Japanese MSX MSX2 |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Intelivision |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Mattel Colecovision and Adam |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Milton Bradley (MB) Vectrex [ Vectrex OpenGL], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation PICO8 Pico-8 fantasy video game console [https://github.com/egordorichev/pemsa-sdl/ pemsa-sdl], [https://github.com/jtothebell/fake-08 fake-08], [https://github.com/Epicpkmn11/fake-08/tree/wip fake-08 fork], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo Gameboy |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba no sound], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem vba] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo NES |<!--AROS-->[ EmiNES], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Fceu], [https://github.com/takahirox/nes-js?tab=readme-ov-file nes-js], [https://github.com/bfirsh/jsnes jsnes], [https://github.com/angelo-wf/NesJs NesJs], |<!--Amiga OS-->AmiNES, [http://www.dridus.com/~nyef/darcnes/ darcNES], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem amines] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo SNES |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Zsnes], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem warpsnes] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://fabportnawak.free.fr/snes/ Snes9x], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Nintendo N64 *HLE and plugins [ mupen64], [https://github.com/ares-emulator/ares ares], [https://github.com/N64Recomp/N64Recomp N64Recomp], [https://github.com/rt64/rt64 rt64], [https://github.com/simple64/simple64 Simple64], *LLE [], |<!--AROS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/mupen64plus/ Mupen64+], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/tr-981125_src TR64], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Gamecube Wii] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Nintendo Wii U] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/yuzu-emu Nintendo Switch] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation NEC PC Engine |<!--AROS-->[], [], [https://github.com/yhzmr442/jspce js-pce], |[http://www.hugo.fr.fm/ Hugo], [http://mednafen.sourceforge.net/ Mednafen], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem tgemu] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Master System (SMS) |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Dega], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem sms], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem osmose] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Genesis/Megadrive |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gp no sound], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem DGen], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://code.google.com/p/genplus-gx/ Genplus], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem genesisplus] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Saturn *HLE [https://mednafen.github.io/ mednafen], [http://yabause.org/ yabause], [], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://yabause.org/ Yabause], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sega Dreamcast *HLE [https://github.com/flyinghead/flycast flycast], [https://code.google.com/archive/p/nulldc/downloads NullDC], *LLE [], [], |<!--AROS-->? |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair ZX80 and ZX81 |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair Spectrum |[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Fuse (crackly sound)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer SimCoupe], [ FBZX slow], [https://jsspeccy.zxdemo.org/ jsspeccy], [http://torinak.com/qaop/games qaop], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://www.lasernet.plus.com/ Asp], [http://www.zophar.net/sinclair.html Speculator], [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/x128/index.html X128], |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sinclair QL |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/QDOS4amiga1 QDOS4amiga] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation SNK NeoGeo Pocket |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem gngeo], NeoPop, |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation Sony PlayStation |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem FPSE] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS2] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[ Sony PS3] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://vita3k.org/ Sony Vita] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->[https://github.com/shadps4-emu/shadPS4 PS4] |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerine_Computer_Systems Tangerine] Oric and Atmos |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer Oricutron] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.os4depot.net/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/gamesystem Oricutron] |<!--MorphOS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/oricutron Oricutron] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 99/4 99/4A [https://github.com/wavemotion-dave/DS994a DS994a], [], [https://js99er.net/#/ js99er], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=emulation/computer], |<!--Amiga OS-->[http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga TI4Amiga], [http://aminet.net/package/misc/emu/TI4Amiga_src TI4Amiga src in c], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation HP 38G 40GS 48 49G/50G Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Emulation TI 58 83 84 85 86 - 89 92 Graphing Calculators |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu--> |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !width:10%;|Games [https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/ General] !width:10%;|AROS(x86) !width:10%;|AmigaOS3(68k) !width:10%;|AmigaOS4(PPC) !width:10%;|MorphOS(PPC) |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Games [https://www.trackawesomelist.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games/ Open Source and others] || AROS || Amiga OS || Amiga OS4 || Morphos |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Action like [https://github.com/opentomb/OpenTomb opentomb], [https://github.com/LostArtefacts/TRX TRX formerly Tomb1Main], [https://github.com/TombEngine TombEngine], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Thrust], [https://github.com/fragglet/sdl-sopwith sdl sopwith], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action BOH], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/OpenLara/tree/amiga/src source of openlara SDL2], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Adventure like [http://dotg.sourceforge.net/ DMJ], [https://github.com/kromenak/gengine Gabriel Knight 3], [http://www.sarien.net/ Sierra Sarien], [https://github.com/klembot/twinejs twine js], [https://github.com/QSPFoundation/qspgui Quest Soft Player QSP], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/adventure dmagnetic], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=browse&cat=emulation/misc ScummVM], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying frotz infocom], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Board like [https://github.com/aperture-software/colditz-escape escape from colditz], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/board], [http://amigan.1emu.net/releases Africa] |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Cards |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/card], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=180&pid=12934#post_12934 Balatro], |<!--AmigaOS-->[http://home.arcor.de/amigasolitaire/e/welcome.html Reko], [https://github.com/samskivert/beschei-en beschei Src], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Misc [https://github.com/michelpereira/awesome-open-source-games Awesome open], [https://github.com/bobeff/open-source-games General Open Source], [https://github.com/SAT-R/sa2 Sonic Advance 2], [https://github.com/velorek1/cwordle Wordle type], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games FPS like [https://aminet.net/package/game/shoot/D1X_Rebirth_AGA Descent D1X src], [https://github.com/DescentDevelopers/Descent3 Descent 3], [https://github.com/Fewnity/Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS Counter-Strike-Nintendo-DS], [https://github.com/Aleph-One-Marathon/alephone Bungie Marathon 1994], [https://zdoom.org/downloads UzDoom opengl 3.3], [https://github.com/ZDoom/gzdoom gzdoom opengl 3+], [https://zdoom.org/downloads LZDoom opengl 2.1], [https://github.com/OpenXRay/xray-16 S.T.A.L.K.E.R Xray], |<!--AROS-->Doom, Quake, [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Quake 3 Arena (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Assault Cube (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Cube 2 Sauerbraten (OpenGL)], [http://fodquake.net/test/ FodQuake QuakeWorld], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Duke Nukem 3D], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Darkplaces Nexuiz Xonotic], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Doom 3 SDL (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Hexenworld and Hexen 2], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Aliens vs Predator Gold 2000 avp (openGL)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/fps Odamex (openGL doom)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/fps/ zgloom], [], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/fps/ ab3dhd], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->Doom, Quake, AB3D, Fears, Breathless, Gloom, |<!--AmigaOS4-->Doom, Quake, |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12 Doom], Quake, Quake 3 Arena, |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games MMORG like |<!--AROS-->[ Eternal Lands (OpenGL)], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Platform like |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform], [ Maze of Galious], [ Gish]*(openGL), [ Mega Mario], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ thextech SMBX], [http://www.gianas-return.de/ Giana's Return], [http://www.sqrxz.de/ Sqrxz], [www.sqrxz2.de/ Sqrxz 2], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-3/ Sqrxz 3], [http://www.sqrxz.de/sqrxz-4/ Sqrxz 4], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/platform Cave Story], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ Frogatto], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ OpenJazz], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ pekkakana2], [ Aquaria], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/platform/ sonic CD], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[ Giana Sisters], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Puzzle [https://github.com/mariopartyrd/marioparty4/tree/port Party], [https://github.com/mdodis/OpenSolomonsKey OpenSolomonsKey], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle], [ Cubosphere (OpenGL)], [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/puzzle Candy Crisis], [http://bszili.morphos.me/ TailTale], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Racing [ Trigger Rally], [ VDrift], [http://www.ultimatestunts.nl/index.php?page=2&lang=en Ultimate Stunts], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/ Mania Drive], [https://github.com/plowteam/donut Simpsons Hit and Run], [], |<!--AROS-->[ Super Tux Kart (OpenGL)], [http://www.dusabledanslherbe.eu/AROSPage/F1Spirit.30.html F1 Spirit (OpenGL)], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html MultiRacer], [https://bszili.morphos.me/ Speed Dreams], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/driving/dethrace-0.10.1.x86_64-aros-v11.zip Carmageddon dethrace 64bit], [http://maniadrive.raydium.org/index.php?downloads=yes maniadrive like trackmania], |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html Speed Dreams], |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12], [http://bszili.morphos.me/index.html TORCS], |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 1st first person DRPG [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/OpenEnroth/OpenEnroth OpenEnroth MM], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://github.com/BSzili/aros-stuff Arx Libertatis], [http://www.playfuljs.com/a-first-person-engine-in-265-lines/ js raycaster], [https://github.com/Dorthu/es6-crpg webgl], [https://github.com/sonountaleban/AmiShockolate System Shock], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS-->Phantasie, Faery Tale, Dungeon Master, |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 3rd third person action CRPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/alexbatalov/fallout1-ce fallout ce], [https://github.com/rwengine/openrw gta3], [https://github.com/gta-reversed/gta-reversed gta3 sa], [https://github.com/mrxenginner/reVC gta3 vc revc], [https://github.com/jakobharder/burntime/tree/main Burntime], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ fheroes2 homm2], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ breakhack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ devilutionx diablo 1 hellfire], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/roleplaying/ fallout 1], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ stratagus], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ hostile-takeover], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games isometric RPG [https://sourceforge.net/projects/sumwars/ Summoning Wars], [https://www.solarus-games.org/ Solarus], [https://wiki.rpg.net/index.php/Open_Game_Systems Misc], [https://github.com/topics/dungeon?l=javascript Dungeon], [], [https://github.com/clintbellanger/heroine-dusk JS Dusk], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying nethack], [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/roleplaying GemRB], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games card based RPG [https://github.com/open-duelyst/duelyst Duelyst], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games turn based tactics RPG [], [], [], [], [], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy UFO AI], [http://play.freeciv.org/ FreeCiv], [], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Strategy [http://rtsgus.org/ RTSgus], [http://stargus.sourceforge.net/ Stargus], [https://github.com/KD-lab-Open-Source/Perimeter Perimeter], [https://matty77.itch.io/conflict-3049 conflict-3049], [https://github.com/ZeroK-RTS/Zero-K Zero-K multi player rts lua], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/strategy MegaGlest (OpenGL)], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/strategy/ signus], [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=140&pid=12446#post_12446 Wargus warcraft 2 setup], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://aminet.net/package/game/strat/OpenDUNE_RTG OpenDUNE_RTG src] |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Rhythm, Beat, Step [], [], [https://clonehero.net/ clonehero], [https://github.com/MatteoGodzilla/Dj-Engine Dj-Engine], |<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/misc Frets on Fire], [], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Shoot Em Ups [http://www.mhgames.org/oldies/formido/ Formido], [http://code.google.com/p/violetland/ Violetland], ||<!--AROS-->[https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=game/action Open Tyrian], [http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ Alien Blaster], [https://github.com/OpenFodder/openfodder OpenFodder], [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=game/action/ tbftss The Battle for the Solar System: the Pandora War] |<!--AmigaOS--> |<!--AmigaOS4-->[http://www.parallelrealities.co.uk/projects/starfighter.php Starfighter], [ The Battle for the Solar System: the Pandora War] |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Simulations [http://scp.indiegames.us/ Freespace 2], [http://www.heptargon.de/gl-117/gl-117.html GL117], [http://code.google.com/p/corsix-th/ Theme Hospital], [http://code.google.com/p/freerct/ Rollercoaster Tycoon], [http://hedgewars.org/ Hedgewars], [https://github.com/raceintospace/raceintospace raceintospace], [https://github.com/Return-To-The-Roots RTTR Settlers 2], [https://github.com/OoliteProject/oolite oolite elite], [https://github.com/fesh0r/newkind newkind elite], [https://github.com/bohemiainteractive/cwr Arma Cold War Src], [https://github.com/endless-sky/endless-sky endless-sky], [https://github.com/pioneerspacesim/pioneer pioneer space command], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS-->SimCity, SimAnt, Sim Hospital, Theme Park, [https://github.com/angree/openttd_amiga_68k openttd amiga_68k], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS-->[http://morphos.lukysoft.cz/en/vypis.php?kat=12] |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Life Sim [https://github.com/ACreTeam/forest Animal Crossing], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Horror [https://github.com/Mikompilation/MikuPan Fatal Frame], [ ], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Sandbox Voxel Open World Exploration [https://github.com/ClassiCube/ Classicube],[http://www.michaelfogleman.com/craft/ Craft], [https://github.com/tothpaul/DelphiCraft DelphiCraft],[https://www.minetest.net/ Luanti formerly Minetest], [ infiniminer], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Battle Royale [https://bruh.io/ Play.Bruh.io], [https://www.coolmathgames.com/0-copter Copter Royale], [https://surviv.io/ Surviv.io], [https://nuggetroyale.io/#Ketchup Nugget Royale], [https://miniroyale2.io/ Miniroyale2.io], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Tower Defense [https://chriscourses.github.io/tower-defense/ HTML5], [https://github.com/SBardak/Tower-Defense-Game TD C++], [https://github.com/bdoms/love_defense LUA and LOVE], [https://github.com/HyOsori/Osori-WebGame HTML5], [https://github.com/PascalCorpsman/ConfigTD ConfigTD Pascal], [https://github.com/GloriousEggroll/wine-ge-custom Wine], [] |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1443&rowstart=180&pid=12871#post_12871 Plants vs Zombies PvZ], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/boingball/miggy-tower-defense miggy-tower-defense], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Visual Novel Engines [https://github.com/diane1f0cd/VisualNovelTemplate Visual Novel Template], [https://github.com/Kirilllive/tuesday-js Tuesday JS], [https://github.com/tejasnayak25/vnsutra vnsutra], [https://github.com/weetabix-su/renpsp-dev RenPSP], [https://github.com/Galladite27/ONScripter-EN ONScripter-EN], [https://github.com/NathanGuilhot/VNES-Raylib https://github.com/NathanGuilhot/VNES VNES in Raylib], [https://www.renpy.org/latest.html renpy ren'py python based], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Reality VR [https://gitlab.com/madsbuvi/openmw openmw vr], [https://github.com/Team-Beef-Studios/BeefRaiderXR BeefRaiderXR], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Table Top VTT [ Roll20], [https://www.owlbear.rodeo/ owlbear rodeo], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Computer assisted TableTop TTRPG OSR [https://www.rpgsolo.com/play.php RPGSolo], [https://github.com/fpsvogel/solo-ttrpgs Solo TTRPG], [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games 2D 3D Engines [https://github.com/fegennari/3DWorld 3DWorld], [https://github.com/GarageGames/Torque3D Torque3D], [https://github.com/gameplay3d/GamePlay GamePlay 3D], [https://www.babylonjs.com/ BabylonJS ], [ Godot], [ Ogre], [ Crystal Space], [https://github.com/JacobHess03/ Dragon-Quest like], [https://github.com/bjornbytes/lovr Lua LOVE for 2D LOVR for 3D], [], |<!--AROS-->[https://www.arkhamdev.net/wiki.htm?id=agx Arkham Development antiryadgx 8.9 lts with register], [], |<!--Amiga OS-->[https://github.com/alpyre/Sevgi_Engine Sevgi Engine], [], [], |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games C based game frameworks [https://github.com/orangeduck/Corange Corange], [https://github.com/scottcgi/Mojoc Mojoc], [https://orx-project.org/ Orx], [https://github.com/ioquake/ioq3 Quake 3], [https://www.mapeditor.org/ Tiled], [https://www.raylib.com/ 2d Raylib], [https://github.com/Rabios/awesome-raylib other raylib], [https://github.com/MrFrenik/gunslinger Gunslinger], [https://o3de.org/ o3d], [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library GLFW], [], |<!--AROS-->[http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=development/library Raylib 5], |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games RPGMaker MV/MZ-compatible projects [https://github.com/Psychronic-Games/RPGReactor RPGReactor js], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games Virtual Pinball [https://github.com/vpinball/vpinball vpinball], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |- |<!--Sub Menu-->Games unpack unarc [], [], |<!--AROS--> |<!--Amiga OS--> |<!--AmigaOS4--> |<!--MorphOS--> |} ==Application Guides== [[#top|...to the top]] ===Web Browser=== OWB is now at version 2.0 (which got an engine refresh, from July 2015 to February 2019) and 3.0. This latest version has a good support for many/most web sites, even YouTube web page now works. [https://www.bilibili.tv/en/search untested] This improved compatibility comes at the expense of higher RAM usage (now 1GB RAM is the absolute minimum). Also, keep in mind that the lack of a JIT (Just-In-Time) JS compiler on the 32 bit version, makes the web surfing a bit slow. Only the 64 bit version of OWB 2.0 will have JIT enabled, thus benefitting of more speed. There are tooltypes that can be added to the icon to provide further features JIT, MSE etc Certificates from [https://curl.se/docs/caextract.html ca certs], DNS tracking blocking with [https://easylist.to/easylist/easylist.txt easylist.txt] in PROGDIR:Conf before starting browser with enabled AdBlock [https://github.com/easylist/easylist/tree/master easylist], [https://gitlab.com/eyeo anti abp], [https://firebog.net/ big blocklist], [https://github.com/StevenBlack/hosts Steves], [], [], This can be enabled with OWB Odyssey with Windows -> Content Blocking and Windows -> Messages and enter https://www.youtube.com/api/stats/ads* https://www.youtube.com/pagead/adview* https://www.youtube.com#@##player-ads* into your custom filters Element blocker browser extension might be needed for [https://github.com/easylist/easylist/wiki/Youtube-Issues youtube], [ mid roll], [ pre roll], [ ], OWB speed is much better when running from RAM Disk, the best way is to add the below into your S:User-Startup which copies OWB drawer from Extras:Internet/OWB to RAM Disk: So add this : <pre> copy Extras:Internet/OWB Ram:OWB/ ALL CLONE >NIL: copy Extras:Internet/OWB.info Ram: >NIL: </pre> Open RAM Disk and open OWB drawer and double click on OWB icon so that the above icon tooltypes are activated Problems are that the copy time is long (around 20 seconds added in the background), but we can make it faster if we delete useless files from the OWB drawer (docs, …) If you don’t copy the drawer back onto the HD, you won’t save your cache, cookies, passwords… So you need a script for it. copy Extras:Internet/Amelinium/#? Ram:Amelinium/ ALL CLONE >NIL: Error messages SSL error "cant verify with ca-certificates", check bios clock time date is correct Error 6, try checking networking prefs settings and Save / Use preferences again or a '''few times''' otherwise the network chipset may not be compatible with Aros [https://www.google.com/search?q=%s&udm=14 Google search without AI overview] [ DuckDuckGo] [ Ecosia] [ Qwant] [ Swisscows] [ Mojeek] [ Brave Search] [ PreSearch] [ Startpage] ===E-mail=== Emailinium is now available for IMAP and POP3 based accounts YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections ====SimpleMail==== SimpleMail supports IMAP and appears to work with GMail, but it's never been reliable enough, it can crash with large mailboxes. Please read more on this [http://www.freelists.org/list/simplemail-usr User list] GMail Be sure to activate the pop3 usage in your gmail account setup / configuration first. pop3: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 smtp: smtp.gmail.com (with authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use SSL: Yes Port: 465 or 587 Hotmail/MSN/outlook/Microsoft Mail mid-2017, all outlook.com accounts will be migrated to Office 365 / Exchange Most users are currently on POP which does not allow showing folders and many other features (technical limitations of POP3). With Microsoft IMAP you will get folders, sync read/unread, and show flags. You still won't get push though, as Microsoft has not turned on the IMAP Idle command as at Sept 2013. If you want to try it, you need to first remove (you can't edit) your pop account (long-press the account on the accounts screen, delete account). Then set it up this way: 1. Email/Password 2. Manual 3. IMAP 4. * Incoming: imap-mail.outlook.com, port 993, SSL/TLS should be checked * Outgoing: smtp-mail.outlook.com, port 587, SSL/TLS should be checked * POP server name pop-mail.outlook.com, port 995, POP encryption method SSL Yahoo Mail On April 24, 2002 Yahoo ceased to offer POP access to its free mail service. Introducing instead a yearly payment feature, allowing users POP3 and IMAP server support, along with such benefits as larger file attachment sizes and no adverts. Sorry to see Yahoo leaving its users to cough up for the privilege of accessing their mail. Understandable, when competing against rivals such as Gmail and Hotmail who hold a large majority of users and were hacked in 2014 as well. Incoming Mail (IMAP) Server * Server - imap.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 993 * Requires SSL - Yes Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server * Server - smtp.mail.yahoo.com * Port - 465 or 587 * Requires SSL - Yes * Requires authentication - Yes Your login info * Email address - Your full email address (name@domain.com) * Password - Your account's password * Requires authentication - Yes Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a subscription subs fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 * Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. * “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. * “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com * “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. * Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. ====YAM Yet Another Mailer==== YAM does not support SSL and most mail providers have now switched to encrypted SMTP/POP3 connections This email client is POP3 only if the SSL library is available [http://www.freelists.org/list/yam YAM Freelists] One of the downsides of using a POP3 mailer unfortunately - you have to set an option not to delete the mail if you want it left on the server. IMAP keeps all the emails on the server. Possible issues Sending mail issues is probably a matter of using your ISP's SMTP server, though it could also be an SSL issue. getting a "Couldn't initialise TLSv1 / SSL error Use of on-line e-mail accounts with this email client is not possible as it lacks the OpenSSL AmiSSl v3 compatible library GMail Incoming Mail (POP3) Server - requires SSL: pop.gmail.com Use SSL: Yes Port: 995 Outgoing Mail (SMTP) Server - requires TLS: smtp.gmail.com (use authentication) Use Authentication: Yes Use STARTTLS: Yes (some clients call this SSL) Port: 465 or 587 Account Name: your Gmail username (including '@gmail.com') Email Address: your full Gmail email address (username@gmail.com) Password: your Gmail password Anyway, the SMTP is pop.gmail.com port 465 and it uses SSLLv3 Authentication. The POP3 settings are for the same server (pop.gmail.com), only on port 995 instead. Outlook.com access <pre > Outlook.com SMTP server address: smtp.live.com Outlook.com SMTP user name: Your full Outlook.com email address (not an alias) Outlook.com SMTP password: Your Outlook.com password Outlook.com SMTP port: 587 Outlook.com SMTP TLS/SSL encryption required: yes </pre > Yahoo Mail <pre > “POP3 Server” – Set the POP server for incoming mails as pop.mail.yahoo.com. You will have to enable “SSL” and use 995 for Port. “SMTP Server” – Set the SMTP server for outgoing mails as smtp.mail.yahoo.com. You will also have to make sure that “SSL” is enabled and use 465 for port. you must also enable “authentication” for this to work. “Account Name or Login Name” – Your Yahoo Mail ID i.e. your email address without the domain “@yahoo.com”. “Email Address” – Your Yahoo Mail address i.e. your email address including the domain “@yahoo.com”. E.g. myname@yahoo.com “Password” – Your Yahoo Mail password. </pre > Yahoo! Mail Plus users may have to set POP server as plus.pop.mail.yahoo.com and SMTP server as plus.smtp.mail.yahoo.com. Note that you need to enable “Web & POP Access” in your Yahoo Mail account to send and receive Yahoo Mail messages through any other email program. You will have to enable “Allow your Yahoo Mail to be POPed” under “POP and Forwarding”, to send and receive Yahoo mails through any other email client. Cannot be done since 2002 unless the customer pays Yahoo a monthly fee to have access to SMTP and POP3 Microsoft Outlook Express Mail 1. Get the files to your PC. By whatever method get the files off your Amiga onto your PC. In the YAM folder you have a number of different folders, one for each of your folders in YAM. Inside that is a file usually some numbers such as 332423.283. YAM created a new file for every single email you received. 2. Open up a brand new Outlook Express. Just configure the account to use 127.0.0.1 as mail servers. It doesn't really matter. You will need to manually create any subfolders you used in YAM. 3. You will need to do a mass rename on all your email files from YAM. Just add a .eml to the end of it. Amazing how PCs still rely mostly on the file name so it knows what sort of file it is rather than just looking at it! There are a number of multiple renamers online to download and free too. 4. Go into each of your folders, inbox, sent items etc. And do a select all then drag the files into Outlook Express (to the relevant folder obviously) Amazingly the file format that YAM used is very compatible with .eml standard and viola your emails appear. With correct dates and working attachments. 5. If you want your email into Microsoft Outlook. Open that up and create a new profile and a new blank PST file. Then go into File Import and choose to import from Outlook Express. And the mail will go into there. And viola.. you have your old email from your Amiga in a more modern day format. ===FTP=== Magellan has a great FTP module. It allows transferring files from/to a FTP server over the Internet or the local network and, even if FTP is perceived as a "thing of the past", its usability is all inside the client. The FTP thing has a nice side effect too, since every Icaros machine can be a FTP server as well, and our files can be easily transferred from an Icaros machine to another with a little configuration effort. First of all, we need to know the 'server' IP address. Server is the Icaros machine with the file we are about to download on another Icaros machine, that we're going to call 'client'. To do that, move on the server machine and 1) run Prefs/Services to be sure "FTP file transfer" is enabled (if not, enable it and restart Icaros); 2) run a shell and enter this command: ifconfig -a Make a note of the IP address for the network interface used by the local area network. For cabled devices, it usually is net0:. Now go on the client machine and run Magellan: Perform these actions: 1) click on FTP; 2) click on ADDRESS BOOK; 3) click on "New". You can now add a new entry for your Icaros server machine: 1) Choose a name for your server, in order to spot it immediately in the address book. Enter the IP address you got before. 2) click on Custom Options: 1) go to Miscellaneous in the left menu; 2) Ensure "Passive Transfers" is NOT selected; 3) click on Use. We need to deactivate Passive Transfers because YAFS, the FTP server included in Icaros, only allows active transfers at the current stage. Now, we can finally connect to our new file source: 1) Look into the address book for the newly introduced server, be sure that name and IP address are right, and 2) click on Connect. A new lister with server's "MyWorkspace" contents will appear. You can now transfer files over the network choosing a destination among your local (client's) volumes. Can be adapted to any FTP client on any platform of your choice, just be sure your client allows Active Transfers as well. ===IRC Internet Relay Chat=== Jabberwocky is ideal for one-to-one social media communication, use IRC if you require one to many. Just type a message in ''lowercase''' letters and it will be posted to all in the [ AROS irc channel]. Please do not use UPPER CASE as it is a sign of SHOUTING which is annoying. Other things to type in - replace <message> with a line of text and <nick> with a person's name <pre> /help /list /who /whois <nick> /msg <nick> <message> /query <nick> <message>s /query /away <message> /away /quit <going away message> </pre> [http://irchelp.org/irchelp/new2irc.html#smiley Intro guide here]. IRC Primer can be found here in [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircprimer.html html], [http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/text/ircprimer.txt TXT], [http://www.kei.com/irc/IRCprimer1.1.ps PostScript]. Issue the command /me <text> where <text> is the text that should follow your nickname. Example: /me slaps ajk around a bit with a large trout /nick <newNick> /nickserv register <password> <email address> /ns instead of /nickserv, while others might need /msg nickserv /nickserv identify <password> Alternatives: /ns identify <password> /msg nickserv identify <password> ==== IRC WookieChat ==== WookieChat is the most complete internet client for communication across the IRC Network. WookieChat allows you to swap ideas and communicate in real-time, you can also exchange Files, Documents, Images and everything else using the application's DCC capabilities. add smilies drawer/directory run wookiechat from the shell and set stack to 1000000 e.g. wookiechat stack 1000000 select a server / server window * nickname * user name * real name - optional Once you configure the client with your preferred screen name, you'll want to find a channel to talk in. servers * New Server - click on this to add / add extra - change details in section below this click box * New Group * Delete Entry * Connect to server * connect in new tab * perform on connect Change details * Servername - change text in this box to one of the below Server: * Port number - no need to change * Server password * Channel - add #channel from below * auto join - can click this * nick registration password, Click Connect to server button above <pre> Server: irc.freenode.net Channel: #aros </pre> irc://irc.freenode.net/aros <pre> Server: chat.amigaworld.net Channel: #amigaworld or #amigans </pre> <pre> On Sunday evenings USA time usually starting around 3PM EDT (1900 UTC) Server:irc.superhosts.net Channel #team*amiga </pre> <pre> BitlBee and Minbif are IRCd-like gateways to multiple IM networks Server: im.bitlbee.org Port 6667 Seems to be most useful on WookieChat as you can be connected to several servers at once. One for Bitlbee and any messages that might come through that. One for your normal IRC chat server. </pre> [http://www.bitlbee.org/main.php/servers.html Other servers], <pre> #Amiga.org - irc.synirc.net eu.synirc.net dissonance.nl.eu.synirc.net (IPv6: 2002:5511:1356:0:216:17ff:fe84:68a) twilight.de.eu.synirc.net zero.dk.eu.synirc.net us.synirc.net avarice.az.us.synirc.net envy.il.us.synirc.net harpy.mi.us.synirc.net liberty.nj.us.synirc.net snowball.mo.us.synirc.net - Ports 6660-6669 7001 (SSL) </pre> <pre> Multiple server support "Perform on connect" scripts and channel auto-joins Automatic Nickserv login Tabs for channels and private conversations CTCP PING, TIME, VERSION, SOUND Incoming and Outgoing DCC SEND file transfers Colours for different events Logging and automatic reloading of logs mIRC colour code filters Configurable timestamps GUI for changing channel modes easily Configurable highlight keywords URL Grabber window Optional outgoing swear word filter Event sounds for tabs opening, highlighted words, and private messages DCC CHAT support Doubleclickable URL's Support for multiple languages using LOCALE Clone detection Auto reconnection to Servers upon disconnection Command aliases Chat display can be toggled between AmIRC and mIRC style Counter for Unread messages Graphical nicklist and graphical smileys with a popup chooser </pre> ====IRC Aircos ==== Double click on Aircos icon in Extras:Networking/Apps/Aircos. It has been set up with a guest account for trial purposes. Though ideally, choose a nickname and password for frequent use of irc. ====IRC and XMPP Jabberwocky==== Servers are setup and close down at random You sign up to a server that someone else has setup and access chat services through them. The two ways to access chat from jabberwocky <pre > Jabberwocky -> Server -> XMPP -> open and ad-free Jabberwocky -> Server -> Transports (Gateways) -> Proprietary closed systems </pre > The Jabber.org service connects with all IM services that use XMPP, the open standard for instant messaging and presence over the Internet. The services we connect with include Google Talk (closed), Live Journal Talk, Nimbuzz, Ovi, and thousands more. However, you can not connect from Jabber.org to proprietary services like AIM, ICQ, MSN, Skype, or Yahoo because they don’t yet use XMPP components (XEP-0114) '''but''' you can use Jabber.com's servers and IM gateways (MSN, ICQ, Yahoo etc.) instead. The best way to use jabberwocky is in conjunction with a public jabber server with '''transports''' to your favorite services, like gtalk, Facebook, yahoo, ICQ, AIM, etc. You have to register with one of the servers, [https://list.jabber.at/ this list] or [http://www.jabberes.org/servers/ another list], [http://xmpp.net/ this security XMPP list], Unfortunately jabberwocky can only connect to one server at a time so it is best to check what services each server offers. If you set it up with separate Facebook and google talk accounts, for example, sometimes you'll only get one or the other. Jabberwocky open a window where the Jabber server part is typed in as well as your Nickname and Password. Jabber ID (JID) identifies you to the server and other users. Once registered the next step is to goto Jabberwocky's "Windows" menu and select the "Agents" option. The "Agents List" window will open. Roster (contacts list) [http://search.wensley.org.uk/ Chatrooms] (MUC) are available File Transfer - can send and receive files through the Jabber service but not with other services like IRC, ICQ, AIM or Yahoo. All you need is an installed webbrowser and OpenURL. Clickable URLs - The message window uses Mailtext.mcc and you can set a URL action in the MUI mailtext prefs like SYS:Utils/OpenURL %s NEWWIN. There is no consistent Skype like (H.323 VoIP) video conferencing available over Jabber. The move from xmpp to Jingle should help but no support on any amiga-like systems at the moment. [http://aminet.net/package/dev/src/AmiPhoneSrc192 AmiPhone] and [http://www.lysator.liu.se/%28frame,faq,nobg,useframes%29/ahi/v4-site/ Speak Freely] was an early attempt voice only contact. SIP and Asterisk are other PBX options. Facebook If you're using the XMPP transport provided by Facebook themselves, chat.facebook.com, it looks like they're now requiring SSL transport. This means jabberwocky method below will no longer work. The best thing to do is to create an ID on a public jabber server which has a Facebook gateway. <pre > 1. launch jabberwocky 2. if the login window doesn't appear on launch, select 'account' from the jabberwocky menu 3. your jabber ID will be user@chat.facebook.com where user is your user ID 4. your password is your normal facebook password 5. to save this for next time, click the popup gadget next to the ID field 6. click the 'add' button 7. click the 'close' button 8. click the 'connect' button </pre > you're done. you can also click the 'save as default account' button if you want. jabberwocky configured to auto-connect when launching the program, but you can configure as you like. there is amigaguide documentation included with jabberwocky. [http://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=37085&forum=32 Read more here] for Facebook users, you can log-in directly to Facebook with jabberwocky. just sign in as @chat.facebook.com with your Facebook password as the password Twitter For a few years, there has been added a twitter transport. Servers include [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/ jabber.hot-chili.net], and . An [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/tag/how-tos/ How-to] :Read [http://jabber.hot-chilli.net/2010/05/09/twitter-transport-working/ more] Instagram no support at the moment best to use a web browser based client ICQ The new version (beta) of StriCQ uses a newer ICQ protocol. Most of the ICQ Jabber Transports still use an older ICQ protocol. You can only talk one-way to StriCQ using the older Transports. Only the newer ICQv7 Transport lets you talk both ways to StriCQ. Look at the server lists in the first section to check. Register on a Jabber server, e.g. this one works: http://www.jabber.de/ Then login into Jabberwocky with the following login data e.g. xxx@jabber.de / Password: xxx Now add your ICQ account under the window->Agents->"Register". Now Jabberwocky connects via the Jabber.de server with your ICQ account. Yahoo Messenger although yahoo! does not use xmpp protocol, you should be able to use the transport methods to gain access and post your replies MSN early months of 2013 Microsoft will ditch MSN Messenger client and force everyone to use Skype...but MSN protocol and servers will keep working as usual for quite a long time.... Occasionally the Messenger servers have been experiencing problems signing in. You may need to sign in at www.outlook.com and then try again. It may also take multiple tries to sign in. (This also affects you if you’re using Skype.) You have to check each servers' Agents List to see what transports (MSN protocol, ICQ protocol, etc.) are supported or use the list address' provided in the section above. Then register with each transport (IRC, MSN, ICQ, etc.) to which you need access. After registering you can Connect to start chatting. msn.jabber.com/registered should appear in the window. From this [http://tech.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/amiga-jabberwocky/message/1378 JW group] guide which helps with this process in a clear, step by step procedure. 1. Sign up on MSN's site for a passport account. This typically involves getting a Hotmail address. 2. Log on to the Jabber server of your choice and do the following: * Select the "Windows/Agents" menu option in Jabberwocky. * Select the MSN Agent from the list presented by the server. * Click the Register button to open a new window asking for: **Username = passort account email address, typically your hotmail address. **Nick = Screen name to be shown to anyone you add to your buddy list. **Password = Password for your passport account/hotmail address. * Click the Register button at the bottom of the new window. 3. If all goes well, you will see the MSN Gateway added to your buddy list. If not, repeat part 2 on another server. Some servers may show MSN in their list of available agents, but have not updated their software for the latest protocols used by MSN. 4. Once you are registered, you can now add people to your buddy list. Note that you need to include the '''msn.''' ahead of the servername so that it knows what gateway agent to use. Some servers may use a slight variation and require '''msg.gate.''' before the server name, so try both to see what works. If my friend's msn was amiga@hotmail.co.uk and my jabber server was @jabber.meta.net.nz.. then amiga'''%'''hotmail.com@'''msn.'''jabber.meta.net.nz or another the trick to import MSN contacts is that you don't type the hotmail URL but the passport URL... e.g. Instead of: goodvibe%hotmail.com@msn.jabber.com You type: goodvibe%passport.com@msn.jabber.com And the thing about importing contacts I'm afraid you'll have to do it by hand, one at the time... Google Talk any XMPP server will work, but you have to add your contacts manually. a google talk user is typically either @gmail.com or @talk.google.com. a true gtalk transport is nice because it brings your contacts to you and (can) also support file transfers to/from google talk users. implement Jingle a set of extensions to the IETF's Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support ended early 2014 as Google moved to Google+ Hangouts which uses it own proprietary format ===Video Player MPlayer=== Many of the menu features (such as doubling) do not work with the current version of mplayer but using 4:3 mplayer -vf scale=800:600 file.avi 16:9 mplayer -vf scale=854:480 file.avi if you want gui use; mplayer -gui 1 <other params> file.avi <pre > stack 1000000 ; using AspireOS 1.xx ; copy FROM SYS:Extras/Multimedia/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 1.x ; copy FROM SYS:Tools/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: ; using Icaros Desktop 2.x ; copy FROM SYS:Utilities/MPlayer/ TO RAM:MPlayer ALL CLONE > Nil: cd RAM:MPlayer run MPlayer -gui > Nil: ;run MPlayer -gui -ao ahi_dev -playlist http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls > Nil: </pre > $ mplayer rtsp://127.0.0.1:554/sample_300kbit.mp4 MPlayer supports multicast streaming, and rtp/rtsp protocols (it might require [http://www.live555.com/openRTSP/ live555 library] to work with some streams). But you might have to build it where it's disabled. Also, multicast won't work with some AmiTCP-likes. MIAMI supported it, though. AROS supports IPv4 (old but works) and this includes the needed address space for RTP. If you mean multicast via RTP - mplayer handles it. You can even force UDP over TCP -rtsp-stream-over-tcp If the rtsp Real Time Streaming Protocol server needs authentification: -user -passwd MPlayer - Menu - Open Playlist and load already downloaded .pls or .m3u file - auto starts around 4 percent cache MPlayer - Menu - Open Stream and copy one of the .pls lines below into space allowed, press OK and press play button on main gui interface Old 8bit 16bit remixes chip tune game music http://www.radio-paralax.de/listen.pls http://scenesat.com/ http://www.shoutcast.com/radio/Amiga http://www.theoldcomputer.com/retro_radio/RetroRadio_Main.htm http://www.kohina.com/ http://www.remix64.com/ http://retrogamer.net/forum/ http://retroasylum.podomatic.com/rss2.xml http://retrogamesquad.com/ http://www.retronauts.com/ http://monsterfeet.com/noquarter/ http://www.retrogamingradio.com/ http://www.radiofeeds.co.uk/mp3.asp [[#top|...to the top]] ====ZunePaint==== simplified typical workflow * importing and organizing and photo management * making global and regional local correction(s) - recalculation is necessary after each adjustment as it is not in real-time * exporting your images in the best format available with the preservation of metadata Whilst achieving 80% of a great photo with just a filter, the remaining 20% comes from a manual fine-tuning of specific image attributes. For photojournalism, documentary, and event coverage, minimal touching is recommended. Stick to Camera Raw for such shots, and limit changes to level adjustment, sharpness, noise reduction, and white balance correction. For fashion or portrait shoots, a large amount of adjustment is allowed and usually ends up far from the original. Skin smoothing, blemish removal, eye touch-ups, etc. are common. Might alter the background a bit to emphasize the subject. Product photography usually requires a lot of sharpening, spot removal, and focus stacking. For landscape shots, best results are achieved by doing the maximum amount of preparation before/while taking the shot. No amount of processing can match timing, proper lighting, correct gear, optimal settings, etc. Excessive post-processing might give you a dramatic shot but best avoided in the long term. * White Balance - Left Amiga or F12 and K and under "Misc color effects" tab with a pull down for White Balance - color temperature also known as AKA tint (movies) or tones (painting) - warm temp raise red reduce green blue - cool raise blue lower red green * Exposure - exposure compensation, highlight/shadow recovery * Noise Reduction - during RAW development or using external software * Lens Corrections - distortion, vignetting, chromatic aberrations * Detail - capture sharpening and local contrast enhancement * Contrast - black point, levels (sliders) and curves tools (F12 and K) * Framing - straighten () and crop (F12 and F) * Refinements - color adjustments and selective enhancements - Left Amiga or F12 and K for RGB and YUV histogram tabs - * Resizing - enlarge for a print or downsize for the web or email (F12 and D) * Output Sharpening - customized for your subject matter and print/screen size White Balance - F12 and K scan your image for a shade which was meant to be white (neutral with each RGB value being equal) like paper or plastic which is in the same light as the subject of the picture. Use the dropper tool to select this color, similar colours will shift and you will have selected the perfect white balance for your part of the image - for the whole picture make sure RAZ or CLR button at the bottom is pressed before applying to the image above. Exposure correction F12 and K - YUV Y luminosity - RGB extra red tint - move red curve slightly down and move blue green curves slightly up Workflows in practice * Undo - Right AROS key or F12 and Z * Redo - Right AROS key or F12 and R First flatten your image (if necessary) and then do a rotation until the picture looks level. * Crop the picture. Click the selection button and drag a box over the area of the picture you want to keep. Press the crop button and the rest of the photo will be gone. * Adjust your saturation, exposure, hue levels, etc., (right AROS Key and K for color correction) until you are happy with the photo. Make sure you zoom in all of the way to 100% and look the photo over, zoom back out and move around. Look for obvious problems with the picture. * After coloring and exposure do a sharpen (Right AROS key and E for Convolution and select drop down option needed), e.g. set the matrix to 5x5 (roughly equivalent Amount to 60%) and set the Radius to 1.0. Click OK. And save your picture Implemented or would like to see for simplification and ease of use basic filters (presets) like black and white, monochrome, edge detection (sobel), motion/gaussian blur, * negative, sepiatone, retro vintage, night vision, colour tint, color gradient, color temperature, glows, fire, lightning, lens flare, emboss, filmic, pixelate mezzotint, antialias, etc. adjust / cosmetic tools such as crop, * reshaping tools, straighten, smear, smooth, perspective, liquify, bloat, pucker, push pixels in any direction, dispersion, transform like warp, blending with soft light, page-curl, whirl, ripple, fisheye, neon, etc. * red eye fixing, blemish remover, skin smoothing, teeth whitener, make eyes look brighter, desaturate, effects like oil paint, cartoon, pencil sketch, charcoal, noise/matrix like sharpen/unsharpen, (right AROS key with A for Artistic effects) * blend two image, gradient blend, masking blend, explode, implode, custom collage, surreal painting, comic book style, needlepoint, stained glass, watercolor, mosaic, stencil/outline, crayon, chalk, etc. borders such as * dropshadow, rounded, blurred, color tint, picture frame, film strip polaroid, bevelled edge, etc. brushes e.g. * frost, smoke, etc. and manual control of fix lens issues including vignetting (darkening), color fringing and barrel distortion, and chromatic and geometric aberration - lens and body profiles perspective correction levels - directly modify the levels of the tone-values of an image, by using sliders for highlights, midtones and shadows curves - Color Adjustment and Brightness/Contrast color balance one single color transparent (alpha channel (color information/selections) for masking and/or blending ) for backgrounds, etc. Threshold indicates how much other colors will be considered mixture of the removed color and non-removed colors decompose layer into a set of layers with each holding a different type of pattern that is visible within the image any selection using any selecting tools like lasso tool, marquee tool etc. the selection will temporarily be save to alpha If you create your image without transparency then the Alpha channel is not present, but you can add later. File formats like .psd (Photoshop file has layers, masks etc. contains edited sensor data. The original sensor data is no longer available) .xcf .raw .hdr Image Picture Formats * low dynamic range (JPEG, PNG, TIFF 8-bit), 16-bit (PPM, TIFF), typically as a 16-bit TIFF in either ProPhoto or AdobeRGB colorspace - TIFF files are also fairly universal – although, if they contain proprietary data, such as Photoshop Adjustment Layers or Smart Filters, then they can only be opened by Photoshop making them proprietary. * linear high dynamic range (HDR) images (PFM, [http://www.openexr.com/ ILM .EXR], jpg, [http://aminet.net/util/dtype cr2] (canon tiff based), hdr, NEF, CRW, ARW, MRW, ORF, RAF (Fuji), PEF, DCR, SRF, ERF, DNG files are RAW converted to an Adobe proprietary format - a container that can embed the raw file as well as the information needed to open it) An old version of [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=graphics/convert dcraw] There is no single RAW file format. Each camera manufacturer has one or more unique RAW formats. RAW files contain the brightness levels data captured by the camera sensor. This data cannot be modified. A second smaller file, separate XML file, or within a database with instructions for the RAW processor to change exposure, saturation etc. The extra data can be changed but the original sensor data is still there. RAW is technically least compatible. A raw file is high-bit (usually 12 or 14 bits of information) but a camera-generated TIFF file will be usually converted by the camera (compressed, downsampled) to 8 bits. The raw file has no embedded color balance or color space, but the TIFF has both. These three things (smaller bit depth, embedded color balance, and embedded color space) make it so that the TIFF will lose quality more quickly with image adjustments than the raw file. The camera-generated TIFF image is much more like a camera processed JPEG than a raw file. A strong advantage goes to the raw file. The power of RAW files, such as the ability to set any color temperature non-destructively and will contain more tonal values. The principle of preserving the maximum amount of information to as late as possible in the process. The final conversion - which will always effectively represent a "downsampling" - should prevent as much loss as possible. Once you save it as TIFF, you throw away some of that data irretrievably. When saving in the lossy JPEG format, you get tremendous file size savings, but you've irreversibly thrown away a lot of image data. As long as you have the RAW file, original or otherwise, you have access to all of the image data as captured. Keyboard equivalence with Photoshop(tm) would help File PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Ctrl+n New Open Ctrl+o Open Close Ctrl+w Close Save Ctrl+s Save Save as Shift+Ctrl+s Save as Revert F12 Revert Print Ctrl+p Print Exit Ctrl+q Quit Edit PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Undo/Redo (1 level) Ctrl+z Undo (Redo is Shift+Ctrl+z) Cut Ctrl+x Cut Copy Ctrl+c Copy Paste Ctrl+v Paste Paste Into Shift+Ctrl+v Paste Into Fill with FG color Alt+Backspace Fill with FG color Fill with BG color Control+Backspace Fill with BG color Image/Colors PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Levels Ctrl+l Levels Auto Contrast Shift+Ctrl+Alt+l Stretch Contrast (same?) Curves Ctrl+m Curves Color Balance Ctrl+b Color Balance Hue/Saturation Ctrl+u Hue-Saturation Desaturate Shift+Ctrl+u Desaturate Invert Ctrl+i Invert Default Colors d Default Colors Switch Colors x Switch Colors Layer PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP New Layer Shift+Ctrl+n New Layer Layer via Copy Ctrl+j Duplicate Layer Bring (layer) to Front Shift+Ctrl+] Layer to Top Send (layer) to Back Shift+Ctrl+[ Layer to Bottom Bring (layer) Forward Ctrl+] Raise Layer Send (layer) Backward Ctrl+[ Lower Layer Select Top Layer Shift+Alt+] Select Top Layer Select Bottom Layer Shift+Alt+[ Select Bottom Layer Select One Layer Forward Alt+] Select Previous Layer Select One Layer Backward Alt+[ Select Next Layer Merge Down Ctrl+e Merge Down Merge Visible Shift+Ctrl+e Merge Visible Preserve Transparency / Keep Transparency Cycle Modes Forwards Shift+= Next Layer Mode Cycle Modes Backwards Shift+- Previous Layer Mode Select PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Select All Ctrl+a Select All Deselect Ctrl+d Select None Inverse Shift+Ctrl+i Invert Feather Ctrl+Alt+d Feather View PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Zoom In Ctrl+= Zoom In Zoom Out Ctrl+- Zoom Out Fit on Screen Ctrl+0 Zoom to Fit Window Actual Pixels Ctrl+Alt+0 Zoom 1:1 Show/Hide Extras Ctrl+h Toggle Show Selection (close enough?) Show/Hide Guides Ctrl+' Toggle Show Guides Show/Hide Grid Ctrl+Alt+' Toggle Show Grid Show/Hide Rulers Ctrl+r Toggle Show Rulers Snap Ctrl+; Snap to Guides Scroll View Up Page Up Scroll Page Up Scroll View Down Page Down Scroll Page Down Scroll View Left Ctrl+Page Up Scroll Page Left Scroll View Right Ctrl+Page Down Scroll Page Right Window/Dialogs PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP ? F5 Tools Dialog Color Tab F6 Colors Dialog Layers Tab F7 Layers Dialog Info Tab F8 Image Information Tools PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Rectangular Marquee Tool m Rect Select Tool Elliptical Marquee Tool Shift+m Ellipse Select Tool *This is a toggle between 'Elliptical Marquee Tool' and 'Rectangular Marquee Tool' in Photoshop Move Tool v Move Tool Lasso Tool l Free Select Tool Magic Wand Tool w Fuzzy Select Tool Crop Tool c Crop & Resize Tool Airbrush Tool j Airbrush Tool Paintbrush Tool b Paintbrush Tool Clone Stamp Tool s Clone Stamp Tool Eraser Tool e Eraser Tool Gradient Tool g Blend Tool Paint Bucket Tool Shift+g Bucket Fill Tool *This is a toggle between 'Paint Bucket Tool' and 'Gradient Tool' in Photoshop Blur Tool r Convolve Tool Dodge Tool o DodgeBurn Tool Type Tool t Text Tool Pen Tool p Bezier Select Tool Eye Dropper Tool i Color Picker Tool Zoom Tool z Magnify Tool Previous Brush , Previous Brush Next Brush . Next Brush First Brush Shift+< First Brush Last Brush Shift+> Last Brush Decrease Brush Size [ Decrease Brush Size Increase Brush Size ] Increase Brush Size Decrease Brush Hardness { Decrease Brush Hardness Increase Brush Hardness } Increase Brush Hardness Help PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Help F1 Help Context Help Shift+F1 Context Help Misc. PHOTOSHOP SHORTCUT GIMP Last Filter Ctrl+f Repeat Last Filter ? Shift+Ctrl+f Reshow Last Filter Preferences Ctrl+k Preferences Liquify Shift+Ctrl+x IWarp (close enough?) Toggle Quick Mask q Toggle Quick Mask Spotlights - triangle of white opaque shape Cutting out and/or replacing unwanted background or features - select large areas with the selection option like the Magic Wand tool (aka Color Range) or the Lasso (quick and fast) with feather 2 to soften edge or the pen tool which adds points/lines/Bézier curves (better control but slower), hold down the shift button as you click to add extra points/areas of the subject matter to remove. Increase the tolerance to cover more areas. To subtract from your selection hold down alt as you're clicking. * Layer masks are a better way of working than Erase they clip (black hides/hidden white visible/reveal). Clone Stamp can be simulated by and brushes for other areas. * Leave the fine details like hair, fur, etc. to later with lasso and the shift key to draw a line all the way around your subject. Gradient Mapping - Inverse - Mask. i.e. Refine your selected image with edge detection and using the radius and edge options / adjuster (increase/decrease contrast) so that you will capture more fine detail from the background allowing easier removal. Remove fringe/halo saving image as png rather than jpg/jpeg to keep transparency background intact. Implemented [http://colorizer.org/ colour model representations] [http://paulbourke.net/texture_colour/colourspace/ Mathematical approach] - Photo stills are spatially 2d (h and w), but are colorimetrically 3d (r g and b, or H L S, or Y U V etc.) as well. * RGB - split cubed mapped color model for photos and computer graphics hardware using the light spectrum (adding and subtracting) * YUV - Y-Lightness U-blue/yellow V-red/cyan (similar to YPbPr and YCbCr) used in the PAL, NTSC, and SECAM composite digital TV color [http://crewofone.com/2012/chroma-subsampling-and-transcoding/#comment-7299 video] Histograms White balanced (neutral) if the spike happens in the same place in each channel of the RGB graphs. If not, you're not balanced. If you have sky you'll see the blue channel further off to the right. RGB is best one to change colours. These elements RGB is a 3-channel format containing data for Red, Green, and Blue in your photo scale between 0 and 255. The area in a picture that appears to be brighter/whiter contains more red color as compared to the area which is relatively darker. Similarly in the green channel the area that appears to be darker contains less amount of green color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Similarly in the blue channel the area appears to be darker contains less amount of blue color as compared to the area that appears to be brighter. Brightness luminance histogram also matches the green histogram more than any other color - human eye interprets green better e.g. RGB rough ratio 15/55/30% RGBA (RGB+A, A means alpha channel) . The alpha channel is used for "alpha compositing", which can mostly be associated as "opacity". AROS deals in RGB with two digits for every color (red, green, blue), in ARGB you have two additional hex digits for the alpha channel. The shadows are represented by the left third of the graph. The highlights are represented by the right third. And the midtones are, of course, in the middle. The higher the black peaks in the graph, the more pixels are concentrated in that tonal range (total black area). By moving the black endpoint, which identifies the shadows (darkness) and a white light endpoint (brightness) up and down either sides of the graph, colors are adjusted based on these points. By dragging the central one, can increased the midtones and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . RGB Curves * Move left endpoint (black point) up or right endpoint (white point) up brightens * Move left endpoint down or right endpoint down darkens Color Curves * Dragging up on the Red Curve increases the intensity of the reds in the image but * Dragging down on the Red Curve decreases the intensity of the reds and thus increases the apparent intensity of its complimentary color, cyan. Green’s complimentary color is magenta, and blue’s is yellow. <pre> Red <-> Cyan Green <->Magenta Blue <->Yellow </pre> YUV Best option to analyse and pull out statistical elements of any picture (i.e. separate luminance data from color data). The line in Y luma tone box represents the brightness of the image with the point in the bottom left been black, and the point in the top right as white. A low-contrast image has a concentrated clump of values nearer to the center of the graph. By comparison, a high-contrast image has a wider distribution of values across the entire width of the Histogram. A histogram that is skewed to the right would indicate a picture that is a bit overexposed because most of the color data is on the lighter side (increase exposure with higher value F), while a histogram with the curve on the left shows a picture that is underexposed. This is good information to have when using post-processing software because it shows you not only where the color data exists for a given picture, but also where any data has been clipped (extremes on edges of either side): that is, it does not exist and, therefore, cannot be edited. By dragging the endpoints of the line and as well as the central one, can increased the dark/shadows, midtones and light/bright parts and control the contrast, raise shadows levels, clip or softly eliminate unsafe levels, alter gamma, etc... in a way that is much more precise and creative . The U and V chroma parts show color difference components of the image. It’s useful for checking whether or not the overall chroma is too high, and also whether it’s being limited too much Can be used to create a negative image but also With U (Cb), the higher value you are, the more you're on the blue primary color. If you go to the low values then you're on blue complementary color, i.e. yellow. With V (Cr), this is the same principle but with Red and Cyan. e.g. If you push U full blue and V full red, you get magenta. If you push U full yellow and V full Cyan then you get green. YUV simultaneously adds to one side of the color equation while subtracting from the other. using YUV to do color correction can be very problematic because each curve alters the result of each other: the mutual influence between U and V often makes things tricky. You may also be careful in what you do to avoid the raise of noise (which happens very easily). Best results are obtained with little adjustments sunset that looks uninspiring and needs some color pop especially for the rays over the hill, a subtle contrast raise while setting luma values back to the legal range without hard clipping. ====Lunapaint==== Pixel based drawing app with onion-skin animation function Blocking, Shading, Coloring, adding detail <pre> b BRUSH e ERASER alt eyedropper v layer tool z ZOOM / MAGNIFY < > n spc panning m marque q lasso w same color selection / region </pre> <pre> , LM RM v V f filter F . size p , pick color [] last / next color </pre> There is not much missing in Lunapaint to be as good as FlipBook and then you have to take into account that Flipbook is considered to be amongst the best and easiest to use animation software out there. Ok to be honest Flipbook has some nice features that require more heavy work but those aren't so much needed right away, things like camera effects, sound, smart fill, export to different movie file formats etc. Tried Flipbook with my tablet and compared it to Luna. The feeling is the same when sketching. LunaPaint is very responsive/fluent to draw with. Just as Flipbook is, and that responsiveness is something its users have mentioned as one of the positive sides of said software. author was learning MUI. Some parts just have to be rewritten with proper MUI classes before new features can be added. * add [Frame Add] / [Frame Del] * whole animation feature is impossible to use. If you draw 2 color maybe but if you start coloring your cells then you get in trouble * pickup the entire image as a brush, not just a selection ? And consequently remove the brush from memory when one doesn't need it anymore. can pick up a brush and put it onto a new image but cropping isn't possible, nor to load/save brushes. * Undo is something I longed for ages in Lunapaint. * to import into the current layer, other types of images (e.g. JPEG) besides RAW64. * implement graphic tablet features support **GENERAL DRAWING** Miss it very much: UNDO ERASER COLORPICKER - has to show on palette too which color got picked. BACKGROUND COLOR -Possibility to select from "New project screen" Miss it somewhat: ICON for UNDO ICON for ERASER ICON for CLEAR SCREEN ( What can I say? I start over from scratch very often ) BRUSH - possibility to cut out as brush not just copy off image to brush **ANIMATING** Miss it very much: NUMBER OF CELLS - Possibity to change total no. of cells during project ANIM BRUSH - Possibility to pick up a selected part of cells into an animbrush Miss it somewhat: ADD/REMOVE FRAMES: Add/remove single frame In general LunaPaint is really well done and it feels like a new DeluxePaint version. It works with my tablet. Sure there's much missing of course but things can always be added over time. So there is great potential in LunaPaint that's for sure. Animations could be made in it and maybe put together in QuickVideo, saving in .gif or .mng etc some day. LAYERS -Layers names don't get saved globally in animation frames -Layers order don't change globally in an animation (perhaps as default?). EXPORTING IMAGES -Exporting frames to JPG/PNG gives problems with colors. (wrong colors. See my animatiopn --> My robot was blue now it's "gold" ) I think this only happens if you have layers. -Trying to flatten the layers before export doesn't work if you have animation frames only the one you have visible will flatten properly all other frames are destroyed. (Only one of the layers are visible on them) -Exporting images filenames should be for example e.g. file0001, file0002...file0010 instead as of now file1, file2...file10 LOAD/SAVE (Preferences) -Make a setting for the default "Work" folder. * Destroyed colors if exported image/frame has layers * mystic color cycling of the selected color while stepping frames back/forth (annoying) <pre> Deluxe Paint II enhanced key shortcuts NOTE: @ denotes the ALT key [Technique] F1 - Paint F2 - Single Colour F3 - Replace F4 - Smear F5 - Shade F6 - Cycle F7 - Smooth M - Colour Cycle [Brush] B - Restore O - Outline h - Halve brush size H - Double brush size x - Flip brush on X axis X - Double brush size on X axis only y - Flip on Y Y - Double on Y z - Rotate brush 90 degrees Z - Stretch [Stencil] ` - Stencil On [Miscellaneous] F9 - Info Bar F10 - Selection Bar @o - Co-Ordinates @a - Anti-alias @r - Colourise @t - Translucent TAB - Colour Cycle [Picture] L - Load S - Save j - Page to Spare(Flip) J - Page to Spare(Copy) V - View Page Q - Quit [General Keys] m - Magnify < - Zoom In > - Zoom Out [ - Palette Colour Up ] - Palette Colour Down ( - Palette Colour Left ) - Palette Colour Right , - Eye Dropper . - Pixel / Brush Toggle / - Symmetry | - Co-Ordinates INS - Perspective Control +/- - Brush Size (Fine Control) w - Unfilled Polygon W - Filled Polygon e - Unfilled Ellipse E - Filled Ellipse r - Unfilled Rectangle R - Filled Rectangle t - Type/text tool a - Select Font u/U - Undo d - Brush D - Filled Non-Uniform Polygon f/F - Fill Options g/G - Grid h/H - Brush Size (Coarse Control) K - Clear c - Unfilled Circle C - Filled Circle v - Line b - Scissor Select and Toggle B - Brush {,} - Toggle between two background colours </pre> ====Lodepaint==== Pixel based painting artwork app ====Grafx2==== Pixel based painting artwork app aesprite like [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59Y6OTzNrhk aesprite workflow keys and tablet use], [], ====Vector Graphics ZuneFIG==== Vector Image Editing of files .svg .ps .eps *Objects - raise lower rotate flip aligning snapping *Path - unify subtract intersect exclude divide *Colour - fill stroke *Stroke - size *Brushes - *Layers - *Effects - gaussian bevels glows shadows *Text - *Transform - AmiFIG ([http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/frm_introduction.html xfig manual]) [[File:MyScreen.png|thumb|left|alt=Showing all Windows open in AmiFIG.|All windows available to AmiFIG.]] for drawing simple to intermediate vector graphic images for scientific and technical uses and for illustration purposes for those with talent ;Menu options * Load - fig format but import(s) SVG * Save - fig format but export(s) eps, ps, pdf, svg and png * PAN = Ctrl + Arrow keys * Deselect all points There is no selected object until you apply the tool, and the selected object is not highlighted. ;Metrics - to set up page and styles - first window to open on new drawings ;Tools - Drawing Primitives - set Attributes window first before clicking any Tools button(s) * Shapes - circles, ellipses, arcs, splines, boxes, polygon * Lines - polylines * Text "T" button * Photos - bitmaps * Compound - Glue, Break, Scale * POINTs - Move, Add, Remove * Objects - Move, Copy, Delete, Mirror, Rotate, Paste use right mouse button to stop extra lines, shapes being formed and the left mouse to select/deselect tools button(s) * Rotate - moves in 90 degree turns centered on clicked POINT of a polygon or square ;Attributes which provide change(s) to the above primitives * Color * Line Width * Line Style * arrowheads ;Modes Choose from freehand, charts, figures, magnet, etc. ;Library - allows .fig clip-art to be stored * compound tools to add .fig(s) together ;FIG 3.2 [http://epb.lbl.gov/xfig/fig-format.html Format] as produced by xfig version 3.2.5 <pre> Landscape Center Inches Letter 100.00 Single -2 1200 2 4 0 0 50 -1 0 12 0.0000 4 135 1050 1050 2475 This is a test.01 </pre> # change the text alignment within the textbox. I can choose left, center, or right aligned by either changing the integer in the second column from 0 (left) to 1 or 2 (center, or right). # The third integer in the row specifies fontcolor. For instance, 0 is black, but blue is 1 and Green3 is 13. # The sixth integer in the bottom row specifies fontface. 0 is Times-Roman, but 16 is Helvetica (a MATLAB default). # The seventh number is fontsize. 12 represents a 12pt fontsize. Changing the fontsize of an item really is as easy as changing that number to 20. # The next number is the counter-clockwise angle of the text. Notice that I have changed the angle to .7854 (pi/4 rounded to four digits=45 degrees). # twelfth number is the position according to the standard “x-axis” in Xfig units from the left. Note that 1200 Xfig units is equivalent to once inch. # thirteenth number is the “y-position” from the top using the same unit convention as before. * The nested text string is what you entered into the textbox. * The “01″ present at the end of that line in the .fig file is the closing tag. For instance, a change to \100 appends a @ symbol at the end of the period of that sentence. ; Just to note there are no layers, no 3d functions, no shading, no transparency, no animation [[#top|...to the top]] ===Audio=== # AHI uses linear panning/balance, which means that in the center, you will get -6dB. If an app uses panning, this is what you will get. Note that apps like Audio Evolution need panning, so they will have this problem. # When using AHI Hifi modes, mixing is done in 32-bit and sent as 32-bit data to the driver. The Envy24HT driver uses that to output at 24-bit (always). # For the Envy24/Envy24HT, I've made 16-bit and 24-bit inputs (called Line-in 16-bit, Line-in 24-bit etc.). There is unfortunately no app that can handle 24-bit recording. ====Music Mods==== Digital module (mods) trackers are music creation software using samples and sometimes soundfonts, audio plugins (VST, AU or RTAS), MIDI. Generally, MODs are similar to MIDI in that they contain note on/off and other sequence messages that control the mod player. Unlike (most) midi files, however, they also contain sound samples that the sequence information actually plays. MOD files can have many channels (classic amiga mods have 4, corresponding to the inbuilt sound channels), but unlike MIDI, each channel can typically play only one note at once. However, since that note might be a sample of a chord, a drumloop or other complex sound, this is not as limiting as it sounds. Like MIDI, notes will play indefinitely if they're not instructed to end. Most trackers record this information automatically if you play your music in live. If you're using manual note entry, you can enter a note-off command with a keyboard shortcut - usually Caps Lock. In fact when considering file size MOD is not always the best option. Even a dummy song wastes few kilobytes for nothing when a simple SID tune could be few hundreds bytes and not bigger than 64kB. AHX is another small format, AHX tunes are never larger than 64kB excluding comments. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rXXsZfwgil Protrekkr] (previously aka [w:Juan_Antonio_Arguelles_Rius|NoiseTrekkr]) If Protrekkr does not start, please check if the Unit 0 has been setup in the AHI prefs and still not, go to the directory utilities/protrekkr and double click on the Protrekkr icon *Sample *Note - Effect *Track (column) - Pattern - Order It all starts with the Sample which is used to create Note(s) in a Track (column of a tracker) The Note can be changed with an Effect. A Track of Note(s) can be collected into a Pattern (section of a song) and these can be given Order to create the whole song. Patience (notes have to be entered one at a time) or playing the bassline on a midi controller (faster - see midi section above). Best approach is to wait until a melody popped into your head. *Up-tempo means the track should be reasonably fast, but not super-fast. *Groovy and funky imply the track should have some sort of "swing" feel, with plenty of syncopation or off beat emphasis and a recognizable, melodic bass line. *Sweet and happy mean upbeat melodies, a major key and avoiding harsh sounds. *Moody - minor key First, create a quick bass sound, which is basically a sine wave, but can be hand drawn for a little more variance. It could also work for the melody part, too. This is usually a bass guitar or some kind of synthesizer bass. The bass line is often forgotten by inexperienced composers, but it plays an important role in a musical piece. Together with the rhythm section the bass line forms the groove of a song. It's the glue between the rhythm section and the melodic layer of a song. The drums are just pink noise samples, played at different frequencies to get a slightly different sound for the kick, snare, and hihats. Instruments that fall into the rhythm category are bass drums, snares, hi-hats, toms, cymbals, congas, tambourines, shakers, etc. Any percussive instrument can be used to form part of the rhythm section. The lead is the instrument that plays the main melody, on top of the chords. There are many instruments that can play a lead section, like a guitar, a piano, a saxophone or a flute. The list is almost endless. There is a lot of overlap with instruments that play chords. Often in one piece an instrument serves both roles. The lead melody is often played at a higher pitch than the chords. Listened back to what was produced so far, and a counter-melody can be imagined, which can be added with a triangle wave. To give the ends of phrases some life, you can add a solo part with a crunchy synth. By hitting random notes in the key of G, then edited a few of them. For the climax of the song, filled out the texture with a gentle high-pitch pad… …and a grungy bass synth. The arrow at A points at the pattern order list. As you see, the patterns don't have to be in numerical order. This song starts with pattern "00", then pattern "02", then "03", then "01", etcetera. Patterns may be repeated throughout a song. The B arrow points at the song title. Below it are the global BPM and speed parameters. These determine the tempo of the song, unless the tempo is altered through effect commands during the song. The C arrow points at the list of instruments. An instrument may consist of multiple samples. Which sample will be played depends on the note. This can be set in the Instrument Editing screen. Most instruments will consist of just one sample, though. The sample list for the selected instrument can be found under arrow D. Here's a part of the main editing screen. This is where you put in actual notes. Up to 32 channels can be used, meaning 32 sounds can play simultaneously. The first six channels of pattern "03" at order "02" are shown here. The arrow at A points at the row number. The B arrow points at the note to play, in this case a C4. The column pointed at by the C arrow tells us which instrument is associated with that note, in this case instrument #1 "Kick". The column at D is used (mainly) for volume commands. In this case it is left empty which means the instrument should play at its default volume. You can see the volume column being used in channel #6. The E column tells us which effect to use and any parameters for that effect. In this case it holds the "F" effect, which is a tempo command. The "04" means it should play at tempo 4 (a smaller number means faster). Base pattern When I create a new track I start with what I call the base pattern. It is worthwhile to spend some time polishing it as a lot of the ideas in the base pattern will be copied and used in other patterns. At least, that's how I work. Every musician will have his own way of working. In "Wild Bunnies" the base pattern is pattern "03" at order "02". In the section about selecting samples I talked about the four different categories of instruments: drums, bass, chords and leads. That's also how I usually go about making the base pattern. I start by making a drum pattern, then add a bass line, place some chords and top it off with a lead. This forms the base pattern from which the rest of the song will grow. Drums Here's a screenshot of the first four rows of the base pattern. I usually reserve the first four channels or so for the drum instruments. Right away there are a couple of tricks shown here. In the first channel the kick, or bass drum, plays some notes. Note the alternating F04 and F02 commands. The "F" command alters the tempo of the song and by quickly alternating the tempo; the song will get some kind of "swing" feel. In the second channel the closed hi-hat plays a fairly simple pattern. Further down in the channel, not shown here, some open hi-hat notes are added for a bit of variation. In the third and fourth channel the snare sample plays. The "8" command is for panning. One note is panned hard to the left and the other hard to the right. One sample is played a semitone lower than the other. This results in a cool flanging effect. It makes the snare stand out a little more in the mix. Bass line There are two different instruments used for the bass line. Instrument #6 is a pretty standard synthesized bass sound. Instrument #A sounds a bit like a slap bass when used with a quick fade out. By using two different instruments the bass line sounds a bit more ”human”. The volume command is used to cut off the notes. However, it is never set to zero. Setting the volume to a very small value will result in a reverb-like effect. This makes the song sound more "live". The bass line hints at the chords that will be played and the key the song will be in. In this case the key of the song is D-major, a positive and happy key. Chords The D major chords that are being played here are chords stabs; short sounds with a quick decay (fade out). Two different instruments (#8 and #9) are used to form the chords. These instruments are quite similar, but have a slightly different sound, panning and volume decay. Again, the reason for this is to make the sound more human. The volume command is used on some chords to simulate a delay, to achieve more of a live feel. The chords are placed off-beat making for a funky rhythm. Lead Finally the lead melody is added. The other instruments are invaluable in holding the track together, but the lead melody is usually what catches people's attention. A lot of notes and commands are used here, but it looks more complex than it is. A stepwise ascending melody plays in channel 13. Channel 14 and 15 copy this melody, but play it a few rows later at a lower volume. This creates an echo effect. A bit of panning is used on the notes to create some stereo depth. Like with the bass line, instead of cutting off notes the volume is set to low values for a reverb effect. The "461" effect adds a little vibrato to the note, which sounds nice on sustained notes. Those paying close attention may notice the instrument used here for the lead melody is the same as the one used for the bass line (#6 "Square"), except played two or three octaves higher. This instrument is a looped square wave sample. Each type of wave has its own quirks, but the square wave (shown below) is a really versatile wave form. Song structure Good, catchy songs are often carefully structured into sections, some of which are repeated throughout the song with small variations. A typical pop-song structure is: Intro - Verse - Chorus - Verse - Chorus - Bridge - Chorus. Other single sectional song structures are <pre> Strophic or AAA Song Form - oldest story telling with refrain (often title of the song) repeated in every verse section melody AABA Song Form - early popular, jazz and gospel fading during the 1960s AB or Verse/Chorus Song Form - songwriting format of choice for modern popular music since the 1960s Verse/Chorus/Bridge Song Form ABAB Song Form ABAC Song Form ABCD Song Form AAB 12-Bar Song Form - three four-bar lines or sub-sections 8-Bar Song Form 16-Bar Song Form Hybrid / Compound Song Forms </pre> The most common building blocks are: #INTRODUCTION(INTRO) #VERSE #REFRAIN #PRE-CHORUS / RISE / CLIMB #CHORUS #BRIDGE #MIDDLE EIGHT #SOLO / INSTRUMENTAL BREAK #COLLISION #CODA / OUTRO #AD LIB (OFTEN IN CODA / OUTRO) The chorus usually has more energy than the verse and often has a memorable melody line. As the chorus is repeated the most often during the song, it will be the part that people will remember. The bridge often marks a change of direction in the song. It is not uncommon to change keys in the bridge, or at least to use a different chord sequence. The bridge is used to build up tension towards the big finale, the last repetition of chorus. Playing RCTRL: Play song from row 0. LSHIFT + RCTRL: Play song from current row. RALT: Play pattern from row 0. LSHIFT + RALT: Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on '>': Play song from row 0. Right mouse on '>': Play song from current row. Left mouse on '|>': Play pattern from row 0. Right mouse on '|>': Play pattern from current row. Left mouse on 'Edit/Record': Edit mode on/off. Right mouse on 'Edit/Record': Record mode on/off. Editing LSHIFT + ESCAPE: Switch large patterns view on/off TAB: Go to next track LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. track LCTRL + TAB: Go to next note in track LCTRL + LSHIFT + TAB: Go to prev. note in track SPACE: Toggle Edit mode On & Off (Also stop if the song is being played) SHIFT SPACE: Toggle Record mode On & Off (Wait for a key note to be pressed or a midi in message to be received) DOWN ARROW: 1 Line down UP ARROW: 1 Line up LEFT ARROW: 1 Row left RIGHT ARROW: 1 Row right PREV. PAGE: 16 Arrows Up NEXT PAGE: 16 Arrows Down HOME / END: Top left / Bottom right of pattern LCTRL + HOME / END: First / last track F5, F6, F7, F8, F9: Jump to 0, 1/4, 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 lines of the patterns + - (Numeric keypad): Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous pattern LCTRL + LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous position LALT + LEFT / RIGHT: Next / Previous instrument LSHIFT + M: Toggle mute state of the current channel LCTRL + LSHIFT + M: Solo the current track / Unmute all LSHIFT + F1 to F11: Select a tab/panel LCTRL + 1 to 4: Select a copy buffer Tracking 1st and 2nd keys rows: Upper octave row 3rd and 4th keys rows: Lower octave row RSHIFT: Insert a note off / and * (Numeric keypad) or F1 F2: -1 or +1 octave INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current track or current selected block. LSHIFT + INSERT / BACKSPACE: Insert or Delete a line in current pattern DELETE (NOT BACKSPACE): Empty a column or a selected block. Blocks (Blocks can also be selected with the mouse by holding the right button and scrolling the pattern with the mouse wheel). LCTRL + A: Select entire current track LCTRL + LSHIFT + A: Select entire current pattern LALT + A: Select entire column note in a track LALT + LSHIFT + A: Select all notes of a track LCTRL + X: Cut the selected block and copy it into the block-buffer LCTRL + C: Copy the selected block into the block-buffer LCTRL + V: Paste the data from the block buffer into the pattern LCTRL + I: Interpolate selected data from the first to the last row of a selection LSHIFT + ARROWS PREV. PAGE NEXT PAGE: Select a block LCTRL + R: Randomize the select columns of a selection, works similar to CTRL + I (interpolating them) LCTRL + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher LCTRL + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + U: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + D: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 seminote lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher LCTRL + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower LCTRL + LSHIFT + H: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave higher (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + LSHIFT + L: Transpose the note of a selection to 1 octave lower (only for the current instrument) LCTRL + W: Save the current selection into a file Misc LALT + ENTER: Switch between full screen / windowed mode LALT + F4: Exit program (Windows only) LCTRL + S: Save current module LSHIFT + S: Switch top right panel to synths list LSHIFT + I: Switch top right panel to instruments list <pre> C-x xh xx xx hhhh Volume B-x xh xx xx hhhh Jump to A#x xh xx xx hhhh hhhh Slide F-x xh xx xx hhhh Tempo D-x xh xx xx hhhh Pattern Break G#x xh xx xx hhhh </pre> h Hex 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10 11 12 13 d Dec 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 The Set Volume command: C. Input a note, then move the cursor to the effects command column and type a C. Play the pattern, and you shouldn't be able to hear the note you placed the C by. This is because the effect parameters are 00. Change the two zeros to a 40(Hex)/64(Dec), depending on what your tracker uses. Play back the pattern again, and the note should come in at full volume. The Position Jump command next. This is just a B followed by the position in the playing list that you want to jump to. One thing to remember is that the playing list always starts at 0, not 1. This command is usually in Hex. Onto the volume slide command: A. This is slightly more complex (much more if you're using a newer tracker, if you want to achieve the results here, then set slides to Amiga, not linear), due to the fact it depends on the secondary tempo. For now set a secondary tempo of 06 (you can play around later), load a long or looped sample and input a note or two. A few rows after a note type in the effect command A. For the parameters use 0F. Play back the pattern, and you should notice that when the effect kicks in, the sample drops to a very low volume very quickly. Change the effect parameters to F0, and use a low volume command on the note. Play back the pattern, and when the slide kicks in the volume of the note should increase very quickly. This because each part of the effect parameters for command A does a different thing. The first number slides the volume up, and the second slides it down. It's not recommended that you use both a volume up and volume down at the same time, due to the fact the tracker only looks for the first number that isn't set to 0. If you specify parameters of 8F, the tracker will see the 8, ignore the F, and slide the volume up. Using a slide up and down at same time just makes you look stupid. Don't do it... The Set Tempo command: F, is pretty easy to understand. You simply specify the BPM (in Hex) that you want to change to. One important thing to note is that values of lower than 20 (Hex) sets the secondary tempo rather than the primary. Another useful command is the Pattern Break: D. This will stop the playing of the current pattern and skip to the next one in the playing list. By using parameters of more than 00 you can also specify which line to begin playing from. Command 3 is Portamento to Note. This slides the currently playing note to another note, at a specified speed. The slide then stops when it reaches the desired note. <pre> C-2 1 000 - Starts the note playing --- 000 C-3 330 - Starts the slide to C-3 at a speed of 30. --- 300 - Continues the slide --- 300 - Continues the slide </pre> Once the parameters have been set, the command can be input again without any parameters, and it'll still perform the same function unless you change the parameters. This memory function allows certain commands to function correctly, such as command 5, which is the Portamento to Note and Volume Slide command. Once command 3 has been set up command 5 will simply take the parameters from that and perform a Portamento to Note. Any parameters set up for command 5 itself simply perform a Volume Slide identical to command A at the same time as the Portamento to Note. This memory function will only operate in the same channel where the original parameters were set up. There are various other commands which perform two functions at once. They will be described as we come across them. C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 02 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 05 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 08 C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0A C-3 04 .. .. 09 00 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 0D C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 ---> C-3 04 .. .. 09 10 (You can also switch on the Slider Rec to On, and perform parameter-live-recording, such as cutoff transitions, resonance or panning tweaking, etc..) Note: this command only works for volume/panning and fx datas columns. The next command we'll look at is the Portamento up/down: 1 and 2. Command 1 slides the pitch up at a specified speed, and 2 slides it down. This command works in a similar way to the volume slide, in that it is dependent on the secondary tempo. Both these commands have a memory dependent on each other, if you set the slide to a speed of 3 with the 1 command, a 2 command with no parameters will use the speed of 3 from the 1 command, and vice versa. Command 4 is Vibrato. Vibrato is basically rapid changes in pitch, just try it, and you'll see what I mean. Parameters are in the format of xy, where x is the speed of the slide, and y is the depth of the slide. One important point to remember is to keep your vibratos subtle and natural so a depth of 3 or less and a reasonably fast speed, around 8, is usually used. Setting the depth too high can make the part sound out of tune from the rest. Following on from command 4 is command 6. This is the Vibrato and Volume Slide command, and it has a memory like command 5, which you already know how to use. Command 7 is Tremolo. This is similar to vibrato. Rather than changing the pitch it slides the volume. The effect parameters are in exactly the same format. vibrato effect (0x1dxy) x = speed y = depth (can't be used if arpeggio (0x1b) is turned on) <pre> C-7 00 .. .. 1B37 <- Turn Arpeggio effect on --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B38 <- Change datas --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 0000 --- .. .. .. 1B00 <- Turn it off </pre> Command 9 is Sample Offset. This starts the playback of the sample from a different place than the start. The effect parameters specify the sample offset, but only very roughly. Say you have a sample which is 8765(Hex) bytes long, and you wanted it to play from position 4321(Hex). The effect parameter could only be as accurate as the 43 part, and it would ignore the 21. Command B is the Playing List/Order Jump command. The parameters specify the position in the Playing List/Order to jump to. When used in conjunction with command D you can specify the position and the line to play from. Command E is pretty complex, as it is used for a lot of different things, depending on what the first parameter is. Let's take a trip through each effect in order. Command E0 controls the hardware filter on an Amiga, which, as a low pass filter, cuts off the highest frequencies being played back. There are very few players and trackers on other system that simulate this function, not that you should need to use it. The second parameter, if set to 1, turns on the filter. If set to 0, the filter gets turned off. Commands E1/E2 are Fine Portamento Up/Down. Exactly the same functions as commands 1/2, except that they only slide the pitch by a very small amount. These commands have a memory the same as 1/2 as well. Command E3 sets the Glissando control. If parameters are set to 1 then when using command 3, any sliding will only use the notes in between the original note and the note being slid to. This produces a somewhat jumpier slide than usual. The best way to understand is to try it out for yourself. Produce a slow slide with command 3, listen to it, and then try using E31. Command E4 is the Set Vibrato Waveform control. This command controls how the vibrato command slides the pitch. Parameters are 0 - Sine, 1 - Ramp Down (Saw), 2 - Square. By adding 4 to the parameters, the waveform will not be restarted when a new note is played e.g. 5 - Sine without restart. Command E5 sets the Fine Tune of the instrument being played, but only for the particular note being played. It will override the default Fine Tune for the instrument. The parameters range from 0 to F, with 0 being -8 and F being +8 Fine Tune. A parameter of 8 gives no Fine Tune. If you're using a newer tracker that supports more than -8 to +8 e.g. -128 to +128, these parameters will give a rough Fine Tune, accurate to the nearest 16. Command E6 is the Jump Loop command. You mark the beginning of the part of a pattern that you want to loop with E60, and then specify with E6x the end of the loop, where x is the number of times you want it to loop. Command E7 is the Set Tremolo Waveform control. This has exactly the same parameters as command E4, except that it works for Tremolo rather than Vibrato. Command E9 is for Retriggering the note quickly. The parameter specifies the interval between the retrigs. Use a value of less than the current secondary tempo, or else the note will not get retrigged. Command EA/B are for Fine Volume Slide Up/Down. Much the same as the normal Volume Slides, except that these are easier to control since they don't depend on the secondary tempo. The parameters specify the amount to slide by e.g. if you have a sample playing at a volume of 08 (Hex) then the effect EA1 will slide this volume to 09 (Hex). A subsequent effect of EB4 would slide this volume down to 05 (Hex). Command EC is the Note Cut. This sets the volume of the currently playing note to 0 at a specified tick. The parameters should be lower than the secondary tempo or else the effect won't work. Command ED is the Note Delay. This should be used at the same time as a note is to be played, and the parameters will specify the number of ticks to delay playing the note. Again, keep the parameters lower than the secondary tempo, or the note won't get played! Command EE is the Pattern Delay. This delays the pattern for the amount of time it would take to play a certain number of rows. The parameters specify how many rows to delay for. Command EF is the Funk Repeat command. Set the sample loop to 0-1000. When EFx is used, the loop will be moved to 1000- 2000, then to 2000-3000 etc. After 9000-10000 the loop is set back to 0- 1000. The speed of the loop "movement" is defined by x. E is two times as slow as F, D is three times as slow as F etc. EF0 will turn the Funk Repeat off and reset the loop (to 0-1000). effects 0x41 and 0x42 to control the volumes of the 2 303 units There is a dedicated panel for synth parameter editing with coherent sections (osc, filter modulation, routing, so on) the interface is much nicer, much better to navigate with customizable colors, the reverb is now customizable (10 delay lines), It accepts newer types of Waves (higher bit rates, at least 24). Has a replay routine. It's pretty much your basic VA synth. The problem isn't with the sampler being to high it's the synth is tuned two octaves too low, but if you want your samples tuned down just set the base note down 2 octaves (in the instrument panel). so the synth is basically divided into 3 sections from left to right: oscillators/envelopes, then filter and LFO's, and in the right column you have mod routings and global settings. for the oscillator section you have two normal oscillators (sine, saw, square, noise), the second of which is tunable, the first one tunes with the key pressed. Attached to OSC 1 is a sub-oscillator, which is a sawtooth wave tuned one octave down. The phase modulation controls the point in the duty cycle at which the oscillator starts. The ADSR envelope sliders (grouped with oscs) are for modulation envelope 1 and 2 respectively. you can use the synth as a sampler by choosing the instrument at the top. In the filter column, the filter settings are: 1 = lowpass, 2 = highpass, 3 = off. cutoff and resonance. For the LFOs they are LFO 1 and LFO 2, the ADSR sliders in those are for the LFO itself. For the modulation routings you have ENV 1, LFO 1 for the first slider and ENV 2, LFO 2 for the second, you can cycle through the individual routings there, and you can route each modulation source to multiple destinations of course, which is another big plus for this synth. Finally the glide time is for portamento and master volume, well, the master volume... it can go quite loud. The sequencer is changed too, It's more like the one in AXS if you've used that, where you can mute tracks to re-use patterns with variation. <pre> Support for the following modules formats: 669 (Composer 669, Unis 669), AMF (DSMI Advanced Module Format), AMF (ASYLUM Music Format V1.0), APUN (APlayer), DSM (DSIK internal format), FAR (Farandole Composer), GDM (General DigiMusic), IT (Impulse Tracker), IMF (Imago Orpheus), MOD (15 and 31 instruments), MED (OctaMED), MTM (MultiTracker Module editor), OKT (Amiga Oktalyzer), S3M (Scream Tracker 3), STM (Scream Tracker), STX (Scream Tracker Music Interface Kit), ULT (UltraTracker), UNI (MikMod), XM (FastTracker 2), Mid (midi format via timidity) </pre> Possible plugin options include [http://lv2plug.in/ LV2], ====Midi - Musical Instrument Digital Interface==== A midi file typically contains music that plays on up to 16 channels (as per the midi standard), but many notes can simultaneously play on each channel (depending on the limit of the midi hardware playing it). '''Timidity''' Although usually already installed, you can uncompress the [http://www.libsdl.org/projects/SDL_mixer/ timidity.tar.gz (14MB)] into a suitable drawer like below's SYS:Extras/Audio/ assign timidity: SYS:Extras/Audio/timidity added to SYSːs/User-Startup '''WildMidi playback''' '''Audio Evolution 4 (2003) 4.0.23 (from 2012)''' *Sync Menu - CAMD Receive, Send checked *Options Menu - MIDI Machine Control - Midi Bar Display - Select CAMD MIDI in / out - Midi Remote Setup MCB Master Control Bus *Sending a MIDI start-command and a Song Position Pointer, you can synchronize audio with an external MIDI sequencer (like B&P). *B&P Receive, start AE, add AudioEvolution.ptool in Bars&Pipes track, press play / record in AE then press play in Pipes *CAMD Receive, receive MIDI start or continue commands via camd.library sync to AE *MIDI Machine Control *Midi Bar Display *Select CAMD MIDI in / out *Midi Remote Setup - open requester for external MIDI controllers to control app mixer and transport controls cc remotely Channel - mixer(vol, pan, mute, solo), eq, aux, fx, Subgroup - Volume, Mute, Solo Transport - Start, End, Play, Stop, Record, Rewind, Forward Misc - Master vol., Bank Down, Bank up <pre> q - quit First 3 already opened when AE started F1 - timeline window F2 - mixer F3 - control F4 - subgroups F5 - aux returns F6 - sample list i - Load sample to use space - start/stop play b - reset time 0:00 s - split mode r - open recording window a - automation edit mode with p panning, m mute and v volume [ / ] - zoom in / out : - previous track * - next track x c v f - cut copy paste cross-fade g - snap grid </pre> '''[http://bnp.hansfaust.de/ Bars n Pipes sequencer]''' BarsnPipes debug ... in shell Menu (right mouse) *Song - Songs load and save in .song format but option here to load/save Midi_Files .mid in FORMAT0 or FORMAT1 *Track - *Edit - *Tool - *Timing - SMTPE Synchronizing *Windows - *Preferences - Multiple MIDI-in option Windows (some of these are usually already opened when Bars n Pipes starts up for the first time) *Workflow -> Tracks, .... Song Construction, Time-line Scoring, Media Madness, Mix Maestro, *Control -> Transport (or mini one), Windows (which collects all the Windows icons together-shortcut), .... Toolbox, Accessories, Metronome, Once you have your windows placed on the screen that suits your workflow, Song -> Save as Default will save the positions, colors, icons, etc as you'd like them If you need a particular setup of Tracks, Tools, Tempos etc, you save them all as a new song you can load each time Right mouse menu -> Preferences -> Environment... -> ScreenMode - Linkages for Synch (to Slave) usbmidi.out.0 and Send (Master) usbmidi.in.0 - Clock MTC '''Tracks''' #Double-click on B&P's icon. B&P will then open with an empty Song. You can also double-click on a song icon to open a song in B&P. #Choose a track. The B&P screen will contain a Tracks Window with a number of tracks shown as pipelines (Track 1, Track 2, etc...). To choose a track, simply click on the gray box to show an arrow-icon to highlight it. This icon show whether a track is chosen or not. To the right of the arrow-icon, you can see the icon for the midi-input. If you double-click on this icon you can change the MIDI-in setup. #Choose Record for the track. To the right of the MIDI-input channel icon you can see a pipe. This leads to another clickable icon with that shows either P, R or M. This stands for Play, Record or Merge. To change the icon, simply click on it. If you choose P, this track can only play the track (you can't record anything). If you choose R, you can record what you play and it overwrites old stuff in the track. If you choose M, you merge new records with old stuff in the track. Choose R now to be able to make a record. #Chose MIDI-channel. On the most right part of the track you can see an icon with a number in it. This is the MIDI-channel selector. Here you must choose a MIDI-channel that is available on your synthesizer/keyboard. If you choose General MIDI channel 10, most synthesizer will play drum sounds. To the left of this icon is the MIDI-output icon. Double-click on this icon to change the MIDI-output configuration. #Start recording. The next step is to start recording. You must then find the control buttons (they look like buttons on a CD-player). To be able to make a record. you must click on the R icon. You can simply now press the play button (after you have pressed the R button) and play something on you keyboard. To playback your composition, press the Play button on the control panel. #Edit track. To edit a track, you simply double click in the middle part of a track. You will then get a new window containing the track, where you can change what you have recorded using tools provided. Take also a look in the drop-down menus for more features. Videos to help understand [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A6gVTX-9900 small intro], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4&t=3s Overview], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ixOVutKsYQo Workplace Setup CC PC Sysex], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dDnJLYPaZTs Import Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BC3kkzPLkv4 Tempo Mapping], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sd23kqMYPDs ptool Arpeggi-8], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LDJq-YxgwQg PlayMidi Song], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DY9Pu5P9TaU Amiga Midi], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=abq_rUTiSA4 Learning Amiga bars and Pipes], Groups like [https://groups.io/g/barsnpipes/topics this] could help '''Tracks window''' * blue "1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Group" and transport tape deck VCR-type controls * Flags * [http://theproblem.alco-rhythm.com/org/bp.html Track 1, Track2, to Track 16, on each Track there are many options that can be activated] Each Track has a *Left LHS - Click in grey box to select what Track to work on, Midi-In ptool icon should be here (5pin plug icon), and many more from the Toolbox on the Input Pipeline *Middle - (P, R, M) Play, Record, Merge/Multi before the sequencer line and a blue/red/yellow (Thru Mute Play) Tap *Right RHS - Output pipeline, can have icons placed uopn it with the final ptool icon(s) being the 5pin icon symbol for Midi-OUT Clogged pipelines may need Esc pressed several times '''Toolbox (tools affect the chosen pipeline)''' After opening the Toolbox window you can add extra Tools (.ptool) for the pipelines like keyboard(virtual), midimonitor, quick patch, transpose, triad, (un)quantize, feedback in/out, velocity etc right mouse -> Toolbox menu option -> Install Tool... and navigate to Tool drawer (folder) and select requried .ptool Accompany B tool to get some sort of rythmic accompaniment, Rythm Section and Groove Quantize are examples of other tools that make use of rythms [https://aminet.net/search?query=bars Bars & Pipes pattern format .ptrn] for drawer (folder). Load from the Menu as Track or Group '''Accessories (affect the whole app)''' Accessories -> Install... and goto the Accessories drawer for .paccess like adding ARexx scripting support '''Song Construction''' <pre> F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Duplicator F5 Eraser F6 Toolpad F7 Bounding box F8 Lock to A-B-A A-B-A strip, section, edit flags, white boxes, </pre> Bars&Pipes Professional offers three track formats; basic song tracks, linear tracks — which don't loop — and finally real‑time tracks. The difference between them is that both song and linear tracks respond to tempo changes, while real‑time tracks use absolute timing, always trigger at the same instant regardless of tempo alterations '''Tempo Map''' F1 Pencil F2 Magic Wand F3 Hand F4 Eraser F5 Curve F6 Toolpad Compositions Lyrics, Key, Rhythm, Time Signature '''Master Parameters''' Key, Scale/Mode '''Track Parameters''' Dynamics '''Time-line Scoring''' '''Media Madness''' '''Mix Maestro''' *ACCESSORIES Allows the importation of other packages and additional modules *CLIPBOARD Full cut, copy and paste operations, enabling user‑definable clips to be shared between tracks. *INFORMATION A complete rundown on the state of the current production and your machine. *MASTER PARAMETERS Enables global definition of time signatures, lyrics, scales, chords, dynamics and rhythm changes. *MEDIA MADNESS A complete multimedia sequencer which allows samples, stills, animation, etc *METRONOME Tempo feedback via MIDI, internal Amiga audio and colour cycling — all three can be mixed and matched as required. *MIX MAESTRO Completely automated mixdown with control for both volume and pan. All fader alterations are memorised by the software *RECORD ACTIVATION Complete specification of the data to be recorded/merged. Allows overdubbing of pitch‑bend, program changes, modulation etc *SET FLAGS Numeric positioning of location and edit flags in either SMPTE or musical time *SONG CONSTRUCTION Large‑scale cut and paste of individual measures, verses or chorus, by means of bounding box and drag‑n‑drop mouse selections *TEMPO MAP Tempo change using a variety of linear and non‑linear transition curves *TEMPO PALETTE Instant tempo changes courtesy of four user‑definable settings. *TIMELINE SCORING Sequencing of a selection of songs over a defined period — ideal for planning an entire set for a live performance. *TOOLBOX Selection screen for the hundreds of signal‑processing tools available *TRACKS Opens the main track window to enable recording, editing and the use of tools. *TRANSPORT Main playback control window, which also provides access to user‑ defined flags, loop and punch‑in record modes. Bars and Pipes Pro 2.5 is using internal 4-Byte IDs, to check which kind of data are currently processed. Especially in all its files the IDs play an important role. The IDs are stored into the file in the same order they are laid out in the memory. In a Bars 'N' Pipes file (no matter which kind) the ID "NAME" (saved as its ANSI-values) is stored on a big endian system (68k-computer) as "NAME". On a little endian system (x86 PC computer) as "EMAN". The target is to make the AROS-BnP compatible to songs, which were stored on a 68k computer (AMIGA). If possible, setting MIDI channels for Local Control for your keyboard http://www.fromwithin.com/liquidmidi/archive.shtml MIDI files are essentially a stream of event data. An event can be many things, but typically "note on", "note off", "program change", "controller change", or messages that instruct a MIDI compatible synth how to play a given bit of music. * Channel - 1 to 16 - * Messages - PC presets, CC effects like delays, reverbs, etc * Sequencing - MIDI instruments, Drums, Sound design, * Recording - * GUI - Piano roll or Tracker, Staves and Notes MIDI events/messages like step entry e.g. Note On, Note Off MIDI events/messages like PB, PC, CC, Mono and Poly After-Touch, Sysex, etc MIDI sync - Midi Clocks (SPS Measures), Midi Time Code (h, m, s and frames) SMPTE Individual track editing with audition edits so easier to test any changes. Possible to stop track playback, mix clips from the right edit flag and scroll the display using arrow keys. Step entry, to extend a selected note hit the space bar and the note grows accordingly. Ability to cancel mouse‑driven edits by simply clicking the right mouse button — at which point everything snaps back into its original form. Lyrics can now be put in with syllable dividers, even across an entire measure or section. Autoranging when you open a edit window, the notes are automatically displayed — working from the lowest upwards. Flag editing, shift‑click on a flag immediately open the bounds window, ready for numeric input. Ability to cancel edits using the right‑hand mouse button, plus much improved Bounding Box operations. Icons other than the BarsnPipes icon -> PUBSCREEN=BarsnPipes (cannot choose modes higher than 8bit 256 colors) Preferences -> Menu in Tracks window - Send MIDI defaults OFF Prefs -> Environment -> screenmode (saved to BarsnPipes.prefs binary file) Customization -> pics in gui drawer (folder) - Can save as .song files and .mid General Midi SMF is a “Standard Midi File” ([http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~ich/classes/mumt306/StandardMIDIfileformat.html SMF0, SMF1 and SMF2]), [https://github.com/stump/libsmf libsmf], [https://github.com/markc/midicomp MIDIcomp], [https://github.com/MajicDesigns/MD_MIDIFile C++ src], [], [https://github.com/newdigate/midi-smf-reader Midi player], * SMF0 All MIDI data is stored in one track only, separated exclusively by the MIDI channel. * SMF1 The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks/channels. * SMF2 (rarely used) The MIDI data is stored in separate tracks, which are additionally wrapped in containers, so it's possible to have e.g. several tracks using the same MIDI channels. Would it be possible to enrich Bars N’Pipes with software synth and sample support along with audio recording and mastering tools like in the named MAC or PC music sequencers? On the classic AMIGA-OS this is not possible because of missing CPU-power. The hardware of the classic AMIGA is not further developed. So we must say (unfortunately) that those dreams can’t become reality BarsnPipes is best used with external MIDI-equipment. This can be a keyboard or synthesizer with MIDI-connectors. <pre> MIDI can control 16 channels There are USB-MIDI-Interfaces on the market with 16 independent MIDI-lines (multi-port), which can handle 16 MIDI devices independently – 16×16 = 256 independent MIDI-channels or instruments handle up to 16 different USB-MIDI-Interfaces (multi-device). That is: 16X16X16 = 4096 independent MIDI-channels – theoretically </pre> <pre> Librarian MIDI SYStem EXplorer (sysex) - PatchEditor and used to be supplied as a separate program like PatchMeister but currently not at present It should support MIDI.library (PD), BlueRibbon.library (B&P), TriplePlayPlus, and CAMD.library (DeluxeMusic) and MIDI information from a device's user manual and configure a custom interface to access parameters for all MIDI products connected to the system Supports ALL MIDI events and the Patch/Librarian data is stored in MIDI standard format Annette M.Crowling, Missing Link Software, Inc. </pre> Composers <pre> [https://x.com/hirasawa/status/1403686519899054086 Susumu Hirasawa] </pre> <pre> 1988 Todor Fay and his wife Melissa Jordan Gray, who founded the Blue Ribbon Inc 1992 Bars&Pipes Pro published November 2000, Todor Fay announcement to release the sourcecode of Bars&Pipes Pro 2.5c beta end of May 2001, the source of the main program and the sources of some tools and accessories were in a complete and compileable state end of October 2009 stop further development of BarsnPipes New for now on all supported systems and made freeware 2013 Alfred Faust diagnosed with incureable illness, called „Myastenia gravis“ (weak muscles) </pre> Protrekkr How to use Midi In/Out in Protrekkr ? First of all, midi in & out capabilities of this program are rather limited. # Go to Misc. Setup section and select a midi in or out device to use (ptk only supports one device at a time). # Go to instrument section, and select a MIDI PRG (the default is N/A, which means no midi program selected). # Go to track section and here you can assign a midi channel to each track of ptk. # Play notes :]. Note off works. F'x' note cut command also works too, and note-volume command (speed) is supported. Also, you can change midicontrollers in the tracker, using '90' in the panning row: <pre> C-3 02 .. .. 0000.... --- .. .. 90 xxyy.... << This will set the value --- .. .. .. 0000.... of the controller n.'xx' to 'yy' (both in hex) --- .. .. .. 0000.... </pre> So "--- .. .. 90 2040...." will set the controller number $20(32) to $40(64). You will need the midi implementation table of your gear to know what you can change with midi controller messages. N.B. Not all MIDI devices are created equal! Although the MIDI specification defines a large range of MIDI messages of various kinds, not every MIDI device is required to work in exactly the same way and respond to all the available messages and ways of working. For example, we don't expect a wind synthesiser to work in the same way as a home keyboard. Some devices, the older ones perhaps, are only able to respond to a single channel. With some of those devices that channel can be altered from the default of 1 (probably) to another channel of the 16 possible. Other devices, for instance monophonic synthesisers, are capable of producing just one note at a time, on one MIDI channel. Others can produce many notes spread across many channels. Further devices can respond to, and transmit, "breath controller" data (MIDI controller number 2 (CC#2)) others may respond to the reception of CC#2 but not be able to create and to send it. A controller keyboard may be capable of sending "expression pedal" data, but another device may not be capable of responding to that message. Some devices just have the basic GM sound set. The "voice" or "instrument" is selected using a "Program Change" message on its own. Other devices have a greater selection of voices, usually arranged in "banks", and the choice of instrument is made by responding to "Bank Select MSB" (MIDI controller 0 (CC#0)), others use "Bank Select LSB" (MIDI controller number 32 (CC#32)), yet others use both MSB and LSB sent one after the other, all followed by the Program Change message. The detailed information about all the different voices will usually be available in a published MIDI Data List. MIDI Implementation Chart But in the User Manual there is sometimes a summary of how the device works, in terms of MIDI, in the chart at the back of the manual, the MIDI Implementation Chart. If you require two devices to work together you can compare the two implementation charts to see if they are "compatible". In order to do this we will need to interpret that chart. The chart is divided into four columns headed "Function", "Transmitted" (or "Tx"), "Received" (or "Rx"), or more correctly "Recognised", and finally, "Remarks". <pre> The left hand column defines which MIDI functions are being described. The 2nd column defines what the device in question is capable of transmitting to another device. The 3rd column defines what the device is capable of responding to. The 4th column is for explanations of the values contained within these previous two columns. </pre> There should then be twelve sections, with possibly a thirteenth containing extra "Notes". Finally there should be an explanation of the four MIDI "modes" and what the "X" and the "O" mean. <pre> Mode 1: Omni On, Poly; Mode 2: Omni On, Mono; Mode 3: Omni Off, Poly; Mode 4: Omni Off, Mono. </pre> O means "yes" (implemented), X means "no" (not implemented). Sometimes you will find a row of asterisks "**************", these seem to indicate that the data is not applicable in this case. Seen in the transmitted field only (unless you've seen otherwise). Lastly you may find against some entries an asterisk followed by a number e.g. *1, these will refer you to further information, often on a following page, giving more detail. Basic Channel But the very first set of boxes will tell us the "Basic Channel(s)" that the device sends or receives on. "Default" is what happens when the device is first turned on, "changed" is what a switch of some kind may allow the device to be set to. For many devices e.g. a GM sound module or a home keyboard, this would be 1-16 for both. That is it can handle sending and receiving on all MIDI channels. On other devices, for example a synthesiser, it may by default only work on channel 1. But the keyboard could be "split" with the lower notes e.g. on channel 2. If the synth has an arppegiator, this may be able to be set to transmit and or receive on yet another channel. So we might see the default as "1" but the changed as "1-16". Modes. We need to understand Omni On and Off, and Mono and Poly, then we can decipher the four modes. But first we need to understand that any of these four Mode messages can be sent to any MIDI channel. They don't necessarily apply to the whole device. If we send an "Omni On" message (CC#125) to a MIDI channel of a device, we are, in effect, asking it to respond to e.g. a Note On / Off message pair, received on any of the sixteen channels. Sound strange? Read it again. Still strange? It certainly is. We normally want a MIDI channel to respond only to Note On / Off messages sent on that channel, not any other. In other words, "Omni Off". So "Omni Off" (CC#124) tells a channel of our MIDI device to respond only to messages sent on that MIDI channel. "Poly" (CC#127) is for e.g. a channel of a polyphonic sound module, or a home keyboard, to be able to respond to many simultaneous Note On / Off message pairs at once and produce musical chords. "Mono" (CC#126) allows us to set a channel to respond as if it were e.g. a flute or a trumpet, playing just one note at a time. If the device is capable of it, then the overlapping of notes will produce legato playing, that is the attack portion of the second note of two overlapping notes will be removed resulting in a "smoother" transition. So a channel with a piano voice assigned to it will have Omni Off, Poly On (Mode 3), a channel with a saxophone voice assigned could be Omni Off, Mono On (Mode 4). We call these combinations the four modes, 1 to 4, as defined above. Most modern devices will have their channels set to Mode 3 (Omni Off, Poly) but be switchable, on a per channel basis, to Mode 4 (Omni Off, Mono). This second section of data will include first its default value i.e. upon device switch on. Then what Mode messages are acceptable, or X if none. Finally, in the "Altered" field, how a Mode message that can't be implemented will be interpreted. Usually there will just be a row of asterisks effectively meaning nothing will be done if you try to switch to an unimplemented mode. Note Number <pre> The next row will tell us which MIDI notes the device can send or receive, normally 0-127. The second line, "True Voice" has the following in the MIDI specification: "Range of received note numbers falling within the range of true notes produced by the instrument." My interpretation is that, for instance, a MIDI piano may be capable of sending all MIDI notes (0 to 127) by transposition, but only responding to the 88 notes (21 to 108) of a real piano. </pre> Velocity This will tell us whether the device we're looking at will handle note velocity, and what range from 1-127, or maybe just 64, it transmits or will recognise. So usually "O" plus a range or "X" for not implemented. After touch This may have one or two lines two it. If a one liner the either "O" or "X", yes or no. If a two liner then it may include "Keys" or "Poly" and "Channel". This will show whether the device will respond to Polyphonic after touch or channel after touch or neither. Pitch Bend Again "O" for implemented, "X" for not implemented. (Many stage pianos will have no pitch bend capability.) It may also, in the notes section, state whether it will respond to the full 14 bits, or not, as usually encoded by the pitch bend wheel. Control Change This is likely to be the largest section of the chart. It will list all those controllers, starting from CC#0, Bank Select MSB, which the device is capable of sending, and those that it will respond to using "O" or "X" respectively. You will, almost certainly, get some further explanation of functionality in the remarks column, or in more detail elsewhere in the documentation. Of course you will need to know what all the various controller numbers do. Lots of the official technical specifications can be found at the [www.midi.org/techspecs/ MMA], with the table of messages and control change [www.midi.org/techspecs/midimessages.php message numbers] Program Change Again "O" or "X" in the Transmitted or Recognised column to indicate whether or not the feature is implemented. In addition a range of numbers is shown, typically 0-127, to show what is available. True # (number): "The range of the program change numbers which correspond to the actual number of patches selected." System Exclusive Used to indicate whether or not the device can send or recognise System Exclusive messages. A short description is often given in the Remarks field followed by a detailed explanation elsewhere in the documentation. System Common - These include the following: <pre> MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame messages (device synchronisation). Song Position Pointer Song Select Tune Request </pre> The section will indicate whether or not the device can send or respond to any of these messages. System Real Time These include the following: <pre> Timing Clock - often just written as "Clock" Start Stop Continue </pre> These three are usually just referred to as "Commands" and listed. Again the section will indicate which, if any, of these messages the device can send or respond to. <pre> Aux. Messages Again "O" or "X" for implemented or not. Aux. = Auxiliary. Active Sense = Active Sensing. </pre> Often with an explanation of the action of the device. Notes The "Notes" section can contain any additional comments to clarify the particular implementation. Some of the explanations have been drawn directly from the MMA MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification. And the detailed explanation of some of the functions will be found there, or in the General MIDI System Level 1 or General MIDI System Level 2 documents also published by the MMA. OFFICIAL MIDI SPECIFICATIONS SUMMARY OF MIDI MESSAGES Table 1 - Summary of MIDI Messages The following table lists the major MIDI messages in numerical (binary) order (adapted from "MIDI by the Numbers" by D. Valenti, Electronic Musician 2/88, and updated by the MIDI Manufacturers Association.). This table is intended as an overview of MIDI, and is by no means complete. WARNING! Details about implementing these messages can dramatically impact compatibility with other products. We strongly recommend consulting the official MIDI Specifications for additional information. MIDI 1.0 Specification Message Summary Channel Voice Messages [nnnn = 0-15 (MIDI Channel Number 1-16)] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1000nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note Off event. This message is sent when a note is released (ended). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1001nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Note On event. This message is sent when a note is depressed (start). (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the velocity. |- |<!--Status-->1010nnnn || <!--Data-->0kkkkkkk 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Polyphonic Key Pressure (Aftertouch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". (kkkkkkk) is the key (note) number. (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Control Change. This message is sent when a controller value changes. Controllers include devices such as pedals and levers. Controller numbers 120-127 are reserved as "Channel Mode Messages" (below). (ccccccc) is the controller number (0-119). (vvvvvvv) is the controller value (0-127). |- |<!--Status-->1100nnnn || <!--Data-->0ppppppp || <!--Description-->Program Change. This message sent when the patch number changes. (ppppppp) is the new program number. |- |<!--Status-->1101nnnn || <!--Data-->0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Pressure (After-touch). This message is most often sent by pressing down on the key after it "bottoms out". This message is different from polyphonic after-touch. Use this message to send the single greatest pressure value (of all the current depressed keys). (vvvvvvv) is the pressure value. |- |<!--Status-->1110nnnn || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Pitch Bend Change. This message is sent to indicate a change in the pitch bender (wheel or lever, typically). The pitch bender is measured by a fourteen bit value. Center (no pitch change) is 2000H. Sensitivity is a function of the receiver, but may be set using RPN 0. (lllllll) are the least significant 7 bits. (mmmmmmm) are the most significant 7 bits. |} Channel Mode Messages (See also Control Change, above) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->1011nnnn || <!--Data-->0ccccccc 0vvvvvvv || <!--Description-->Channel Mode Messages. This the same code as the Control Change (above), but implements Mode control and special message by using reserved controller numbers 120-127. The commands are: *All Sound Off. When All Sound Off is received all oscillators will turn off, and their volume envelopes are set to zero as soon as possible c = 120, v = 0: All Sound Off *Reset All Controllers. When Reset All Controllers is received, all controller values are reset to their default values. (See specific Recommended Practices for defaults) c = 121, v = x: Value must only be zero unless otherwise allowed in a specific Recommended Practice. *Local Control. When Local Control is Off, all devices on a given channel will respond only to data received over MIDI. Played data, etc. will be ignored. Local Control On restores the functions of the normal controllers. c = 122, v = 0: Local Control Off c = 122, v = 127: Local Control On * All Notes Off. When an All Notes Off is received, all oscillators will turn off. c = 123, v = 0: All Notes Off (See text for description of actual mode commands.) c = 124, v = 0: Omni Mode Off c = 125, v = 0: Omni Mode On c = 126, v = M: Mono Mode On (Poly Off) where M is the number of channels (Omni Off) or 0 (Omni On) c = 127, v = 0: Poly Mode On (Mono Off) (Note: These four messages also cause All Notes Off) |} System Common Messages System Messages (0xF0) The final status nybble is a “catch all” for data that doesn’t fit the other statuses. They all use the most significant nybble (4bits) of 0xF, with the least significant nybble indicating the specific category. The messages are denoted when the MSB of the second nybble is 1. When that bit is a 0, the messages fall into two other subcategories. System Common If the MSB of the second second nybble (4 bits) is not set, this indicates a System Common message. Most of these are messages that include some additional data bytes. System Common Messages Type Status Byte Number of Data Bytes Usage <pre> Time Code Quarter Frame 0xF1 1 Indicates timing using absolute time code, primarily for synthronization with video playback systems. A single location requires eight messages to send the location in an encoded hours:minutes:seconds:frames format*. Song Position 0xF2 2 Instructs a sequencer to jump to a new position in the song. The data bytes form a 14-bit value that expresses the location as the number of sixteenth notes from the start of the song. Song Select 0xF3 1 Instructs a sequencer to select a new song. The data byte indicates the song. Undefined 0xF4 0 Undefined 0xF5 0 Tune Request 0xF6 0 Requests that the receiver retunes itself**. </pre> *MIDI Time Code (MTC) is significantly complex. Please see the MIDI Specification **While modern digital instruments are good at staying in tune, older analog synthesizers were prone to tuning drift. Some analog synthesizers had an automatic tuning operation that could be initiated with this command. System Exclusive If you’ve been keeping track, you’ll notice there are two status bytes not yet defined: 0xf0 and 0xf7. These are used by the System Exclusive message, often abbreviated at SysEx. SysEx provides a path to send arbitrary data over a MIDI connection. There is a group of predefined messages for complex data, like fine grained control of MIDI Time code machinery. SysEx is also used to send manufacturer defined data, such as patches, or even firmware updates. System Exclusive messages are longer than other MIDI messages, and can be any length. The messages are of the following format: 0xF0, 0xID, 0xdd, ...... 0xF7 The message is bookended with distinct bytes. It opens with the Start Of Exclusive (SOX) data byte, 0xF0. The next one to three bytes after the start are an identifier. Values from 0x01 to 0x7C are one-byte vendor IDs, assigned to manufacturers who were involved with MIDI at the beginning. If the ID is 0x00, it’s a three-byte vendor ID - the next two bytes of the message are the value. <pre> ID 0x7D is a placeholder for non-commercial entities. ID 0x7E indicates a predefined Non-realtime SysEx message. ID 0x7F indicates a predefined Realtime SysEx message. </pre> After the ID is the data payload, sent as a stream of bytes. The transfer concludes with the End of Exclusive (EOX) byte, 0xF7. The payload data must follow the guidelines for MIDI data bytes – the MSB must not be set, so only 7 bits per byte are actually usable. If the MSB is set, it falls into three possible scenarios. An End of Exclusive byte marks the ordinary termination of the SysEx transfer. System Real Time messages may occur within the transfer without interrupting it. The recipient should handle them independently of the SysEx transfer. Other status bytes implicitly terminate the SysEx transfer and signal the start of new messages. Some inexpensive USB-to-MIDI interfaces aren’t capable of handling messages longer than four bytes. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11110000 || <!--Data-->0iiiiiii [0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii] 0ddddddd --- --- 0ddddddd 11110111 || <!--Description-->System Exclusive. This message type allows manufacturers to create their own messages (such as bulk dumps, patch parameters, and other non-spec data) and provides a mechanism for creating additional MIDI Specification messages. The Manufacturer's ID code (assigned by MMA or AMEI) is either 1 byte (0iiiiiii) or 3 bytes (0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii 0iiiiiii). Two of the 1 Byte IDs are reserved for extensions called Universal Exclusive Messages, which are not manufacturer-specific. If a device recognizes the ID code as its own (or as a supported Universal message) it will listen to the rest of the message (0ddddddd). Otherwise, the message will be ignored. (Note: Only Real-Time messages may be interleaved with a System Exclusive.) |- |<!--Status-->11110001 || <!--Data-->0nnndddd || <!--Description-->MIDI Time Code Quarter Frame. nnn = Message Type dddd = Values |- |<!--Status-->11110010 || <!--Data-->0lllllll 0mmmmmmm || <!--Description-->Song Position Pointer. This is an internal 14 bit register that holds the number of MIDI beats (1 beat= six MIDI clocks) since the start of the song. l is the LSB, m the MSB. |- |<!--Status-->11110011 || <!--Data-->0sssssss || <!--Description-->Song Select. The Song Select specifies which sequence or song is to be played. |- |<!--Status-->11110100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11110110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Tune Request. Upon receiving a Tune Request, all analog synthesizers should tune their oscillators. |- |<!--Status-->11110111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->End of Exclusive. Used to terminate a System Exclusive dump. |} System Real-Time Messages {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Status D7----D0 ! width="10%" |Data Byte(s) D7----D0 ! width="20%" |Description |- |<!--Status-->11111000 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Timing Clock. Sent 24 times per quarter note when synchronization is required. |- |<!--Status-->11111001 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111010 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Start. Start the current sequence playing. (This message will be followed with Timing Clocks). |- |<!--Status-->11111011 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Continue. Continue at the point the sequence was Stopped. |- |<!--Status-->11111100 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Stop. Stop the current sequence. |- |<!--Status-->11111101 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Undefined. (Reserved) |- |<!--Status-->11111110 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Active Sensing. This message is intended to be sent repeatedly to tell the receiver that a connection is alive. Use of this message is optional. When initially received, the receiver will expect to receive another Active Sensing message each 300ms (max), and if it does not then it will assume that the connection has been terminated. At termination, the receiver will turn off all voices and return to normal (non- active sensing) operation. |- |<!--Status-->11111111 || <!--Data--> || <!--Description-->Reset. Reset all receivers in the system to power-up status. This should be used sparingly, preferably under manual control. In particular, it should not be sent on power-up. |} Advanced Messages Polyphonic Pressure (0xA0) and Channel Pressure (0xD0) Some MIDI controllers include a feature known as Aftertouch. While a key is being held down, the player can press harder on the key. The controller measures this, and converts it into MIDI messages. Aftertouch comes in two flavors, with two different status messages. The first flavor is polyphonic aftertouch, where every key on the controller is capable of sending its own independent pressure information. The messages are of the following format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xkk, 0xpp n is the status (0xA) c is the channel nybble kk is the key number (0 to 127) pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Polyphonic aftertouch is an uncommon feature, usually found on premium quality instruments, because every key requires a separate pressure sensor, plus the circuitry to read them all. Much more commonly found is channel aftertouch. Instead of needing a discrete sensor per key, it uses a single, larger sensor to measure pressure on all of the keys as a group. The messages omit the key number, leaving a two-byte format <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xD) c is the channel number pp is the pressure value (0 to 127) </pre> Pitch Bend (0xE0) Many keyboards have a wheel or lever towards the left of the keys for pitch bend control. This control is usually spring-loaded, so it snaps back to the center of its range when released. This allows for both upward and downward bends. Pitch Bend Wheel The wheel sends pitch bend messages, of the format <pre> 0xnc, 0xLL, 0xMM n is the status (0xE) c is the channel number LL is the 7 least-significant bits of the value MM is the 7 most-significant bits of the value </pre> You’ll notice that the bender data is actually 14 bits long, transmitted as two 7-bit data bytes. This means that the recipient needs to reassemble those bytes using binary manipulation. 14 bits results in an overall range of 214, or 0 to 16,383. Because it defaults to the center of the range, the default value for the bender is halfway through that range, at 8192 (0x2000). Control Change (0xB0) In addition to pitch bend, MIDI has provisions for a wider range of expressive controls, sometimes known as continuous controllers, often abbreviated CC. These are transmitted by the remaining knobs and sliders on the keyboard controller shown below. Continuous Controllers These controls send the following message format: <pre> 0xnc, 0xcc, 0xvv n is the status (0xB) c is the MIDI channel cc is the controller number (0-127) vv is the controller value (0-127) </pre> Typically, the wheel next to the bender sends controller number one, assigned to modulation (or vibrato) depth. It is implemented by most instruments. The remaining controller number assignments are another point of confusion. The MIDI specification was revised in version 2.0 to assign uses for many of the controllers. However, this implementation is not universal, and there are ranges of unassigned controllers. On many modern MIDI devices, the controllers are assignable. On the controller keyboard shown in the photos, the various controls can be configured to transmit different controller numbers. Controller numbers can be mapped to particular parameters. Virtual synthesizers frequently allow the user to assign CCs to the on-screen controls. This is very flexible, but it might require configuration on both ends of the link and completely bypasses the assignments in the standard. Program Change (0xC0) Most synthesizers have patch storage memory, and can be told to change patches using the following command: <pre> 0xnc, 0xpp n is the status (0xc) c is the channel pp is the patch number (0-127) </pre> This allows for 128 sounds to be selected, but modern instruments contain many more than 128 patches. Controller #0 is used as an additional layer of addressing, interpreted as a “bank select” command. Selecting a sound on such an instrument might involve two messages: a bank select controller message, then a program change. Audio & Midi are not synchronized, what I can do ? Buy a commercial software package but there is a nasty trick to synchronize both. It's a bit hardcore but works for me: Simply put one line down to all midi notes on your pattern (use Insert key) and go to 'Misc. Setup', adjust the latency and just search a value that will make sound sync both audio/midi. The stock Sin/Saw/Pulse and Rnd waveforms are too simple/common, is there a way to use something more complex/rich ? You have to ability to redirect the waveforms of the instruments through the synth pipe by selecting the "wav" option for the oscillator you're using for this synth instrument, samples can be used as wavetables to replace the stock signals. Sound banks like soundfont (sf2) or Kontakt2 are not supported at the moment ====DAW Audio Evolution 4==== Audio Evolution 4 gives you unsurpassed power for digital audio recording and editing on the Amiga. The latest release focusses on time-saving non-linear and non-destructive editing, as seen on other platforms. Besides editing, Audio Evolution 4 offers a wide range of realtime effects, including compression, noise gate, delays, reverb, chorus and 3-band EQ. Whether you put them as inserts on a channel or use them as auxillaries, the effect parameters are realtime adjustable and can be fully automated. Together with all other mixing parameters, they can even be controlled remotely, using more ergonomic MIDI hardware. Non-linear editing on the time line, including cut, copy, paste, move, split, trim and crossfade actions The number of tracks per project(s) is unlimited .... AHI limits you to recording only two at a time. i.e. not on 8 track sound cards like the Juli@ or Phase 88. sample file import is limited to 16bit AIFF (not AIFC, important distinction as some files from other sources can be AIFC with aiff file extension). and 16bit WAV (pcm only) Most apps use the Music Unit only but a few apps also use Unit (0-3) instead or as well. * Set up AHI prefs so that microphone is available. (Input option near the bottom) stereo++ allows the audio piece to be placed anywhere and the left-right adjusted to sound positionally right hifi best for music playback if driver supports this option Load 16bit .aif .aiff only sample(s) to use not AIFC which can have the same ending. AIFF stands for Audio Interchange File Format sox recital.wav recital.aiff sox recital.wav −b 16 recital.aiff channels 1 rate 16k fade 3 norm sox input.wav output.aiff bass −b 16 rate 48k performs the same format translation, but also applies four effects (down-mix to one channel, sample rate change, fade-in, nomalize), and stores the result at a bit-depth of 16. rec −c 2 radio.aiff trim 0 30:00 records half an hour of stereo audio play existing-file.wav 24bit PCM WAV or AIFF do not work *No stream format handling. So no way to pass on an AC3 encoded stream unmodified to the digital outputs through AHI. *No master volume handling. Each application has to set its own volume. So each driver implements its own custom driver-mixer interface for handling master volumes, mute and preamps. *Only one output stream. So all input gets mixed into one output. *No automatic handling of output direction based on connected cables. *No monitor input selection. Only monitor volume control. select the correct input (Don't mistake enabled sound for the correct input.) The monitor will feedback audio to the lineout and hp out no matter if you have selected the correct input to the ADC. The monitor will provide sound for any valid input. This will result in free mixing when recording from the monitor input instead of mic/line because the monitor itself will provide the hardware mixing for you. Be aware that MIC inputs will give two channel mono. Only Linein will give real stereo. Now for the not working part. Attempt to record from linein in the AE4 record window, the right channel is noise and the left channel is distorted. Even with the recommended HIFI 16bit Stereo++ mode at 48kHz. Channels Monitor Gain Inout Output Advanced settings - Debugging via serial port * Options -> Soundcard In/Out * Options -> SampleRate * Options -> Preferences F6 for Sample File List Setting a grid is easy as is measuring the BPM by marking a section of the sample. Is your kick drum track "not in time" ? If so, you're stumped in AE4 as it has no fancy variable time signatures and definitely no 'track this dodgy rhythm' function like software of the nature of Logic has. So if your drum beat is freeform you will need to work in freeform mode. (Real music is free form anyway). If the drum *is* accurate and you are just having trouble measuring the time, I usually measure over a range of bars and set the number of beats in range to say 16 as this is more accurate, Then you will need to shift the drum track to match your grid *before* applying the grid. (probably an iterative process as when the grid is active samples snap to it, and when inactive you cannot see it). AE4 does have ARexx but the functions are more for adding samples at set offsets and starting playback / recording. These are the usual features found in DAWs... * Recording digital audio, midi sequencer and mixer * virtual VST instruments and plug-ins * automation, group channels, MIDI channels, FX sends and returns, audio and MIDI editors and music notation editor * different track views * mixer and track layout (but not the same as below) * traditional two windows (track and mixer) Mixing - mixdown Could not figure out how to select what part I wanted to send to the aux, set it to echo and return. Pretty much the whole echo effect. Or any effect. Take look at page17 of the manual. When you open the EQ / Aux send popup window you will see 4 sends. Now from the menu choose the windows menu. Menus->Windows-> Aux Returns Window or press F5 You will see a small window with 4 volume controls and an effects button for each. Click a button and add an effects to that aux channel, then set it up as desired (note the reverb effect has a special AUX setting that improves its use with the aux channel, not compulsory but highly useful). You set the amount of 'return' on the main mix in the Aux Return window, and the amount sent from each main mixer channel in the popup for that channel. Again the aux sends are "prefade" so the volume faders on each channel do not affect them. Tracking Effects - fade in To add some echoes to some vocals, tried to add an effect on a track but did not come out. This is made more complicated as I wanted to mute a vocal but then make it echo at the muting point. Want to have one word of a vocal heard and then echoed off. But when the track is mute the echo is cancelled out. To correctly understand what is happening here you need to study the figure at the bottom of page 15 on the manual. You will see from that that the effects are applied 'prefade' So the automation you applied will naturally mute the entire signal. There would be a number of ways to achieve the goal, You have three real time effects slots, one for smoothing like so Sample -> Amplify -> Delay Then automate the gain of the amplify block so that it effectively mutes the sample just before the delay at the appropriate moment, the echo effect should then be heard. Getting the effects in the right order will require experimentation as they can only be added top down and it's not obvious which order they are applied to the signal, but there only two possibilities, so it wont take long to find out. Using MUTE can cause clicks to the Amplify can be used to mute more smoothly so that's a secondary advantage. Signal Processing - Overdub [[#top|...to the top]] ===Office=== ====Spreadsheet Leu==== Support for some xlsx, and ods functions ====Spreadsheet Ignition==== ; Needs ABIv1 to be completed before more can be done File formats supported * ascii #?.txt and #?.csv (single sheets with data only). * igs and TurboCalc(WIP) #?.tc for all sheets with data, formats and formulas. There is '''no''' support for xls, xlsx, ods or uos ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Office_Format Uniform Unified Office Format]) at the moment. * Always use Esc key after editing Spreadsheet cells. * copy/paste seems to copy the first instance only so go to Edit -> Clipboard to manage the list of remembered actions. * Right mouse click on row (1 or 2 or 3) or column header (a or b or c) to access optimal height or width of the row or column respectively * Edit -> Insert -> Row seems to clear the spreadsheet or clears the rows after the inserted row until undo restores as it should be... Change Sheet name by Object -> Sheet -> Properties Click in the cell which will contain the result, and click '''down arrow button''' to the right of the formula box at the bottom of the spreadsheet and choose the function required from the list provided. Then click on the start cell and click on the bottom right corner, a '''very''' small blob, which allows stretching a bounding box (thick grey outlines) across many cells This grey bounding box can be used to '''copy a formula''' to other cells. Object -> Cell -> Properties to change cell format - Currency only covers DM and not $, Euro, Renminbi, Yen or Pound etc. Shift key and arrow keys selects a range of cells, so that '''formatting can be done to all highlighted cells'''. View -> Overview then select ALL with one click (in empty cell in the top left hand corner of the sheet). Default mode is relative cell referencing e.g. a1+a2 but absolute e.g. $a$1+$a$2 can be entered. * #sheet-name to '''absolute''' reference another sheet-name cell unless reference() function used. ;Graphs use shift key and arrow keys to select a bunch of cells to be graph'ed making sure that x axes represents and y axes represents * value() - 0 value, 1 percent, 2 date, 3 time, 4 unit ... ;Dates * Excel starts a running count from the 1st Jan 1900 and Ignition starts from 1st Jan 1AD '''(maybe this needs to change)''' Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put date in days ;Time Set formatting Object -> Cell -> Properties and put time in seconds taken ;Database (to be done by someone else) type - standard, reference (bezug), search criterion (suchkriterium), * select a bunch of cells and Object -> Database -> Define to set Datenbank (database) and Felder (fields not sure how?) * Neu (new) or loschen (delete) to add/remove database headings e.g. Personal, Start Date, Finish Date (one per row?) * Object -> Database -> Index to add fields (felder) like Surname, First Name, Employee ID, etc. to ? Filtering done with dbfilter(), dbproduct() and dbposition(). Activities with dbsum(), dbaverage(), dbmin() and dbmax(). Table sorting - ;Scripts (Arexx) ;Excel(TM) to Ignition - commas ''',''' replaced by semi-colons ''';''' to separate values within functions *SUM(), *AVERAGE(), MAX(), MIN(), INT(), PRODUCT(), MEDIAN(), VAR() becomes Variance(), Percentile(), *IF(), AND, OR, NOT *LEFT(), RIGHT(), MID() becomes MIDDLE(), LEN() becomes LENGTH(), *LOWER() becomes LOWERCASE(), UPPER() becomes UPPERCASE(), * DATE(yyyy,mm,dd) becomes COMPUTEDATE(dd;mm;yyyy), *TODAY(), DAY(),WEEK(), MONTH(),=YEAR(TODAY()), *EOMONTH() becomes MONTHLENGTH(), *NOW() should be date and time becomes time only, SECOND(), MINUTE(), HOUR(), *DBSUM() becomes DSUM(), ;Missing and possibly useful features/functions needed for ignition to have better support of Excel files There is no Merge and Join Text over many cells, no protect and/or freeze row or columns or books but can LOCK sheets, no define bunch of cells as a name, Macros (Arexx?), conditional formatting, no Solver, no Goal Seek, no Format Painter, no AutoFill, no AutoSum function button, no pivot tables, (30 argument limit applies to Excel) *HLOOKUP(), VLOOKUP(), [http://production-scheduling.com/excel-index-function-most-useful/ INDEX(), MATCH()], CHOOSE(), TEXT(), *TRIM(), FIND(), SUBSTITUTE(), CONCATENATE() or &, PROPER(), REPT(), *[https://acingexcel.com/excel-sumproduct-function/ SUMPRODUCT()], ROUND(), ROUNDUP(), *ROUNDDOWN(), COUNT(), COUNTA(), SUMIF(), COUNTIF(), COUNTBLANK(), TRUNC(), *PMT(), PV(), FV(), POWER(), SQRT(), MODE(), TRUE, FALSE, *MODE(), LARGE(), SMALL(), RANK(), STDEV(), *DCOUNT(), DCOUNTA(), WEEKDAY(), ;Excel Keyboard [http://dmcritchie.mvps.org/excel/shortx2k.htm shortcuts needed to aid usability in Ignition] <pre> Ctrl Z - Undo Ctrl D - Fill Down Ctrl R - Fill right Ctrl F - Find Ctrl H - Replace Ctrl 1 - Formatting of Cells CTRL SHIFT ~ Apply General Formatting ie a number Ctrl ; - Todays Date F2 - Edit cell F4 - toggle cell absolute / relative cell references </pre> ====Document Scanning - Scandal==== Scanner usually needs to be connected via a USB port and not via a hub or extension lead. Check in Trident Prefs -> Devices that the USB Scanner is not bound to anything (e.g. Bindings None) If not found then reboot the computer and recheck. Start Scandal, choose Settings from Menu strip at top of screen and in Scanner Driver choose the ?#.device of the scanner (e.g. epson2.device). The next two boxes - leave empty as they are for morphos SCSI use only or put ata.device (use the selection option in bigger box below) and Unit as 0 this is needed for gt68xx * gt68xx - no editing needed in s/gt68xx.conf but needs a firmware file that corresponds to the scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx firmwares] in sys:s/gt68xx. * epson2 - Need to edit the file epson2.conf in sys/s that corresponds to the scanner being used '''Save''' the settings but do not press the Use button (aros freezes) Back to the Picture Scan window and the right-hand sections. Click on the '''Information''' tab and press Connect button and the scanner should now be detected. Go next to the '''Scanner''' tab next to Information Tab should have Color, Black and White, etc. and dpi settings now. Selecting an option Color, B/W etc. can cause dpi settings corruption (especially if the settings are in one line) so set '''dpi first'''. Make sure if Preview is set or not. In the '''Scan''' Tab, press Scan and the scanner will do its duty. Be aware that nothing is saved to disk yet. In the Save tab, change format JPEG, PNG or IFF DEEP. Tick incremental and base filename if necessary and then click the Save button. The image will now be saved to permanent storage. The driver ignores a device if it is already bond to another USB class, rejects it from being usable. However, open Trident prefs, select your device and use the right mouse button to open. Select "NONE" to prevent poseidon from touching the device. Now save settings. It should always work now. [[#top|...to the top]] ===Emulators=== ==== Amiberry ==== ==== Amiga Emu - Janus UAE ==== With Amibridge, AROS attempts to make the UAE emulator seem embedded within but it still is acting as an app There is no dynarec m68k for each hardware that Aros supports or direct patching of motorola calls to AROS hardware accelerated ones unless the emulator has that included Try starting Janus with a priority of -1 like this little script: <pre> cd sys:system/AmiBridge/emulator changetaskpri -1 run janus-uae -f my_uaerc.config >nil: cd sys:prefs endcli </pre> This stops Janus hogging all the CPU time. ===Miscellaneous=== ====Screensaver Blanker==== Most blankers on the amiga (i.e. aros) run as commodities (they are in the tools/commodities drawer). Double click on blanker. Control is with an app called Exchange, which you need to run first (double click on app) or run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Exchange >NIL: but subsequently can use (Cntrl Alt h). Icon tool types (may be broken) or command line options <pre> seconds=number </pre> Once the timing is right then add the following to s:icaros-sequence or s:user-startup e.g. for 5 minutes run QUIET sys:tools/commodities/Blanker seconds=300 >NIL: *[http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=showfile&file=graphics/screenblanker/gblanker.i386-aros.zip Garshneblanker] can make Aros unstable or slow. Certain blankers crashes in Icaros 2.0.x like Dragon, Executor. *[ Acuario AROS version], the aquarium screen saver. Startup: extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Kill: c:break name=extras:acuariofv-aros/acuario Managed to start Acuario by the Executor blanker. <pre> cx_priority= cx_popkey= ie CX_POPKEY="Shift F1" cx_popup=Yes or No </pre> <pre> Qualifier String Input Event Class ---------------- ----------------- "lshift" IEQUALIFIER_LSHIFT "rshift" IEQUALIFIER_RSHIFT "capslock" IEQUALIFIER_CAPSLOCK "control" IEQUALIFIER_CONTROL "lalt" IEQUALIFIER_LALT "ralt" IEQUALIFIER_RALT "lcommand" IEQUALIFIER_LCOMMAND "rcommand" IEQUALIFIER_RCOMMAND "numericpad" IEQUALIFIER_NUMERICPAD "repeat" IEQUALIFIER_REPEAT "midbutton" IEQUALIFIER_MIDBUTTON "rbutton" IEQUALIFIER_RBUTTON "leftbutton" IEQUALIFIER_LEFTBUTTON "relativemouse" IEQUALIFIER_RELATIVEMOUSE </pre> <pre> Synonym Synonym String Identifier ------- ---------- "shift" IXSYM_SHIFT /* look for either shift key */ "caps" IXSYM_CAPS /* look for either shift key or capslock */ "alt" IXSYM_ALT /* look for either alt key */ Highmap is one of the following strings: "space", "backspace", "tab", "enter", "return", "esc", "del", "up", "down", "right", "left", "f1", "f2", "f3", "f4", "f5", "f6", "f7", "f8", "f9", "f10", "help". </pre> [[#top|...to the top]] ==== World Construction Set WCS (Version 2.031) ==== WCS is a fractal landscape software such as Scenery Animator, Vista Pro and Panorama. Open sourced February 2022, World Construction Set [https://3dnature.com/downloads/legacy-software/ legally and for free] and [https://github.com/AlphaPixel/3DNature c source]. Announced August 1994 this version dates from April 1996 developed by Gary R. Huber and Chris "Xenon" Hanson" from Questar <pre> Assign "WCSProjects:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSProjects" Assign "WCSFrames:" "Volume:Dir/Dir/WCSFrames" </pre> <pre> Load projects .proj by accessing pull down menu Project -> Open then click on CanyonSunset.proj OK to changing .par file and enlarge Status Log window to show what is happening Render by pull down menu Modules -> Render with End equal 1 not 300 then click bottom middle button Render </pre> [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CxQDmf1ZWG0 Youtube walkthrough of above], [], [], Also try working with the already built file ColoDemo - Then open with the drop-down menu: Project/Open, then WCSProject:ColoDemo.proj Which allows you to use altimetric DEM files already included and Loading scene parameters from ColoDemo.par Once this is done, save everything with a new name to start working exclusively on your project. Then drop-down menu and select Save As ("NewName".proj name), then drop-down menu to open parameter and select Save All ( .par name) After launching the software, there is a the Module Control Panel composed of five icons. It is a dock type shortcut of the first few functions of the drop-down menu *Database - Load (#?.proj), Append, Create, Edit, Save, Dir List (of WCSProject drawer), *Data Ops - Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats *Map View - Database file Loader leading to Map View Control with option to the Database Editor *Parameters - Editor for Motion, Color, Ecosystem, Clouds, Waves, management of altimeter files DEM, sclock settings etc *Render - rendering terrain These are more in the pull down menu but not in the dock *Motion Editor *Color Editor *Ecosys Editor Simple minimal workflow *Load database (1st icon - 1st) *Set parameters and save .par file (4th icon) *Render scene (5th icon) [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZbTwwR2qcc4 Youtube], [], <pre> .proj new project name which creates a drawer of additional files .binary array, ascii array .xyz , z buffer, DTED .dt0, vista 1990s dem, iff conversion .Obj with .elev, .frd with .hdr maps, - digital elevation model (DEM) is a 3D representation of elevation data in various formats USGS 7.5MinDEM, .par </pre> Since for the time being no project is loaded, a query window indicates a procedural error when clicking on the rendering icon (right end of the bar). The menu is quite traditional; it varies according to the activity of the windows. To display any altimetric file in the "Mapview" (third icon of the panel), There are three possibilities: * Loading of a demonstration project. * The import of a DEM file, followed by texturing and packaging from the "Database-Editor" and the "Color-Editor". * The creation of an altimetric file in WCS format, then texturing. The altimeter file editing (display in the menu) is only made possible if the "Mapview" window is active. The software is made up of many windows and won't be able to describe them all. Know that "Color-Editor" and the "Data-Editor" comprise sufficient functions for obtaining an almost real rendering quality. You have the possibility of inserting vector objects in the "Data-Editor" (creation of roads, railways, etc.) The Map View (MapView) window *Database - Objects and Topos *View - Align, Center, Zoom, Pan, Move *Draw - Maps and distance *Object - Find, highlight, add points, conform topo, duplicate *Motion - Camera, Focus, path, elevation *Windows - DEM designer, Cloud (.cld) and wave (.wve) editor, You will notice that by selecting this window and simply moving the pointer to various points on the map you will see latitude and longitude values ​​change, along with the height. Drop-down menu and Modules, then select MapView and change the width of the window with the map to arrange it in the best way on the screen. With the Auto button the center. Window that then displays the contents of my DEM file, in this case the Grand Canyon. MapView allows you to observe the shape of the landscape from above ZOOM button Press the Zoom button and then with the pointer position on a point on the map, press the left mouse button and then move to the opposite corner to circumscribe the chosen area and press the left mouse button again, then we will see the enlarged area selected on the map. Would add that there is a box next to the Zoom button that allows the direct insertion of a value which, the larger it is, the smaller the magnification and the smaller the value, the stronger the magnification. At each numerical change you will need to press the DRAW button to update the view. PAN button Under Zoom you will find the PAN button which allows you to move the map at will in all directions by the amount you want. This is done by drawing a line in one direction, then press PAN and point to an area on the map with the pointer and press the left mouse button. At this point, leave it and move the pointer in one direction by drawing a line and press the left mouse button again to trigger the movement of the map on the screen (origin and end points). Do some experiments and then use the Auto button immediately below to recenter everything. There are parameters such as TOPO, VEC to be left checked and immediately below one that allows different views of the map with the Style command (Single, Multi, Surface, Emboss, Slope, Contour), each with its own particularities to highlight different details. Now you have the first basics to manage your project visually on the map. Close the MapView window and go further... Let's start working on ECOSYSTEMS If we select Emboss from the MapView Style command we will have a clear idea of ​​how the landscape appears, realizing that it is a predominantly desert region of our planet. Therefore we will begin to act on any vegetation present and the appearance of the landscape. With WCS we will begin to break down the elements of the landscape by assigning defined characteristics. It will be necessary to determine the classes of the ecosystem (Class) with parameters of Elevation Line (maximum altitude), Relative Elevation (arrangement on basins or convexities with respectively positive or negative parameters), Min Slope and Max Slope (slope). WCS offers the possibility of making ecosystems coexist on the same terrain with the UnderEco function, by setting a Density value. Ecosys Ecosystem Editor Let's open it from Modules, then Ecosys Editor. In the left pane you will find the list of ecosystems referring to the files present in our project. It will be necessary to clean up that box to leave only the Water and Snow landscapes and a few other predefined ones. We can do this by selecting the items and pressing the Remove button (be careful not for all elements the button is activated, therefore they cannot all be eliminated). Once this is done we can start adding new ecosystems. Scroll through the various Unused and as soon as the Name item at the top is activated allowing you to write, type the name of your ecosystem, adding the necessary parameters. <pre> Ecosystem1: Name: RockBase Class: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 15 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem2: Name: RockIncl Clss: Rock Density: 80 MinSlope: 30 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosystem3: Name: Grass Class Low Veg Density: 50 Height: 1 Elev Line : 1500 Rel El Eff: 5 Max Slope: 10 – Min Slope: 0 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema4: Name: Shrubs Class: Low Veg Density: 40 Height: 8 Elev Line: 3000 Rel El Eff: -2 Max Slope: 20 Min Slope : 5 UnderEco: Terrain Ecosistema5: Name: Terrain Class: Ground Density: 100 UnderEco: Terrain </pre> Now we need to identify an intermediate ecosystem that guarantees a smooth transition between all, therefore we select as Understory Ecosystem the one called Terrain in all ecosystems, except Snow and Water . Now we need to 'emerge' the Colorado River in the Canyon and we can do this by raising the sea level to 900 (Sea Level) in the Ecosystem called Water. Please note that the order of the ecosystem list gives priority to those that come after. So our list must have the following order: Water, Snow, Shrubs, RockIncl, RockBase, Terrain. It is possible to carry out all movements with the Swap button at the bottom. To put order you can also press Short List. Press Keep to confirm all the work done so far with Ecosystem Editor. Remember every now and then to save both the Project 'Modules/Save' and 'Parameter/Save All' EcoModels are made up of .etp .fgp .iff8 for each model Color Editor Now it's time to define the colors of our scene and we can do this by going to Modules and then Color Editor. In the list we focus on our ecosystems, created first. Let's go to the bottom of the list and select the first white space, assigning the name 'empty1', with a color we like and then we will find this element again in other environments... It could serve as an example for other situations! So we move to 'grass' which already exists and assign the following colors: R 60 G 70 B50 <pre> 'shrubs': R 60 G 80 B 30 'RockIncl' R 110 G 65 B 60 'RockBase' R 110 G 80 B 80 ' Terrain' R 150 G 30 B 30 <pre> Now we can work on pre-existing colors <pre> 'SunLight' R 150 G 130 B 130 'Haze and Fog' R 190 G 170 B 170 'Horizon' R 209 G 185 B 190 'Zenith' R 140 G 150 B 200 'Water' R 90 G 125 B 170 </pre> Ambient R 0 G 0 B 0 So don't forget to close Color Editor by pressing Keep. Go once again to Ecosystem Editor and assign the corresponding color to each environment by selecting it using the Ecosystem Color button. Press it several times until the correct one appears. Then save the project and parameters again, as done previously. Motion Editor Now it's time to take care of the framing, so let's go to Modules and then to Motion Editor. An extremely feature-rich window will open. Following is the list of parameters regarding the Camera, position and other characteristics: <pre> -Camera Altitude: 7.0 -Camera Latitude: 36.075 -Camera Longitude: 112.133 -Focus Attitude: -2.0 -Focus Latitude: 36.275 -Focus Longitude: 112.386 -Camera : 512 → rendering window -Camera Y: 384 → rendering window -View Arc: 80 → View width in degrees -Sun Longitude: 172 -Sun Latitude: -0.9 -Haze Start: 3.8 -Haze Range: 78, 5 </pre> As soon as the values ​​shown in the relevant sliders have been modified, we will be ready to open the CamView window to observe the wireframe preview. Let's not consider all the controls that will appear. Well from the Motion Editor if you have selected Camera Altitude and open the CamView panel, you can change the height of the camera by holding down the right mouse button and moving the mouse up and down. To update the view, press the Terrain button in the adjacent window. As soon as you are convinced of the position, confirm again with Keep. You can carry out the same work with the other functions of the camera, such as Focus Altitude... Let's now see the next positioning step on the Camera map, but let's leave the CamView preview window open while we go to Modules to open the window at the same time MapView. We will thus be able to take advantage of the view from the other together with a subjective one. From the MapView window, select with the left mouse button and while it is pressed, move the Camera as desired. To update the subjective preview, always click on Terrain. While with the same procedure you can intervene on the direction of the camera lens, by selecting the cross and with the left button pressed you can choose the desired view. So with the pressure of Terrain I update the Preview. Possibly can enlarge or reduce the Map View using the Zoom button, for greater precision. Also write that the circle around the cameras indicates the beginning of the haze, there are two types (haze and fog) linked to the altitude. Would also add that the camera height is editable through the Motion Editor panel. The sun Let's see that changing the position of the sun from the Motion Editor. Press the SUN button at the bottom right and set the time and the date. Longitude and latitude are automatically obtained by the program. Always open the View Arc command from the Motion Editor panel, an item present in the Parameter List box. Once again confirm everything with Keep and then save again. Animation The animation part is not left-back and also occupies a window. The settings possibilities are enormous. A time line with dragging functions ("slide", "drag"...) comparable to that of LightWave completes this window. A small window is available for positioning the stars as a function of a date, in order to vary the seasons and their various events (and yes...). At the bottom of the "Motion-Editor", a "cam-view" function will give you access to a control panel. Different preview modes are possible. The rendering is also accessible through a window. No less than nine pages compose it. At this level, you will be able to determine the backup name of your images ("path"), the type of texture to be calculated, the resolution of the images, activate or deactivate functions such as the depth buffer ("zbuffer"), the blur, the background image, etc. Once all these parameters have been set, all you have to do is click on the "Render" button. For rendering go to Modules and then Render. Select the resolution, then under IMA select the name of the image. Move to FRA and indicate the level of fractal detail which of 4 is quite good. Then Keep to confirm and then reopen the window, pressing Render you will see the result. The image will be opened with any viewing program. Strengths: * Multi-window. * Quality of rendering. * Accuracy. * Opening, preview and rendering on CyberGraphX screen. * Extract / Convert Interp DEM, Import DLG, DXF, WDB and export LW map 3d formats * The "zbuffer" function. Weaknesses: * No OpenGL management * Calculation time. * No network computing tool. ====Writing CD / DVD - Frying Pan==== Can be backup DVDs (4GB ISO size limit due to use of FileInfoBlock), create audio cds from mp3's, and put .iso files on discs If using for the first time - click Drive button and Device set to ata.device and unit to 0 (zero) Click Tracks Button - Drive 1 - Create New Disc or Import Existing Disc Image (iso bin/cue etc.) - Session File open cue file If you're making a data cd, with files and drawers from your hard drive, you should be using the ISO Builder.. which is the MUI page on the left. ("Data/Audio Tracks" is on the right). You should use the "Data/Audio tracks" page if you want to create music cds with AIFF/WAV/MP3 files, or if you download an .iso file, and you want to put it on a cd. Click WRITE Button - set write speed - click on long Write button Examples Easiest way would be to burn a DATA CD, simply go to "Tracks" page "ISO Builder" and "ADD" everything you need to burn. On the "Write" page i have "Masterize Disc (DAO)", "Close Disc" and "Eject after Write" set. One must not "Blank disc before write" if one uses a CDR AUDIO CD from MP3's are as easy but tricky to deal with. FP only understands one MP3 format, Layer II, everything else will just create empty tracks Burning bootable CD's works only with .iso files. Go to "Tracks" page and "Data/Audio Tracks" and add the .iso ====odf==== Every ODF file is a collection of several subdocuments within a package (ZIP file), each of which stores part of the complete document. * content.xml – Document content and automatic styles used in the content. * styles.xml – Styles used in the document content and automatic styles used in the styles themselves. * meta.xml – Document meta information, such as the author or the time of the last save action. * settings.xml – Application-specific settings, such as the window size or printer information. To read document follow these steps: * Extracting .ods file. * Getting content.xml file (which contains sheets data). * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Creating DataSet (that represent Spreadsheet file). * With XmlDocument select “table:table” elements, and then create adequate DataTables. * Parse child’s of “table:table” element and fill DataTables with those data. * At the end, return DataSet and show it in application’s interface. To write document follow these steps: * Extracting template.ods file (.ods file that we use as template). * Getting content.xml file. * Creating XmlDocument object from content.xml file. * Erasing all “table:table” elements from the content.xml file. * Reading data from our DataSet and composing adequate “table:table” elements. * Adding “table:table” elements to content.xml file. * Zipping that file as new .ods file. XLS file format The XLS file format contains streams, substreams, and records. These sheet substreams include worksheets, macro sheets, chart sheets, dialog sheets, and VBA module sheets. All the records in an XLS document start with a 2-byte unsigned integer to specify Record Type (rt), and another for Count of Bytes (cb). A record cannot exceed 8224 bytes. If larger than the rest is stored in one or more continue records. * Workbook stream **Globals substream ***BoundSheet8 record - info for Worksheet substream i.e. name, location, type, and visibility. (4bytes the lbPlyPos FilePointer, specifies the position in the Workbook stream where the sheet substream starts) **Worksheet substream (sheet) - Cell Table - Row record - Cells (2byte=row 2byte=column 2byte=XF format) ***Blank cell record ***RK cell record 32-bit number. ***BoolErr cell record (2-byte Bes structure that may be either a Boolean value or an error code) ***Number cell record (64-bit floating-point number) ***LabelSst cell record (4-byte integer that specifies a string in the Shared Strings Table (SST). Specifically, the integer corresponds to the array index in the RGB field of the SST) ***Formula cell record (FormulaValue structure in the 8 bytes that follow the cell structure. The next 6 bytes can be ignored, and the rest of the record is a CellParsedFormula structure that contains the formula itself) ***MulBlank record (first 2 bytes give the row, and the next 2 bytes give the column that the series of blanks starts at. Next, a variable length array of cell structures follows to store formatting information, and the last 2 bytes show what column the series of blanks ends on) ***MulRK record ***Shared String Table (SST) contains all of the string values in the workbook. ACCRINT(), ACCRINTM(), AMORDEGRC(), AMORLINC(), COUPDAYBS(), COUPDAYS(), COUPDAYSNC(), COUPNCD(), COUPNUM(), COUPPCD(), CUMIPMT(), CUMPRINC(), DB(), DDB(), DISC(), DOLLARDE(), DOLLARFR(), DURATION(), EFFECT(), FV(), FVSCHEDULE(), INTRATE(), IPMT(), IRR(), ISPMT(), MDURATION(), MIRR(), NOMINAL(), NPER(), NPV(), ODDFPRICE(), ODDFYIELD(), ODDLPRICE(), ODDLYIELD(), PMT(), PPMT(), PRICE(), PRICEDISC(), PRICEMAT(), PV(), RATE(), RECEIVED(), SLN(), SYD(), TBILLEQ(), TBILLPRICE(), TBILLYIELD(), VDB(), XIRR(), XNPV(), YIELD(), YIELDDISC(), YIELDMAT(), <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> <pre> </pre> {{BookCat}} jhl32zjvagxdvsyq0bkovov9gcvzc75 0 243903 4671934 4110466 2026-09-23T09:48:37Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671934 wikitext text/x-wiki {{split}} =Section One- What is A Computer?= ==Data== Data has ''NO MEANING'' *Data is information that has no meaning. *Data only becomes information when you know the context of the data. *Information = Data + Meaning Data is stored in Bytes *Computers use a binary code (i.e. they use only 2 digits) to represent data. Usually, a circuit that's switched on represents the digit 1, and a circuit that's switched off represents the digit 0. *Bit: Each individual 1 or 0 is called a bit - short for binary digit. *Byte: 8 bits is called a byte. *Kilobyte: 1 kilobyte (1 KB, or simply 1 K) is about a thousand bytes. to be exact, 1KB = 2 to the power of 10 = 1024 bytes. *Megabyte: 1 megabyte (1MB) is about a million bytes. To be exact, 1 KB = 2 to the power of 20 = 1048576 bytes. ==Computer System== Data is entered at the input stage *information is converted into data before its entered into the computer The computer then processes the data *Processing involves turning the input data into something else The results are then sown at the output stage *Output is when the computer communicates the results of the data processing to the user. *The two most common ways are a screen display and printed paper. *At this point the data becomes information again *The information obtained at the output stage might then be used as feedback to input more data. this turns the system into a cycle. ==Computerised v. Manual Systems== ==Types of Computer== ==Networks - LANs and WANs== ==Networks - Different Configurations== ==Network Security== ==Revison Summary== =Section Two- The Parts of A computer System= ==9-Input Devices== An input device is any hardware which is used to enter data into the computer system. The input devices of a computer are *QWERTY Keyboard *Mouse *Camera *CD *Microphone *Scanner *Disk Drive *Joystick ==12-The CPU== CPU stands for Central Processing Unit *The CPU is the portion of a computer system that carries out the instructions of a computer programs =Section Three- Using a A computer System= =Section Four- System Analysis= =Section Five- Text and Image Processing Software= =Section Six- Spreadsheets and Database= ==The Basics== ===Spreadsheets are clever calculators=== *A spreadsheet is a program that can display and process data in a structured way. *Spreadsheets can process numbers and also handle text. *spreadsheets can be used to:record data, search for particular items of data, perform calculations based on data, produce graphs and charts. ===Data is entered into cells=== *Spreadsheets are formed by tables- rows and columns divide them selves in to cells. *Each cell can be recognized by using coordinates by using the row number and column letter. ===Each cells can contain one of three things=== Cells can only contain one thing of these three things *Numerical Data- for example numbers, money and dates *Text Data *Formulas ==Creating and improving== ==Simple Formulas== ==The Trickier stuff== ==Graphs and Charts== =Section Seven- Measurement, Control and simulation= =Section Eight- The Internet= ==Internet Basic== * The Internet is an International Network of computers ''To connect you need Special Hardware and Software:'' * Most people access the internet using a PC connected to a telephone cable or cable TV services these two items can not work without a modem. A modem converts data from the computer into a format suitable for sending over the telephone or other communication line. Both ends of the connection need a modem. *The Internet Has Two Main Parts: 1) The World Wide Web (WWW) is the part that contains web pages. 2) Electronic Mail(E-MAIL) is the part where messages are sent from one person to another - it works a bit like sending a letter. ==E-mail== *There is 5 step to sending an E-mail Step 1-Create the message Step 2-Connect to the Internet Step 3-Press the send button Step 4-The message is sent from the sender's ISP to a mailbox in the computer system of the recipient's ISP Step 5-The recipient later connects to the internet, opens their e-mail account, and finds the new message *Emails has Benefits and Problems Emails take quick to send It is cheaper than posting or faxing The same message can easily be sent to loads of different people Both need Internet access and Email accounts ==Using the World Wide Web-Navigating== *The Internet is a huge Source of Information You can access the Internet form any computer, the Information is up to date. *Type in the URL URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator URLS's can not contain capital letters or spaces or certain types of punctuation ==Navigating and Downloading== ==Web Page Design== ==Using the Internet-Data Security== ==User-Generated Content== ==Social Networking== ==Online Audio and Vedio== ==Online Software== ==Revision Summary== =Section Nine- Computers in the real world= ==Computers in Shops== ==Computers in Banks== =Section Ten- Computers and Society= Parvin+Eisha ==Computers And The Law== Computer are used to store and process important data. As it is easy to transfer data through the internet. So there are laws to protect the use of computers ===The Copyright, Design and Patents Act Controls Illegal copy=== This law was introduced in 1989, this law made it so that it was illegal to copy a file without permission from the owner, or copyright user. Three ways that this law is broken up into: *Using software without a proper licence. E.g. if you acquire a MS software disk and upload it onto one computer station, it is illegal to use it on any other computer station. *Downloading text or images without saying where you have gotten it from, or with receiving the copyright owner's permission. *Copying a computer program that you use at another place and running at a computer at home without the permission from the copyright holder. ===The computer misuse act prevents illegal Access to files=== This law was introduced in 1990 to stop hackers and viruses. The act made the following three things illegal: *Unauthorised access to computer material. E.g. hacking *Attainment of unauthorised access to a computer to carry out serious offence such as fraud and blackmail. *Unauthorised changing of computer files. E.g. planting viruses and deleting files ==Computers and the workplace== ==Computer Use-Health And Safety Issues== ===computer use can cause three main problems=== ===three main solutions=== ===emloyers need to follow the law=== ==Social, moral and ethical issues== ===Main issues are social, moral and ethical === ===four main moral and ethical issues=== ====unrestricted internet access==== ====ease of copying computer files==== ====computers and replacing people at work==== ====increased government surveillance==== ===five main social issues=== ====information rich and information poor==== ====the internet is changing how we interact==== ====over-reliance on technology==== ====impact on literacy==== ====faster pace of life==== {{BookCat}} qotbkc2mfvmwdh1z5pfd0yn0chv0ith 0 246672 4671872 4314408 2026-09-23T04:59:23Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4671872 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:All Saints Church Kiev Pechersk Lavra 2019 G1.jpg|thumb|200px|Києво Печерської Лаври]] In terms of religious affiliation, ethnic Ukrainians are exclusively Christian, professing an ancient and traditional form of Christianity: the Eastern Greek (or Byzantine) rite. Many Ukrainians belong to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church; others, primarily in western Ukraine, to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Ukrainians were baptized ''en masse'' c. 988 by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, Volodymyr, thereby adopting Greek Rite Christianity from Constantinople. The first bishops and metropolitans (seated in Kyiv and Halych) in Ukraine were Greeks, later natives. Prior to 1700, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church was subject to the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople. Around three hundred years ago, it was transferred to the Moscow Patriarch. After independence in 1991, the Ukrainian Orthodox Church separated from the Moscow Patriarch, and Filaret (born Denysenko), who had been metropolitan of Kyiv for 40 years, was elected the independent Ukrainian Patriarch. The largest group of Ukrainians belong to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church. The Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church (numbering over 5 million believers) is headed by Sviatoslav Shevchuk and is in full communion with the Holy See. Evangelical Protestantism is also known in Ukraine—some Ukrainians have become either Pentecostals or Baptists. Islam is foreign to Ukraine; some Muslims can be found among non-Ukrainian groups such as Crimean Tatars on the Crimean peninsula (currently under Russian rule) and Asian immigrants. {{BookCat}} reg0h462vker641o81chkzhjhgq0t5a 1 248322 4671878 4440222 2026-09-23T05:32:14Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 It-is-Truly-Meet moved page [[Talk:Ukrainian/Grammar]] to [[Talk:Ukrainian/Glossary of Grammatical Terms]]: This page functions as an overview of Ukrainian grammar, from personal pronouns to ordinals. Therefore, it should be used as an appendix or reference. 4440222 wikitext text/x-wiki {{WikiProject Languages}} Ideally, this will be a more palatable version of Wikipedia's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_grammar#Verbs Ukrainian Grammar] article. [[User:Ismailzali|ismailzali]] ([[User talk:Ismailzali|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ismailzali|contribs]]) 03:25, 16 February 2011 (UTC) == Where's the rest of the information? == This page is so incomplete. It needs to be completed, a.s.a.p.! [[User:Shalin1234|Shalin1234]] ([[User talk:Shalin1234|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shalin1234|contribs]]) 09:05, 23 September 2018 (UTC) == Information about the Case structure for the Nouns should be mentioned == So seeing the description for the case structure of "nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, and vocative"should be added. I had to look up the individual words because I did not know what the case structure for nouns in Ukrainian was. Or if there is a wiki page about this it should be linked. [[User:Shelly098|Shelly098]] ([[User talk:Shelly098|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shelly098|contribs]]) 00:57, 7 October 2024 (UTC) 06ob4d582uy5qjntimlddv6fyhaykuk 0 259791 4671821 4493186 2026-09-22T23:56:01Z ~2026-51494-32 3626610 /* Table of Contents */ 4671821 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:350%;font-style:italic;line-height:1em;">Dogs</span>}} [[File:Balearic Greyhound from 1915.JPG|center|600x320px|Balearic Greyhound from 1915.]]{{clear}} == Table of Contents == {{Book Search}} {{Print version}} * [[/An Introduction to tuff Dogs/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Training/]] * [[/Selecting breeds for needs/]] * [[/Care/]] * [[/Rescuing Dogs/]] {{expand}} {{shelves|Animal care}} {{alphabetical|D}} {{status|25%}} e4q60e1g47hrjh93rsjmwcc0v7d4bot 4671823 4671821 2026-09-23T00:57:34Z TechVindicator 3626296 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4671821|4671821]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51494-32|~2026-51494-32]] ([[User talk:~2026-51494-32|discuss]]) 4671823 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:350%;font-style:italic;line-height:1em;">Dogs</span>}} [[File:Balearic Greyhound from 1915.JPG|center|600x320px|Balearic Greyhound from 1915.]]{{clear}} == Table of Contents == {{Book Search}} {{Print version}} * [[/An Introduction to Dogs/]] * [[/History/]] * [[/Training/]] * [[/Selecting breeds for needs/]] * [[/Care/]] * [[/Rescuing Dogs/]] {{expand}} {{shelves|Animal care}} {{alphabetical|D}} {{status|25%}} 1r1frh1ia4wr1cwjmofo5hwi2h6m65m 0 282937 4671925 3816035 2026-09-23T08:32:26Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671925 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Stanley2.JPG | thumb | 400px | alt=Stanley | Stanley is an autonomous vehicle created by Stanford University's Stanford Racing Team in cooperation with the Volkswagen Electronics Research Laboratory (ERL). It competed in, and won, the 2005 [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darpa_grand_challenge DARPA Grand Challenge], earning the Stanford Racing Team the 2 million dollar prize, the largest prize money in robotic history. ]] An autonomous vehicle is defined as a motor vehicle that uses artificial intelligence, sensors and global positioning system coordinates to drive itself without the active intervention of a human operator. These "sensors" can include, without limitation, cameras, lasers and radar.<ref name="nevada">[https://www.leg.state.nv.us/Session/76th2011/Bills/AB/AB511_EN.pdf Nevada Bill Legalizing Autonomous Vehicles]</ref> In the past several years, autonomous vehicle designers and advocates have made significant steps towards integration into the transit system and, eventually, universal autonomous transportation. This technology can revolutionize the way we approach transportation and, according to Jim McBride of Ford Research and Innovation, "there is no technology barrier from going where we are now to the autonomous car. There are affordability issues, but the big barrier to overcome is customer acceptance."<ref>[http://gigaom.com/mobile/ford-is-ready-for-the-autonomous-car-are-drivers/ Ford is Ready For the Autonomous Car. Are Drivers?]</ref> As autonomous vehicle advocates move closer to large-scale implementation, social factors will prove to be their largest obstacles, and they must look to the past for lessons on how to proceed. == Case Study: Lessons From the First Cars == {{multiple image | width = 220 | footer = Automobiles have evolved from horseless carriages to vehicles resembling our modern cars. | image1 = Benz-1.jpg | image2 = TModel launch Geelong.jpg }} The introduction of automobiles in the late 19th and early 20th century radically changed personal transportation. These "horseless carriages" were initially modeled after the carriages that people were already accustomed to. As people gradually overcame these mental models, automobiles evolved from the horse-and-buggy style into a design similar to modern vehicles. As automobiles evolved, so did their environment. The early days of automobiles included debates on whether cars should even be allowed on roads, since roads were for carriages and pedestrians. As the ubiquity of cars increased, entire infrastructures, both physical and legislative, had to adapt to the changes in transportation; Licenses and traffic control signals became necessary for safely operating vehicles. Much like the introduction of automobiles, the acceptance of autonomous cars embodies a drastic change in the mental models of transportation. People have been driving cars for over a century, and learning to surrender all control to electronics will likely be a transition rivaling the introduction the automobile itself. == Levels of Autonomy == [[File:Levels of Driving Automation.png|thumb| left |Levels of Driving Autonomy]] A misconception with consumers about automated vehicles is that they all will be able to drive with no human intervention. In actuality, there is a scale from Level 0 to 5 describing how much and how often a vehicle operates independently. <ref>[https://www.sae.org/news/press-room/2018/12/sae-international-releases-updated-visual-chart-for-its-%E2%80%9Clevels-of-driving-automation%E2%80%9D-standard-for-self-driving-vehicles Levels of Driving Automation] </ref> Level 4 autonomy is the point where humans won't need to take over, and many of the benefits promised from self-driving will take shape at this level. Currently, most automated vehicles in use are Level 2, with progress toward 3 and 4 continuing at a rapid pace. <ref>[https://innovationatwork.ieee.org/new-level-3-autonomous-vehicles-hitting-the-road-in-2020/#:~:text=Level%202%20systems%20currently%20on,take%20control%20of%20the%20car.]</ref> == Current Automated Technology: 2020 == [[File:Jurvetson Google driverless car trimmed.jpg | thumb | right | A Google Self-Driving Car in a high speed control test.]] Many advanced systems are in use today, with GM’s Super Cruise, Tesla Autopilot, BMW ADAS, and other’s all offering active driver assistance. <ref>[https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/cadillac-super-cruise-outperforms-other-active-driving-assistance-systems/#ranking Consumer Reports Cadillac's Super Cruise Outperforms Other Driving Assistance Systems]</ref> While the performance and capabilities of each system vary, those in use today have automated systems for helping drivers. For example, automakers like {{w|Jeep}} and {{w|Toyota}} have released vehicles equipped with automated systems such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_cruise_control adaptive cruise control] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane_departure_warning_system lane departure warning systems].<ref>[https://www.jeep.com/grand-cherokee/safety-security.html Jeep Grand Cherokee: Safety and Security]</ref><ref>[https://www.toyota.com/safety-sense/ Toyota Safety Sense]</ref> == State of The Art and Developments == Of the many automotive companies in the world, three notable ones looking to develop fully autonomous vehicles include {{w|General Motors}}, {{w|Tesla, Inc.}}, and {{w|Waymo}}. Waymo, known formerly as Google’s Self-Driving Car Project, has evaluated its technology's performance with millions of miles of testing and has started an autonomous ride hailing service called Waymo One in Phoenix, Arizona.<ref>[https://waymo.com/ Waymo]</ref><ref>[https://waymo.com/journey/ Waymo: Journey]</ref> Waymo extensively uses LiDar and high definition maps for depth perception. The company is actively working on decreasing the cost of its lidar sensors. <ref>[https://arstechnica.com/cars/2017/01/googles-waymo-invests-in-lidar-technology-cuts-costs-by-90-percent/ Google’s Waymo invests in LIDAR technology, cuts costs by 90 percent]</ref> Waymo also trains their cars in a simulator dubbed “Carcraft”, to speed up the learning process. <ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2017/08/inside-waymos-secret-testing-and-simulation-facilities/537648/ Inside Waymo's Secret World for Training Self-Driving Cars]</ref> General Motors has a similar sensor suite to Waymo, using LiDar and high definition maps for scene composition. <ref>[https://gmauthority.com/blog/gm/general-motors-technology/general-motors-autonomous-technology/gm-super-cruise/ GM Authority: GM Super Cruise]</ref> <ref>[https://blog.waymo.com/2019/09/building-maps-for-self-driving-car.html Waymo: Building Maps for Self-Driving Cars]</ref> But because of this mapping based approach, GM and Waymo’s cars cannot operate unmapped roads. Super Cruise has an infrared camera in the cabin to tell when the driver is looking at the road, and will turn off automated functionality if the driver's gaze is averted. <ref>[https://www.consumerreports.org/car-safety/cadillac-super-cruise-outperforms-other-active-driving-assistance-systems/#ranking] </ref> Tesla has developed a feature called {{w|Tesla Autopilot}} that, according the NFTSA’s published levels of autonomy, operates with “partial automation;” the company is hopeful to develop software to support full autonomy in the future.<ref name="nhtsa">[https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/automated-vehicles NHTSA: Automated Vehicles]</ref><ref>[https://www.tesla.com/presskit#autopilot Tesla Press Kit]</ref><ref>[https://www.tesla.com/autopilot Tesla Autopilot]</ref> Tesla’s system has no LiDar and only uses cameras and radar, with claims that they can accurately estimate depth from camera vision alone. <ref>[https://theteslashow.com/tesla-autonomy-investor-day Tesla Autonomy Day]</ref> Tesla’s intuition is that performance can only be achieved with variety and magnitude in training, and therefore the best learning experience is real world experience. With this goal in mind, Tesla will have estimated 5 billion miles driven on Autopilot as of January 2021. <ref>[https://lexfridman.com/tesla-autopilot-miles-and-vehicles/#:~:text=Estimated%20miles%20in%20all%20Tesla%20vehicles%3A%2022.5%20billion%20miles Tesla Vehicle Deliveries and Autopilot Mileage Statistics]</ref> == Benefits == === Safety === According to the {{w|Insurance Institute for Highway Safety}}, there were over 37,000 deaths from car crashes in the United States in 2017.<ref>[https://www.iihs.org/topics/fatality-statistics Fatality Statistics]</ref>  A study by the Rand Corporation published in 2017 found that adopting Highly Autonomous Vehicles (HAVs) sooner rather than later could save lives. <ref name = "Rand Corporation" >[https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR2150.html The Enemy of Good: Estimating the Cost of Waiting for Nearly Perfect Automated Vehicles]</ref> While perfected autonomous vehicles are still in development, there is a demonstrable increase in safety with the systems today. As of Q3 2020, Tesla registered one accident for every 4.59 million miles driven in which drivers had Autopilot engaged. By comparison, NHTSA’s most recent data shows that in the United States there is an automobile crash every 479,000 miles. <ref>[https://www.tesla.com/VehicleSafetyReport Tesla Vehicle Safety Report]</ref> A central problem autonomous cars have when performing in the real world is in the variety of situations encountered in everyday life. Any real-time system must process all the complex information in an environment and be able to act rationally in new situations. While the underlying neural nets in self-driving cars excel at recognizing objects previously trained on, they struggle to transfer this learning toward new objects and situations. Safety is directly proportional with accurate object perception, and Tesla hopes to iterate fast enough to overcome this deficiency. As they continuously run into novel situations and objects, and by seeing where their system fails, they can retrain the underlying HydraNets and prevent entire categories of accidents stemming from mislabeled objects in a scene. <ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hx7BXih7zx8 Andrej Karpathy - AI for Full-Self Driving at Tesla]</ref> === Fuel Efficiency and Traffic === Widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles could improve fuel efficiency, decreasing fuel consumption. {{w|Adaptive cruise control}} (ACC), considered level 1 autonomy, <ref>[https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/self-driving-vehicles Green Vehicle Guide: Self-Driving Vehicles] </ref> is already making a difference. A study by the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers] (IEEE) found that vehicles equipped with Adaptive Cruise Control consumed between 5 and 7 percent less fuel than vehicles not equipped with ACC. <ref>[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8744229 An Automated Vehicle Fuel Economy Benefits Evaluation Framework Using Real-World Travel and Traffic Data] </ref> As higher levels of autonomy are adopted, fuel efficiency may improve as well. Optimal fuel efficiency can be attained in the more distant future. If autonomous vehicles are proven to be as safe as some experts predict, cars could be completely redesigned. Nady Boules, the director of GM’s Electrical and Controls Integration Lab predicts, “You could remove the weight dedicated to crash protection, using very light materials for the skin instead of metals.”<ref>[https://www.technologyreview.com/s/425850/how-vehicle-automation-will-cut-fuel-consumption/ How Vehicle Automation Will Cut Fuel Consumption] </ref> By removing unnecessary weight, vehicles will become much more fuel efficient. This could also eliminate the cost of safety technologies such as airbags. Vehicle-to-vehicle communication may improve fuel efficiency and traffic congestion, and safety. Results from a simulation of Autonomous Car Following Control systems and Cooperative Car Following Control (C-CFC) systems published by the IEEE found that both control algorithms improve traffic flow in traffic jams. Cars in the simulation using the C-CFC algorithm, a type of vehicle-to-vehicle communication, were more fuel efficient than cars not using the C-CFC algorithm. <ref>[ Cooperative Car-Following Control: Distributed Algorithm and Impact on Moving Jam Features] </ref> === Other Benefits === A 2018 study at the {{w|University of Toronto}} found that autonomous vehicles could reduce the space needed in parking lots by 62 percent. Fully autonomous vehicles drop passengers off at their destination. With no occupants to exit vehicles in parking garages, autonomous vehicles could park much closer together. Vehicle-to-vehicle communication would allow for a grid-like layout of cars. When a car exits the garage, the surrounding cars rearrange. These two factors contribute to a decrease in space needed for public parking. <ref>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/03/180328182441.htm How Self-Driving Cars Could Shrink Parking Lots] </ref> == Barriers to Adoption == === Legal === Legal issues are one of the most significant obstacles to the large-scale production and use of autonomous vehicles. The introduction of such vehicles has impacted and will further impact most aspects of society, so policymakers must move towards a comprehensive set of applicable legislation.<ref name="Merging with the law">[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0267364918300578 Merging self-driving cars with the law]</ref> ====Governance==== {{w|Nevada}} (June 6, 2011) was the first state to effectively allow the operation of autonomous vehicles by authorizing the {{w|Nevada Department of Transportation}} to set forth rules and regulations governing these vehicles.<ref name="nevada" /> Twenty-nine additional states have enacted autonomous vehicle-related legislation since. Governors of ten states have issued executive orders to help advance legal progress. <ref>[http://www.ncsl.org/research/transportation/autonomous-vehicles-self-driving-vehicles-enacted-legislation.aspx Autonomous Vehicles | Self-Driving Vehicles Enacted Legislation]</ref> On the federal level, legislators seek to facilitate the creation of a framework for the testing and operation of autonomous vehicles. Since Nevada first enacted legislation in 2011, little federal progress has ensued, as legal concerns have become controversial and multifaceted. <ref name="Merging with the law" /> 2017 was a recent turning point — two bipartisan bills were introduced in Congress. The SELF DRIVE Act passed unanimously through committee and passed a verbal vote on the {{w|United States House of Representatives}} floor, and the AV START Act passed unanimously through committee but was never brought to the {{w|United States Senate}} floor. Differences between the two bills were not reconciled because of concern over safety details, and neither bill was passed. <ref name="New bill">[https://www.forbes.com/sites/gregrogers1/2019/10/30/congress-drafts-first-sections-of-new-bipartisan-autonomous-vehicle-bill/#7ed8e8881043 Congress Drafts First Sections Of New, Bipartisan Autonomous Vehicle Bill]</ref> Advocates for Highway and Auto Safety, {{w|Consumer Reports}}, the {{w|Consumer Federation of America}}, and the {{w|Center for Auto Safety}} shared safety concerns, asserting that “rushing a bill to usher in mass deployment of risky, unproven systems . . . using dubious claims about safety is misleading and disingenuous at best, and reckless and deadly at worst.” <ref>[https://thehill.com/blogs/congress-blog/technology/421367-av-start-threatens-public-safety-and-driverless-car-potential AV START threatens public safety and driverless car potential]</ref> Both pieces of legislation were fairly similar. They would have established “the federal role in ensuring the safety of highly automated vehicles by encouraging the testing and deployment of such vehicles,”<ref name="Self Drive Act">[https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/3388 H.R.3388 - SELF DRIVE Act]</ref> while preventing states from enacting related laws unless in strict accordance with federal laws. They also would have directed the {{w|National Highway Traffic Safety Administration}} (NHTSA) to publish safety standards for autonomous vehicles. <ref name="Self Drive Act" /><ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/1885 S.1885 - AV START Act]</ref><ref name="New bill" /> Nevertheless, in 2018, the {{w|Department of Transportation}} released new autonomous vehicle guidelines, called Automated Vehicles 3.0. The voluntary guidance advanced safety principles and implementation strategies, reduced policy uncertainty, and advised on working with the Department of Transportation in the future.<ref name=”AV 3.0”>[https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/policy-initiatives/automated-vehicles/320711/preparing-future-transportation-automated-vehicle-30.pdf Automated Vehicles 3.0]</ref> In August 2019, the {{w|United_States House Committee on Energy and Commerce}} and the {{w|United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation}} solicited input from industry, nonprofits, and disability advocates to help craft a new bipartisan bill. In October 2019, the Senate committee began to circulate the first few sections of the first draft of a prospective bill, the language of which is comparable to that of the SELF DRIVE Act. The timeline of the new bill is still unclear. <ref name="New bill" /><ref>[https://thehill.com/policy/transportation/automobiles/472341-wheels-begin-to-turn-on-self-driving-car-legislation Wheels begin to turn on self-driving car legislation]</ref> ====Liability==== A major challenge to the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles is {{w|liability}} uncertainty. This is a particularly important challenge because it will determine the landscape of the commercialization of autonomous vehicles. <ref name="Merging with the law" /> It remains uncertain who will be liable when there is a car accident or other violation for which there is a party at fault, as “no clear legal framework exists that outlines how liability is apportioned between third parties responsible for designing AV systems – the manufacturer, supplier, software provider or the software operator.” <ref name=”Governing AVs”>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01441647.2018.1494640 Governing autonomous vehicles: emerging responses for safety, liability, privacy, cybersecurity, and industry risks]</ref> Some question if the owner or operator of the vehicle, if there is one, should be compensated for damages to the vehicle. <ref name="Merging with the law" /> It is also unclear if there will be standardized crash algorithms to allow for a more generally applicable approach to liability assessment. <ref name=”Governing AVs”/> ====Data Privacy==== Data privacy is intertwined with liability. Insurance companies weigh how much and what type of data will be accessible or sold for assigning liability more accurately. Autonomous vehicles rely on a myriad of sensors sampling continuously to ensure safe operation. Location data could be exposed to external networks, allowing others to track the vehicle. Autonomous vehicle users could face highly targeted advertisements from their autonomous vehicle data, which could give companies private information. <ref name=”Governing AVs”/> Current policy addresses some privacy concerns related to vehicle data. {{w|Security and Privacy in Your Car Study Act}} of 2017 required the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to protect against unauthorized access to driving data, including for marketing and advertising purposes. The bill applies to autonomous vehicles, but does not specify specific additional language for those vehicles. <ref>[https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/680 S.680 - SPY Car Act of 2017]</ref> === Ethics === [[File:Trolley problem.png|thumb|Depiction of the Trolley Problem]] In March of 2018, an {{w|Uber}} operating under a self driving system killed a pedestrian. The pedestrian, Elaine Hertzberg, was walking across the street with her bike. Though the car detected an object in its path, the algorithm did not apply the breaks. It is expected that the back-up human driver will apply the breaks in this situation. <ref> [https://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-biz-uber-self-driving-uber-car-report-20180524-story.html Uber self-driving SUV saw pedestrian but did not brake, federal report finds] </ref> This outcome is concerning to many and begs the question: Can machines act as moral agents? As the prevalence of autonomous vehicles increase, engineers will have to face questions similar to the {{w|Trolley_problem}}, which contemplates a trolley moving down a track. The trolley can continue in its course, hitting 5 people tied to the track, or switch paths hitting 1 person. Ethics scholars are discussing these hard questions. <ref>[https://news.stanford.edu/2017/05/22/stanford-scholars-researchers-discuss-key-ethical-questions-self-driving-cars-present/ Stanford scholars, researchers discuss key ethical questions self-driving cars present]</ref> === Cyber Security === Cyber Security poses a threat to autonomous vehicles. Autonomous vehicles are vulnerable to hackers, making the many networks connected to these vehicles vulnerable as well. The more autonomous vehicles become, the more threats are posed. <ref>[https://mcity.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Mcity-white-paper_cybersecurity.pdf Assessing Risk: Identifying and Analyzing Cyber-security Threats to Automated Vehicles] </ref> === Public Perceptions === A 2019 study found that public perceptions impact the ease of adoption for autonomous vehicles. Familiarity plays a role in these perceptions. Public opinion of autonomous vehicles improves with increased interaction with the vehicles. The study recommends implementing policy that allows increased interaction with autonomous vehicles. <ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040162518316603 Perceptions and expectations of autonomous vehicles – A snapshot of vulnerable road user opinion]</ref> == Economics == === Impacts on Employment === The transportation industry accounts for a large percentage of the workforce in the United States. With 207k taxi drivers<ref>[https://www.statista.com/statistics/943496/number-of-taxi-drivers-united-states/#:~:text=Number%20of%20taxi%20drivers%20in%20the%20U.S.%202013%2D2018&text=This%20statistic%20shows%20the%20number,chauffeurs%20in%20the%20United%20States Number of taxi drivers and chauffeurs in the United States from 2013-2018]</ref>, 2.4 million truck drivers<ref>[https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533033.htm Occupational Employment Statistics]</ref>, 160k uber drivers<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/uber-touts-its-employment-opportunities-1422229862 Uber Touts Its Employment Opportunities]</ref>, and 570k bus drivers<ref>[https://datausa.io/profile/soc/bus-drivers#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20people%20employed,drivers%20employed%20by%20various%20industries Bus Drivers]</ref>, there are over 3.4 million driving jobs. This number doesn't account for the truck stops, support workers, etc. that support truckers/drivers, and when those are factored in there are a whopping 7 million endangered jobs as a result of autonomous vehicles<ref>[https://www.yang2020.com/policies/trucking-czar/ Ease the Transition to Self-Driving Vehicles]</ref>. With a current workforce size of 164.6 million<ref>[https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CLF16OV Civilian Labor Force Level]</ref>, this accounts for 4.25% of the US workforce. Despite this large makeup, it is only estimated that unemployment rates will decrease 0.06-0.13% in 2045-2055<ref>[https://avworkforce.secureenergy.org/ America’s Workforce and the Self-Driving Future]</ref>, the predicted time period for when these autonomous vehicles will have the greatest effect. === Potential Effects === The relatively small effect on employment is a result of the benefits of autonomous vehicles and a predicted job shift in the United States. With the introduction of autonomous vehicles, access to transportation and the ease associated with it will drastically increase. The number of individuals who were unemployed due to a lack of transportation will drastically decrease, positively effecting unemployment. Additionally, the US spends $840 billion annually responding to and dealing with automobile accidents. As a result of the drastically smaller accident/crash rate with new self-driving technologies, it is predicted that the US will benefit $800 billion annually by 2050<ref>[https://avworkforce.secureenergy.org/ America’s Workforce and the Self-Driving Future]</ref>. These savings can take the form of job-conducive government investments or economic stimulation in one form or another. Similar to the job shift from agriculture to industry a century ago, a job shift from driving to other industries is expected to occur<ref>[https://www.cnbc.com/2018/08/10/autonomous-vehicles-are-creating-jobs-heres-where.html Autonomous vehicles won’t only kill jobs. They will create them, too]</ref>. As said by Amitai Bin-Nun, vice president of autonomous vehicles and mobility innovation at Securing America’s Future Energy, “It’s not because Americans stopped eating.” There was the same demand for food before the introduction of job-stealing agricultural technologies as after, yet there was not a huge hit to unemployment rates. The introduction of driving technologies echoes this same pattern, and thus predicts a similar result. === Responses === Policies to address the advent of autonomous vehicles and their effect on American jobs became a topic of debate with presidential candidate {{w|Andrew Yang}}. While previous legislation had been passed about the development of self-driving technologies, Yang was the first politician to make his responses to correlating unemployment issues a central policy on the debate stage and throughout his run for the presidency in 2020. Famously quoting that "truck driving is the most common job in 29 states," Yang attempted to appeal to the working class and propose solutions that would ease the transition to self-driving technologies. Notably, Yang's policy had two major points<ref>[https://www.yang2020.com/policies/trucking-czar/ Ease the Transition to Self-Driving Vehicles]</ref>: * A Trucking Czar would be appointed to oversee the successful transition of truck drivers to other professions * It is estimated that automated freight would result in an annual savings of $168 billion for corporations. These profits would be taxed and reallocated as severance packages for truckers who've lost their jobs as a result of these new technologies. == Future Implications == === Traffic Flow === Bumper-to-bumper traffic and rush hours are all too common situations that city commuters face on a daily basis. A single driver could have a monumental effect on traffic flow if he or she breaks hard, causing every car in her rear view mirror to follow in a domino effect and leading to congestion. Scientists and mathematicians have been researching traffic flow since the 1930's, using partial differential equations to model driver behavior in congested environments.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/wiredinsider/2019/08/autonomous-vehicles-answer-growing-traffic-woes/ Autonomous Vehicles: The Answer to Our Growing Traffic Woes]</ref> With the computing power of Amazon Web Services (AWS), today's researchers are able to use stronger machine learning models to simulate traffic flow. Alexandre Bayen, a professor at the University of California Berkeley, has been using Deep Reinforcement Learning - a subset of machine learning - to simulate car behavior on a closed circuit. <ref>[https://bayen.berkeley.edu Berkeley Mobile Sensing Lab]</ref> Bayen, along with other scientists in the field analyze the effects on moderating the speeds of every other car on the road and the impact it has on congestion. === Rideshare and Taxi Services === The intersection of {{w|Ridesharing}} and Autonomous Vehicles has become more prominent as companies like Uber and Lyft enter the market for self-driving technologies. In June of 2020, Lyft announced its development of Level 5 autonomous vehicles that would allow for safer and more accessible form of transportation.<ref>[https://techcrunch.com/2020/06/23/lyft-is-using-data-from-its-ride-share-drivers-to-develop-self-driving-cars/ Lyft is using data from its rideshare drivers to develop self-driving cars]</ref> Using data from over one billion rides, Lyft's software is able to use visual localization technology in conjunction with real-life driving scenarios to simulate more sophisticated and realistic driving behavior.<ref>[https://self-driving.lyft.com/level5/ Level 5 - Lyft Self-Driving]</ref> Riders could summon autonomous vehicles at any time of day; the availability of a driverless ride hailing service would not have to depend on drivers in the area being awake and alert.<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/waymo-launches-nations-first-commercial-self-driving-taxi-service-in-arizona/2018/12/04/8a8cd58a-f7ba-11e8-8c9a-860ce2a8148f_story.html Waymo launches nation's first commercial self-driving taxi tervice in Arizona]</ref><ref>[https://www.uber.com/drive/resources/safety-tips/ Uber: Safety tips for drivers]</ref> Unsafe interactions between a rider and a driver would be impossible without a driver in the vehicle. With the ridesharing industry expanding all across the world, the Taxi industry has been taking a hit. In contrast to ridesharing services, the taxi service business model charges based on moving and stop-and-go traffic, making it hard for passengers to predict prices and drop off times. <ref>[https://www.thestreet.com/technology/uber-vs-taxi-14872678 Uber vs. Taxi: What's the Difference?]</ref> Also, the convenience of hailing a ride from your smartphone and the option of choosing the right car type for your needs has allowed rideshare companies to overtake traditional taxi services. In July of 2017, Uber surpassed yellow cabs in average daily ridership in New York City with an average of 289,000 rides per day, whereas yellow cabs only managed 277,000. <ref>[https://ny.curbed.com/2017/10/13/16468716/uber-yellow-cab-nyc-surpass-ridership Uber surpasses yellow cabs in average daily ridership in NYC]</ref>. Government restrictions have been put in place to protect the jobs and livelihoods of taxi cab drivers, but with the rise of autonomous vehicles, the future of traditional ride hailing services may face trouble in the near future. <ref>[https://www.nbcnews.com/news/all/taxis-vs-rideshares-battle-future-transportation-n56071 Taxis Vs. Rideshares: Battle for the Future of Transportation]</ref> === Trust of Technology === The development of autonomous vehicles have escalated at a rate faster than regular people are understanding how the technology work. This gap has led many people to lack the trust of relying on computerized systems on their transportation needs. With full autonomy, the driving decisions that were once made mostly by humans would be made by a combination of their vehicles’ hardware and software.<ref name="nevada">[https://www.leg.state.nv.us/Session/76th2011/Bills/AB/AB511_EN.pdf Nevada Bill Legalizing Autonomous Vehicles]</ref> Surveys from {{w|AAA}}, {{w|Kelly Blue Book}}, and [https://pavecampaign.org Partners for Automated Vehicle Education (PAVE)] have yielded the following statistics:<ref>[https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/19/21262576/self-driving-cars-poll-av-perception-trust-skepticism-pave Americans still don’t trust self-driving cars]</ref> * Nearly 3 in 4 Americans say autonomous vehicle technology “is not ready for primetime.” * About 48 percent said they would never get in a taxi or ride-sharing vehicle that was self-driving. * Another 20 percent think autonomous vehicles will never be safe. * Only 34 percent think the advantages of AVs will outweigh the disadvantages. Through computer simulated trials and models, many researchers argue that human error cause the vast majority of car crashes and these detrimental situations can be mitigated with autonomous vehicles. However, gaining the trust of the people to use this technology is an issue that must be addressed further. <ref name="nhtsa">[https://www.nhtsa.gov/technology-innovation/automated-vehicles NHTSA: Automated Vehicles]</ref> The effectiveness in high levels of autonomous driving relies on the support of the people using the software as these technologies work better synchronously rather than in isolated instances. == References == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} mto4mvh7beke7a35dm93cltpgoh78fw 0 283248 4671876 4440260 2026-09-23T05:32:14Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 It-is-Truly-Meet moved page [[Ukrainian/Grammar]] to [[Ukrainian/Glossary of Grammatical Terms]]: This page functions as an overview of Ukrainian grammar, from personal pronouns to ordinals. Therefore, it should be used as an appendix or reference. 4440260 wikitext text/x-wiki ==The parts of speech== == Pronouns||''Zajménnyky'' == === Personal pronouns === {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="6" |singular ! rowspan="9" | ! colspan="3" |plural |- ! rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" |1st person (I) ! rowspan="2" |2nd person (You) ! colspan="3" |3rd person ! rowspan="2" |1st person (We) ! rowspan="2" |2nd person (You) ! rowspan="2" |3rd person (They) |- !<abbr>m (He)</abbr> !<abbr>n (It)</abbr> !<abbr>f (She)</abbr> |- !nominative |'''я'''(ja) |Ти#Ukrainian|ти(ty) |Він#Ukrainian|він(vin) |Воно#Ukrainian|воно́(vonó) |Вона#Ukrainian|вона́(voná) |Ми#Ukrainian|ми(my) |Ви#Ukrainian|ви(vy) |Вони#Ukrainian|вони́(voný) |- !genitive |Мене#Ukrainian|мене́, ме́не* ‎(mené, méne*) |Тебе#Ukrainian|тебе́, те́бе* ‎(tebé, tébe*) | colspan="2" |Його#Ukrainian|його́, ньо́го* (johó, nʹóho*) |Її#Ukrainian|її́, не́ї* ‎(jijí, néji*) |Нас#Ukrainian|нас‎(nas) |Вас#Ukrainian|вас(vas) |Їх#Ukrainian|<nowiki>їх, Них#Ukrainian|них*</nowiki> (jih, nyh*) |- !dative |мені́ (mení) |тобі́ ‎(tobí) | colspan="2" |йому́ ‎(jomú) |їй ‎(jij) |Нам#Ukrainian|нам‎(nam) |Вам#Ukrainian|вам(vam) |їм (jim) |- !accusative |Мене#Ukrainian|мене́, ме́не* (mené, méne*) |Тебе#Ukrainian|тебе́, те́бе* (tebé, tébe*) | colspan="2" |Його#Ukrainian|його́, ньо́го* ‎(johó, nʹóho*) |Її#Ukrainian|її́, не́ї* ‎(jijí, néji*) |Нас#Ukrainian|нас‎(nas) |Вас#Ukrainian|вас(vas) |Їх#Ukrainian|<nowiki>їх, Них#Ukrainian|них*</nowiki> ‎(jix, nyh*) |- !instrumental |Мною#Ukrainian|мно́ю(mnóju) |Тобою#Ukrainian|тобо́ю‎(tobóju) | colspan="2" |Ним#Ukrainian|ним(nym) |Нею#Ukrainian|не́ю‎(néju) |Нами#Ukrainian|на́ми(námy) |Вами#Ukrainian|ва́ми‎(vámy) |Ними#Ukrainian|ни́ми(nýmy) |- !locative |мені́ ‎(mení) |тобі́ ‎(tobí) | colspan="2" |ньо́му, нім (nʹómu, nim) |ній (nij) |Нас#Ukrainian|нас‎(nas) |Вас#Ukrainian|вас(vas) |Них#Ukrainian|них(nyh) |- !vocative ! colspan="10" |''absent, use nominative case instead'' |- | colspan="11" |* The alternative forms with stress retraction and with an initial н- (n-) in the third person are used after a preposition. |} === Definitive pronouns === === Indefinite pronouns === === Negative pronouns === === Interrogative pronouns === ==The Verbs''||Dіjeslová''== ===First Conjugation=== === Second Conjugation === === Irregular (athematic) verbs === However, there are only four "truly" irregular verbs. They originate from an archaic conjugation (called "athematic") and their inflection cannot be traced from general rules. Those verbs are: бути (English be), дати (Eng give), їсти (Eng eat) and доповісти. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" |infinitive - бути !  ! colspan="3" |singular ! colspan="2" |plural |- !Grammatical person|person !<abbr>m</abbr> !<abbr>f</abbr> !<abbr>n</abbr> ! colspan="2" |all genders |- ! rowspan="3" |Present tense|present indicative !я | colspan="3" rowspan="3" |є !ми | rowspan="3" |є |- !ти !ви |- !він вона воно !вони |- ! rowspan="3" |Past tense|past indicative !я | rowspan="3" |був | rowspan="3" |була | rowspan="3" |було !ми | rowspan="3" |були |- !ти !ви |- ! !вони |- ! rowspan="3" |future tense !я | colspan="3" |буду !ми |будем(о) |- !ти | colspan="3" |будеш !ви |будете |- !він вона воно | colspan="3" |буде !вони |будуть |- ! rowspan="3" |conditional !я | rowspan="3" |був би | rowspan="3" |була б | rowspan="3" |було б !ми | rowspan="3" |були б |- !ти !ви |- ! !вони |- ! rowspan="3" |imperative !я | colspan="3" |(не)хай буду !ми |будьмо |- !ти | colspan="3" |будь !ви |будьте |- !він вона воно | colspan="3" |(не)хай буде !вони |(не)хай будуть |- ! colspan="2" |contemporary adverbial participle | colspan="5" |будучи |- ! colspan="2" |anterior adverbial participle | colspan="5" |бувши |- ! colspan="2" |verbal noun | colspan="5" |буття (IIId) |- ! colspan="2" |infinitive | colspan="5" |бути |} Regular verb conjugation {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan="2" | !  ! colspan="3" |singular ! colspan="2" |plural |- !Grammatical person|person !<abbr>m</abbr> !<abbr>f</abbr> !<abbr>n</abbr> ! colspan="2" |all genders |- ! rowspan="3" |Present tense|present indicative !я | colspan="3" |співаю (spivaju) !ми |співаєм(о) (spivajemo) |- !ти | colspan="3" |співаєш (spivajesh) !ви |співаєте (spivajete) |- !він вона воно | colspan="3" |співа(є) (spivaje) !вони |співають (spivajut') |- ! rowspan="3" |Past tense|past indicative !я | rowspan="3" |співав (spivav) | rowspan="3" |співала (spivala) | rowspan="3" |співало (spivalo) !ми | rowspan="3" |співали (spivaly) |- !ти !ви |- ! !вони |- ! rowspan="3" |future tense !я | colspan="3" |буду співати (budu soivaty) !ми |будем(о) співати (budemo spivaty) |- !ти | colspan="3" |будеш співати (budesh spivaty) !ви |будете співати (budete spivaty) |- !він вона воно | colspan="3" |буде співати (bude spivaty) !вони |будуть співати (budut' spivaty) |- ! rowspan="3" |conditional !я | rowspan="3" |співав би (spivav by) | rowspan="3" |співала б (spivala b) | rowspan="3" |співало б (spivalo b) !ми | rowspan="3" |співали б (spivaly b) |- !ти !ви |- ! !вони |- ! rowspan="3" |imperative !я | colspan="3" |(не)хай буду співати !ми |будьмо |- !ти | colspan="3" |співай !ви |будьте |- !він вона воно | colspan="3" |(не)хай буде !вони |(не)хай будуть |- ! colspan="2" |contemporary adverbial participle | colspan="5" |співаючи (spivajuchy) |- ! colspan="2" |anterior adverbial participle | colspan="5" |співавши (spivavshy) |- ! colspan="2" |verbal noun | colspan="5" |спів, співання (IIId) (spiv, spivannja) |- ! colspan="2" |infinitive | colspan="5" |співати (spivaty) |} ==The Numbers (1 to 10)== Here are the Ukrainian numbers from one to ten. # '''один''' one # '''два''' two # '''три''' three # '''чотири''' four # '''п'ять''' five # '''шість''' six # '''сім''' seven # '''вісім''' eight # '''дев'ять''' nine # '''десять''' ten === Declension === {| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |case ! colspan="2" |plural |- !''m'' !''f'' |- ! colspan="2" |nominative |два  |дві |- ! colspan="2" |genitive | colspan="2" |двох  |- ! colspan="2" |dative | colspan="2" |двом |- !accusative !inanimate | colspan="2" | |- ! colspan="2" |instrumental | colspan="2" |двома |- ! colspan="2" |prepositional | colspan="2" |двох |} The word ''один'' is deflected by gender and number as an adjective. '''один рік''' one year '''одне вікно''' one window '''одна ву́лиця''' one street '''одні две́рі''' one door The plural form ''одні'' is used with nouns that have no singular form and are used in plural even when denoting a single object. It also can be used when ''один'' means ''alone'' or ''only''. {| class="wikitable" ! !—0 !—1 !—2 !—3 !—4 !—5 !—6 !—7 !—8 !—9 |- !0— |Нуль#Ukrainian|нуль (nulʹ) |Один#Ukrainian|оди́н (odýn) |'''два''' (dva) |Три#Ukrainian|три (try) |Чотири#Ukrainian|чоти́ри (čotýry) |П'ять#Ukrainian|п'ять (pʺjatʹ) |Шість#Ukrainian|шість (šistʹ) |Сім#Ukrainian|сім (sim) |Вісім#Ukrainian|ві́сім (vísim) |Дев'ять#Ukrainian|де́в'ять (dévʺjatʹ) |- !1— |Десять#Ukrainian|де́сять(dés'atʹ) |Одинадцять#Ukrainian|одина́дцять(odynádc'atʹ) |Дванадцять#Ukrainian|двана́дцять(dvanádc'atʹ) |Тринадцять#Ukrainian|трина́дцять(trynádc'atʹ) |Чотирнадцять#Ukrainian|чотирна́дцять(čotyrnádc'atʹ) |П'ятнадцять#Ukrainian|п'ятна́дцять(pʺjatnádc'atʹ) |Шістнадцять#Ukrainian|шістна́дцять(šistnádc'atʹ) |Сімнадцять#Ukrainian|сімна́дцять(simnádc'atʹ) |Вісімнадцять#Ukrainian|вісімна́дцять(visimnádc'atʹ) |Дев'ятнадцять#Ukrainian|дев'ятна́дцять(devʺjatnádc'atʹ) |- !2— |Двадцять#Ukrainian|два́дцять(dvádc'atʹ) |Двадцять один#Ukrainian|два́дцять оди́н(dvádcjatʹ odýn) |Двадцять два#Ukrainian|два́дцять два(dvádcjatʹ dva) |Двадцять три#Ukrainian|два́дцять три(dvádcjatʹ try) |Двадцять чотири#Ukrainian|два́дцять чоти́ри(dvádcjatʹ čotýry) |Двадцять п'ять#Ukrainian|два́дцять п'ять(dvádcjatʹ pʺjatʹ) |Двадцять шість#Ukrainian|два́дцять шість(dvádcjatʹ šistʹ) |Двадцять сім#Ukrainian|два́дцять сім(dvádcjatʹ sim) |Двадцять вісім#Ukrainian|два́дцять ві́сім(dvádcjatʹ vísim) |Двадцять дев'ять#Ukrainian|два́дцять де́в'ять(dvádcjatʹ dévʺjatʹ) |- !3— |Тридцять#Ukrainian|три́дцять(trýdc'atʹ) |Тридцять один#Ukrainian|три́дцять оди́н(trýdcjatʹ odýn) |Тридцять два#Ukrainian|три́дцять два(trýdcjatʹ dva) |Тридцять три#Ukrainian|три́дцять три(trýdcjatʹ try) |Тридцять чотири#Ukrainian|три́дцять чоти́ри(trýdcjatʹ čotýry) |Тридцять п'ять#Ukrainian|три́дцять п'ять(trýdcjatʹ pʺjatʹ) |Тридцять шість#Ukrainian|три́дцять шість(trýdcjatʹ šistʹ) |Тридцять сім#Ukrainian|три́дцять сім(trýdcjatʹ sim) |Тридцять вісім#Ukrainian|три́дцять ві́сім(trýdcjatʹ vísim) |Тридцять дев'ять#Ukrainian|три́дцять де́в'ять(trýdcjatʹ dévʺjatʹ) |- !4— |Сорок#Ukrainian|со́рок (sórok) |Сорок один#Ukrainian|со́рок оди́н (sórok odýn) |Сорок два#Ukrainian|со́рок два (sórok dva) |Сорок три#Ukrainian|со́рок три (sórok try) |Сорок чотири#Ukrainian|со́рок чоти́ри (sórok čotýry) |Сорок п'ять#Ukrainian|со́рок п'ять (sórok pʺjatʹ) |Сорок шість#Ukrainian|со́рок шість (sórok šistʹ) |Сорок сім#Ukrainian|со́рок сім (sórok sim) |Сорок вісім#Ukrainian|со́рок ві́сім (sórok vísim) |Сорок дев'ять#Ukrainian|со́рок де́в'ять (sórok dévʺjatʹ) |- !5— |П'ятдесят#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т(pjatdes'át) |П'ятдесят один#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т оди́н(pʺjatdesját odýn) |П'ятдесят два#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т два(pʺjatdesját dva) |П'ятдесят три#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т три(pʺjatdesját try) |П'ятдесят чотири#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т чоти́ри(pʺjatdesját čotýry) |П'ятдесят п'ять#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т п'ять(pʺjatdesját pʺjatʹ) |П'ятдесят шість#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т шість(pʺjatdesját šistʹ) |П'ятдесят сім#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т сім(pʺjatdesját sim) |П'ятдесят вісім#Ukrainian|п'ятдеся́т ві́сім(pʺjatdesját vísim) |п'ятдеся́т де́в'ять(pʺjatdesját dévʺjatʹ) |- !6— |Шістдесят#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т(šistdes'át) |Шістдесят один#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т оди́н(šistdesját odýn) |Шістдесят два#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т два(šistdesját dva) |Шістдесят три#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т три(šistdesját try) |Шістдесят чотири#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т чоти́ри(šistdesját čotýry) |Шістдесят п'ять#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т п'ять(šistdesját pʺjatʹ) |Шістдесят шість#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т шість(šistdesját šistʹ) |Шістдесят сім#Ukrainian|шістдеся́т сім(šistdesját sim) |шістдеся́т ві́сім(šistdesját vísim) |шістдеся́т де́в'ять(šistdesját dévʺjatʹ) |- !7— |Сімдесят#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т(simdes'át) |Сімдесят один#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т оди́н(simdesját odýn) |Сімдесят два#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т два(simdesját dva) |Сімдесят три#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т три(simdesját try) |Сімдесят чотири#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т чоти́ри(simdesját čotýry) |Сімдесят п'ять#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т п'ять(simdesját pʺjatʹ) |Сімдесят шість#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т шість(simdesját šistʹ) |Сімдесят сім#Ukrainian|сімдеся́т сім(simdesját sim) |сімдеся́т ві́сім(simdesját vísim) |сімдеся́т де́в'ять(simdesját dévʺjatʹ) |- !8— |Вісімдесят#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т(visimdes'at) |Вісімдесят один#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т оди́н(visimdes'at odýn) |Вісімдесят два#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т два(visimdes'at dva) |Вісімдесят три#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т три(visimdesját try) |Вісімдесят чотири#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т чоти́ри(visimdes'at čotýry) |Вісімдесят п'ять#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т п'ять(visimdes'at pʺjatʹ) |Вісімдесят шість#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т шість(visimdes'at šistʹ) |Вісімдесят сім#Ukrainian|вісімдеся́т сім(visimdes'at sim) |вісімдеся́т ві́сім(visimdesját vísim) |вісімдеся́т де́в'ять(visimdesját dévʺjatʹ) |- !9— |Дев'яносто#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто(devjanósto) |Дев'яносто один#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто оди́н(devjanósto odýn) |Дев'яносто два#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто два(devjanósto dva) |Дев'яносто три#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто три(devjanósto try) |Дев'яносто чотири#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто чоти́ри(devjanósto čotýry) |Дев'яносто п'ять#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто п'ять(devjanósto pʺjatʹ) |Дев'яносто шість#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто шість(devjanósto šistʹ) |Дев'яносто сім#Ukrainian|дев'яно́сто сім(devjanósto sim) |дев'яно́сто ві́сім(devjanósto vísim) |дев'яно́сто де́в'ять(devjanósto dévjatʹ) |} ==Ordinal numerals== {{BookCat}} njhfgtbb0ko54vo9wi1kcxyx6sty9ik 0 286123 4671788 4671629 2026-09-22T13:50:17Z Jeff1138 301139 4671788 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c Pi500+ keyboard wedge - Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) or D0 (rev1.1) * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and it will appear again. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb] as javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from youtube, facebook, reddit etc. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) or iPhone setting in menus. [https://Html5test.com Html5test] gives 189 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (in same folder) to fully retest newer versions. For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every reboot. Another thing to try, press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again. Sometimes Disconnect and try Connect. For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} d7k4ylglbl91kr0gvlmt6fjjont2jwu 4671789 4671788 2026-09-22T13:50:44Z Jeff1138 301139 4671789 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c Pi500+ keyboard wedge - Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) or D0 (rev1.1) * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and it will appear again. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb] as javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from youtube, facebook, reddit etc. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) or iPhone setting in menus. [https://Html5test.com Html5test] gives 189 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (in same folder) to fully retest big newer versions. For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every reboot. Another thing to try, press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again. Sometimes Disconnect and try Connect. For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} sr2a5t8mc0jayq203ifpj5iqsqsijk5 4671790 4671789 2026-09-22T13:51:07Z Jeff1138 301139 4671790 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c Pi500+ keyboard wedge - Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) or D0 (rev1.1) * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and it will appear again. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb] as javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from youtube, facebook, reddit etc. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) or iPhone setting in menus. [https://Html5test.com Html5test] gives 189 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (in same folder) to fully retest big updates. For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every reboot. Another thing to try, press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again. Sometimes Disconnect and try Connect. For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} t4aesdzwes9pvcasrr5j4jo9lmce4ls 4671932 4671790 2026-09-23T08:56:42Z Jeff1138 301139 4671932 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c Pi500+ keyboard wedge - Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) or D0 (rev1.1) * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd and copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and it will appear again. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb] as javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from youtube, facebook, reddit etc. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) or iPhone setting in menus. [https://Html5test.com Html5test] gives 189 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (in same drawer/folder) to fully retest big updates. For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every reboot. Another thing to try, press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again. Sometimes Disconnect and try Connect. For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3 *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} n7xnevrhd91kssoyydvzrbsmrtfki2i 2 296327 4671898 4671591 2026-09-23T06:35:05Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations */ minor update to end 4671898 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2023 there are over 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also thousands of known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 3800 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from 160 to 50K for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the smaller ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is undertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, they can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2023 there are about 1200 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a similar number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative at present. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must remain speculative at present. =='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km . These are close enough to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1). The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']). &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location. &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth. Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and fully replace Earth supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding. With these people can live comfortably and safely. They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> 23s7f21ldc6x5oqyqo2daomun940e4v 4671900 4671898 2026-09-23T07:04:10Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations */ update to end 4671900 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. &emsp; ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2026 there are over 700 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also 4,470 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 5,170 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from -113 to -223C for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the larger ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is uncertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, radioactives can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of distance. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2023 there are about 1200 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a similar number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative at present. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must remain speculative at present. =='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km . These are close enough to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1). The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']). &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location. &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth. Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and fully replace Earth supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding. With these people can live comfortably and safely. They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> 5seuk7orehuun1g3i59myvxh2at1e7j 4671906 4671900 2026-09-23T07:32:51Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations */ minor updates 4671906 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. &emsp; ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2026 there are over 700 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also 4,470 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 5,170 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from -113 to -223C for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the larger ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is uncertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, radioactives can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of distance. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's gravitational dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2026 there are about 1900 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a larger number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and from 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative for now. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must also remain speculative for now. =='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km . These are close enough to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1). The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']). &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location. &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth. Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and fully replace Earth supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding. With these people can live comfortably and safely. They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> 3wcz3dgse8p373davghq3tlh6m27mbt 4671908 4671906 2026-09-23T07:35:31Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations */ 4671908 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. &emsp; =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. &emsp; ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2026 there are over 700 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also 4,470 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 5,170 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from -113 to -223C for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the larger ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is uncertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, radioactives can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of distance. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's gravitational dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2026 there are about 1900 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a larger number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and from 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative for now. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must also remain speculative for now. =='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km . These are close enough to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1). The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']). &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location. &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth. Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and fully replace Earth supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding. With these people can live comfortably and safely. They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> 88vxuu2efzs1i7sylpxkdl7bxkjybwl 4671910 4671908 2026-09-23T07:38:32Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 7.0 - Other Earth Locations */ 4671910 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. &emsp; =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. &emsp; =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. &emsp; ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2026 there are over 700 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also 4,470 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 5,170 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from -113 to -223C for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the larger ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is uncertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, radioactives can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of distance. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's gravitational dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2026 there are about 1900 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a larger number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and from 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative for now. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must also remain speculative for now. =='''9.0 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km . These are close enough to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1). The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']). &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location. &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth. Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and fully replace Earth supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding. With these people can live comfortably and safely. They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> nfp5dvvep3bgtpzl75zk4h5sigivqsl 4671912 4671910 2026-09-23T07:41:16Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 9.0 - Planetary System Locations */ 4671912 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. &emsp; =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. &emsp; =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. &emsp; ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2026 there are over 700 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also 4,470 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 5,170 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from -113 to -223C for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the larger ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is uncertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, radioactives can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of distance. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's gravitational dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2026 there are about 1900 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a larger number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and from 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative for now. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must also remain speculative for now. &emsp; =='''9.0 - Phase 5 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach them carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed, and we covered using our technical approach earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities are more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and orbits with semi-major axes below 35,000 km . These are close enough to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field (Figure 9.1-1). The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and have significant effects on objects orbiting it ([https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0038094617070061 ''Gordienko, 2018'']). &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location. &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Low orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and 700 m/s more is needed to escape from them. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increase the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop them, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Regolith mining can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without using heavy equipment and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of much infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth. Carbonaceous type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and fully replace Earth supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. It would not be dropped directly on the surface because of the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by electric propulsion at high efficiency. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of lunar materials can supply shielding. With these people can live comfortably and safely. They are close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. But there are few low boiling-point materials left on the Moon, because it formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space, and some products are too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade can develop for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk regolith for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory equipment can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy sources for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and 1.0. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> f2ltra6e8ch54gjy7y1rlwb6bq4f0e7 10 297843 4671778 4408617 2026-09-22T12:35:52Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4671778 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{doc-page-head|template=TRC|Ver=2015-0128}}</noinclude><!-- --><includeonly><!-- Note, the section parameter 's' as a Trainz keyword identifier will never contain spaces which need converted to underscores -->{{#if:{{{s|}}}<!-- then append section -->|[[Trainz/containers/{{{1}}}_container#{{{s}}}<!-- now the pipetrick... -->|{{{p|{{{s|}}}}}}]]<!-- }} endthen {{ else... -->|{{#if:{{{1|}}}<!-- -->|[[Trainz/containers/{{{1}}}_container<!-- container... now the pipetrick... -->|{{{p|{{{2|{{{1}}} container}}}}}}]]<!-- -->|[[Trainz/containers|{{{p|Containers}}}]]<!-- -->}}<!-- -->}}</includeonly><!-- --><noinclude> {{TypeLink|containers,{{PAGENAME}}}} [[Category:Self-documenting Trainz templates|{{PAGENAME}}]] [[Category:Trainz Config Container|*{{PAGENAME}}]]<!-- <div style={{TRS-style|was="background:#aadadf; border: 2px solid blue;"}}> [[Category:Trainz reference pages|*{{PAGENAME}}]] is now in proper sub-cat ---> ;purpose Makes a simple linking typing-aid template replicating the most needed case of {{tl|TR}} for {{TL|Containers}} &mdash; that which auto-provides literal specification of the word string '_container' after a characteristic name keyword creating <code><nowiki>'{{{1}}}_container'</nowiki></code> '''AND which''' allows building of a section link on the target page. If there is a single parameter given, TRC will append container to the output string, hence allows links to be displayed with both words, name and container. &nbsp; {{BL|NOTE: ON 2015-0125, '''the normal operation of this template was reversed.''' It now provides the _container string automatically--the opposite way the template did beforehand.}} *{{BL|''' Any broken links will likely be fixed by deleting such a following word.'''}} *{{BL|''' Accordingly, the following usage is suspect, and likely exactly wrong!'''}} <div style="width:84%; float:center;"> ;usage This template in the'' 'default mode' ''forms an LITERAL internal link to a 'logical' sub-page of the Trainz Wikibook references division '''''[[Trainz/containers]] with placeholder pass parameter <code><nowiki>{{{1}}}</nowiki></code>''''' giving such links as {{nowrap|'''<code><nowiki>[[ Trainz/containers/{{{1}}} | {{{p|{{{s|{{{2|{{{1}}}}}}}}}}}} ]] </nowiki></code>'''&mdash;thus use}}of the template implicitly assumes the suffix container is appended and is desired to be displayed since all container article titles end with 'container' as the last word...<br/> * Further, the link will only be made if the sub-page name is explicitly correct and full&mdash;meaning most times the parameter '''must be in fact a phrase which contains {{BL|the end word}} {{'}}container{{'}}''' preceded by a space. Contrast this default with the alternative default link and display behavior of {{Tlx|TR|C|''somename''}} discussed below.<br/> * The '''|s=section''' parameter may also be defined to form a section title link, in which case, <code><nowiki>{{{1}}}</nowiki></code> must needs have an underscore in place of any and all space characters before the end of 'container' to properly form a link: {{nowrap|'''<code><nowiki>[[ Trainz/containers/{{{1}}}#{{{s}}} | {{{p|{{{s}}}}}} ]] </nowiki></code>'''.}}<br/> * As is standard with Trainz link templates, defining the named'' 'Pretty-Print' parameter'' <code>''' {{!}} p= something''' displays the link as <nowiki>{{{p}}}</nowiki></code> will overide any other pass terms. </div> <hr/> * This processing might be considered a work around doing the opposite link formation of {{Tl|TR}}'s default behavior which given the characteristic name, will automatically add 'container' and display the compound of such phrase building. Thus TR makes any link '' with the word 'container' ''and display only <code><nowiki>{{{1}}}</nowiki></code> or <code><nowiki>{{{2}}}</nowiki></code> if given as {{Tlx|TR|C|name|<nowiki>{{{2}}}</nowiki>}}. <hr/> * Example [[Trainz/containers/mesh-table container]] can be formed <code> {{tlx|TR|C|mesh-table}}, </code>as '''the string ' container' is appended at ALL TIMES.''' <br/> * In contrast, <code> {{tlx|TRC|mesh-table}}, </code> <u>will not</u> form a correct link as '''the string ' container'''' must at ALL TIMES be manually appended as in {{tlx|TRC|mesh-table container}}... which will also form a correct link but display differently; notice the space in the preceding <code>' container'</code>. <br/> * It differs from the very similar call {{Tlx|TR|C|<nowiki>{{{2}}}</nowiki>}} in that while {{Tlx|TR|C|name}} <code>'''does''' append ' container'</code> for forming the link, it does not ''and cannot also display'' the word 'container' in the internal hyperlink. <br/> :* To do that, TR must be given a definition for the pipetrick parameter: <code>( {{'}}'''p'''{{'}} )</code>, cluttering up the editable text which is already technical enough. * It differs from the very similar call {{Tlx|TR|CD|<nowiki>{{{2}}}</nowiki>}} e.g. {{TR|CD|mesh-table container}} <br/> ; Use this template instead of TR when you DO NOT want the word container to appear inline.<!-- ---> {{TextBox|1= : IN ALL Cases, including the below (p=''pretty-name'') forms a over-riding'' 'pretty name' ''for display'' of the desired link-to-page of the '[[Trainz references]] volume' ''of the [[Trainz]] Wikibook projects.}} :*Since neither TR nor TRC's above mentioned mode handle 'input=full titles' cases like 'Mesh-table container'... * An alternative ''calling form'' of the template operates much like the {{Tl|TR}} template with the keywords |C|c|Con|CON|D|d|DIR|dir|DIRECT|direct|Direct= forming legal value links as: {{nowrap|<code><nowiki>[[Trainz/containers/{{{2}}}|{{{2}}}]]</nowiki></code>.}} :* This mode converts N3V Wiki container links in <code><nowiki>[[ ... ]] pairs</nowiki></code> to Wikibook compatible links, less the deletion of quotations needed for many TrainzOnline container titles. </div></noinclude> 010uh553b6wyqdfcfo5c3toe5alyxbr 0 374215 4671949 4642388 2026-09-23T11:47:03Z Serayinterlude 3571176 Added more names to respective sections of the page. 4671949 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Usage note== Some Sierra Leonean given names are based on birth order, context and gender. These are indicated here. Sierra Leonean given names are sometimes borrowed from other local ethnic tribes, where one name can be rooted in one group, it may be commonly used within other overlapping groups. For example, ‘Tenneh’ means Monday in Limba, but the name is most commonly observed amongst Temne people too. It is also possible for the same name to have different meanings to different ethnic groups. Some names listed may not be Sierra Leonean by origin, but used frequently within the country. ==Girls' names== *Aba *Abiba - “Blessed / Loved One / “Habiba” (Arabic) *Abibatu - “Blessed / Loved One / “Habiba” (Arabic) *Adama - “Earth / Created from the Ground” (Hebrew) *Adiatu - “God’s Adornment” (Hebrew) *Aicha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Aisha - “Alive / Thriving” (Arabic) *Ajaratu - “Prosperous / Precious Stone / ‘Ajar’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Alanki - “Given by God” (Limba) *Alimatu - Gentle / Patient / ‘Halima’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Amara - “Grace” (Igbo) *Amie - “Protected / Devoted / ‘Amina’” (Arabic) *Amida - “Praised / Commendable / ‘Ameeda’” (Arabic) *Amina - “Protected / Devoted” (Arabic) *Aminata - “Protected / Devoted / ‘Amina’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Ashike - Prosperity (Temne) *Asuma *Awa - “Source of Life / Mother of All Living / ‘Hawa’” (Arabic) *Ayesha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Ayiki - Glory / Majesty (Temne) *Aysha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Badara *Bahnnie - “Remorseful / Emphathetic” (Temne) *Bentu - (Sherbro/Bullom) *Binta - Daughter / Girl / ‘Bint’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Bintu - Daughter / Girl / ‘Bint’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Bonyor - Gold (Temne) *Damoh - (Limba) *Dawa *Egbatima - Unique / Different (Mende) *Ejatu *Emivia *Eyaema - Desired Child (Temne) *Fanta - “One Who Abstains / ‘Fatima’” (Arabic - Mandinka Localised) *Fatima - “One Who Abstains” (Arabic) *Fatmata - “One Who Abstains / ‘Fatima’” (Arabic) *Fatumata - “One Who Abstains / ‘Fatima’” (Arabic) *Fenthi - Clean / Proper (Temne) *Finnoh - Beautiful (Temne) *Finnor - Beautiful (Temne) *Finda - Daughter born after second son, female third born *Fudia - “One Who Sacrifices Herself to Help Others / ‘Fadiya’” (Arabic) *Fudiatu - “One Who Sacrifices Herself to Help Others / ‘Fadiya’” (Arabic) *Gbatima - Unique / Different (Mende) *Gbegima - “Leave this one” (Mende) *Gbentha - Brightness (Temne) *Giloh - "Let this remain" (Mende) *Gita - “This one will survive” (Mende) *Habiba - “Blessed / Loved One” (Arabic) *Habibatu - “Blessed / Loved One / “Habiba” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Hadijatu - “Early Born Child / ‘Khadijah’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Haja - “The Pilgrim / Virtuous / ‘Hajja’” (Arabic) *Hajja - “The Pilgrim / Virtuous ” (Arabic) *Hajah - “The Pilgrim / Virtuous / ‘Hajja’” (Arabic) *Hajaratu “The Pilgrim / Virtuous / ‘Hajja’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Halimatu - Gentle / Patient / ‘Halima’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Hassanatu - “Radiant Beauty / ‘Hasana’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Hawa - “Source of Life / Mother of All Living” (Arabic) Eve (Biblical) *Hawanatu - “Source of Life / Mother of All Living / ‘Hawa’” (Arabic - West African Localised) Eve (Biblical) *Hejawa - Abundance of Luck (Mende) *Isata - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Isatu - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Isha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Iya *Iyaema - Desired Child (Temne) *Iye *Jariatu *Jarieu *Jebbeh *Jebeh *Jeneba - “Gift from God / ‘Zaynab’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Jenneh - “Gift from God / ‘Zaynab’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Jilo - “Let this remain” (Mende) *Jiloh - “Let this remain” (Mende) *Jita - “This one will survive” (Mende) *Kadie - “Early Born Child” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Khadijah - “Early Born Child” (Arabic) *Khadijatu - “Early Born Child” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Kainday *Kamu - “It’s Yours” (Temne) *Kanyim - Born at night/dark (Temne) *Kathy - Sunday-born (Limba) *Kenia *Kilikuroo - “God-depending” (Temne) *Kisumana *Kohuneh - Joy / Happiness (Mende) *Koniaka - (Mende) *Kpatehnya - (Mende) *Kumba - Second girl after twins *Kutu *Koiya *Konya - (Mende) *Lavina - Purity (Latin) *Lavinia - Purity (Latin) *Lileh - Peace (Mende) *Lombe - “Remain for me” (Mende) *Luba - Blessing (Mende) *Mabaindu *Mabendu *Mabinty *Mafo - Afternoon-born child (Mende) *Magayai *Magbindi - Night-born child (Mende) *Magenda - Morning-born child (Mende) *Mahunbey - “To Take Care / Look After” (Mende) *Maleika - Angel (Arabic - Temne Localised) *Maleni - Flower / Blossom (Temne) *Manu - “Save, be sympathetic” (Mende) *Mariama - “Star of the Sea” (Hebrew - West African Localised) *Mariatu - “Star of the Sea” (Hebrew - West African Localised) *Mamie - Mother / Lady / Grandmother (Krio) *Mara - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Marie - “Star of the Sea” (Hebrew) *Maseray *Massa *Mateneh - “Mother born on a Monday” (Limba) *Mbalu *Meliana *Memuna - “Fortunate / Lucky / ‘Maymuna’” (Arabic) *Mentima - (Mende) *Mera - Heart / Mind (Temne) *Minta - Bold / Brave (Temne) *Muboneh - “Happiness” (Temne) *Mujeh - “Our Mother” (Mende) *Mujeni - “Our Mothers” (Mende) *Muliima - “Relying (on..)” (Mende) *Musu - “Beautiful Wife / Beautiful Woman” (Mande) *Nadewa - (Limba) *Namina - (Limba) *Nasratha - “Victory / ‘Nasrat’” (Arabic) *Nasratu - “Victory / ‘Nasrat’” (Arabic) *Nayana - (Limba) *Ndelei - “Peace / Blissful Heart” (Mende) *Ndeleiva - “Let Peace Prevail” (Mende) *Ndomayah - “Because of Love” (Mende) *Nekami - “Self-Pitying” (Temne) *Nemata *Neneh *Nepor - Courage (Mende) *Nikami - Self-Pitying (Temne) *Nimah *Nimatulai *Nouhou *Nyagua *Nyahagbayie - “Woman of Might” (Mende) *Nyahanina - (Mende) *Nyaleimava - (Mende) *Nyalima - (Mende) *Nyambe - “My Own” (Mende) *Nyanda - “My Own”(Mende) *Nyandamoqui - “Fine Leopard” (Mende) *Nyandu *Nyawa - (Mende) *Nyawo - (Mende) *Nyayah - (Mende) *Nyima - Beautiful / Good (Mandinka/Mande) *Nyuma *Okemi - “My Own” (Temne) *Okiya - Mine (Limba) *Okiyan - Mine (Limba) *Orkemi - “My Own” (Temne) *Othimo - Liked (Limba) *Posseh *Preysok - “Morning-born child” (Temne) *Pruvah *Rakiatu *Raliatu *Ramatu *Rianna - Heaven / ‘Rayyan’ (Arabic - Temne Localised) *Rukoh *Ruuba - Blessing/Thank You (Temne) *Rugiatu *Sabatu *Sadanmei - (Limba) *Sadira *Safiatu *Saffiatu *Sallay *Salamatu *Salimatu *Sampa - (Temne) *Sani *Sanni *Sapunka - Unbearable (Limba) *Sarieu *Sawie *Seinya *Selah *Serah - Firstborn daughter (Limba) *Seray *Sia - Gift (Mande) *Siabanda - Firstborn daughter *Sianeh *Simbiwa *Simithi - Saturday-born (Limba) *Sinna *Sira *Tachekor - “Protected child / “Left to be”” (Temne) *Tataigbon - “Untouchable” (Temne) *Tatessa - “Fairest of them all” (Temne) *Tenne - Monday-born (Limba) *Tenneh - Monday-born (Limba) *Tewoh - (Mende) *Thachaikor - “Protected child / “Left to be”” (Temne) *Thaduba - Blessing (Limba) *Thatema - (Limba) *Thathesa - “Fairest of them all” (Temne) *Thathesar - “Fairest of them all” (Temne) *Theneleh *Tilima - “Relying (on..)” (Mende) *Titi - Girl (Krio) *Umu - “Mother / ‘Ummu’” (Arabic) *Unama *Wuzairiatu *Ya - “Mother” (Temne) *Yabom *Yabomporro *Yabu *Yaddah *Yafeh - Peace (Temne) *Yakasu - (Temne) *Yakoiya - (Temne) *Yalie - Advice (Limba) *Yalienatu *Yandora *Yankain - (Limba) *Yanbakie - (Temne) *Yandi - Please (Limba) *Yatta *Yayo - “Mother” (Temne) *Yayor - “Mother” (Temne) *Yeabu *Yealie *Yealinatu *Yeani - “Mothers” (Temne) *Yeanoh - “Mother” (Temne) *Yeanor - “Mother” (Temne) *Yenor - “Mother” (Temne) *Yietoma *Yoyonthor *Zainab - “Fragrant flower” (Arabic) *Zaria - “Princess / ‘Sarah’” (Hebrew) “Flower / ‘zahr’” (Arabic) *Zariatu - “Princess / ‘Sarah’” (Hebrew) “Flower / ‘zahr’” (Arabic) *Zairiatu - “To bloom / ‘zāra’” (Arabic) ==Boys' names== *Abass *Abdul - “Servant (of)” (Arabic) *Abdullah - “Servant of Allah” (Arabic) *Abdulai - “Servant of Allah / ‘Abdullah’” (Arabic) *Abu - “Father (of)” (Arabic) *Abubakar - “Father of a Young Camel / ‘Abu Bakr’” (Arabic) *Abudu - “Servant of Allah” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Agibu *Aiah - Third-born son born after twins (Temne) *Alasan - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Alhaji - “The Pilgrim / ‘Al-Hajj’” (Arabic) *Ali - High / Exalted / Elevated (Arabic) *Alieu - Strong (Mandinka/Mande) - High (Arabic) *Alikali - King / Chief Judge of Port Loko Territory (Temne) *Almamy - “The Leader / ‘Al-Imam’” (Arabic) *Alimamy - “The Leader / ‘Al-Imam’” (Arabic) *Alpha - “The Jurist / The Scholar / ‘Al-Fariq’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Alusine - “The Handsome / ‘Al-Husayn’” (Arabic) *Amadu - “The One Who Constantly Thanks God / Highly Commendable / ‘Ahmad’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Ampress *Ansumana - "Protector of His Name"/ "One Who Defends His Name” (Mandinka/Mande) *Arun - “High-ranking / Mountain of Strength / ‘Harun’” (Arabic) ‘Aaron’ (Hebrew) *Aruna - “High-ranking / Mountain of Strength / ‘Harun’” (Arabic) ‘Aaron’ (Hebrew) *Arsheke - (Temne) *Arshekeh - (Temne) *Aya - Third-born son born after twins (Temne) *Babah *Badara *Bai - Chief/Strength (Temne) *Bai-Bai - (Temne) *Baika - (Mende) *Baisharu - (Temne) *Bakar - Strong / Firm (Temne) Early Dawn / “Young Camel” ‘Abu Bakr’ (Arabic) *Baksene - ‘To strengthen himself” (Temne) *Balaka - (Sherbro/Bullom) *Bambara - Riverine Flooding, “One who has Force” (Limba) *Banekore - (Temne) *Bangali *Bankolo - “Don’t try it” (Limba) *Barikeh - “Thank You” (Temne) *Barlam *Barome - (Temne) *Benkutay - “Have you seen” (Limba) *Benya *Beyasi - Security (Limba) *Brima - Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) “Father of Many / ‘Ibrahim’” (Arabic) *Bockarie *Boimah *Boineh - Happy (Temne) *Bonyor - Gold (Temne) *Chernoh *Dauda - “Beloved / Dear One / ‘Dawood’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Dausie - “Beloved / Dear One / ‘Dawood’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Ervel *Fayia - Second-born boy (Kissi / Kono) *Fallah *Fatha *Fenthi - Clean / Proper (Temne) *Fino - Pretty (Temne) *Finnoh - Pretty (Temne) *Foday - “Heart / Conscious / ‘Fuad’” (Arabic) *Gbassay *Gbegima - “Leave this one” (Mende) *Gbemute - (Temne) *Gassimu *Hachim - “Born in temporary separation” (Temne) *Hassan - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Hassana - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Ibra - “Father of Many” (Arabic) *Ibrahim - “Father of Many” (Arabic) *Ibrahima - “Father of Many” (Arabic) *Idris - “Studious / Smart” (Arabic) *Idrissa - “Studious / Smart” (Arabic) *Ishmael *Jaiwal *Jami *Jaruga *Jibao - “Save this / Let this be well” (Mende) *Juma - Friday-born *Juldeh *Jusu *Kabane - Wonderful / Astonishing / Extraordinary (Temne) *Kabba *Kafo - Afternoon-born child (Mende) *Kai - Chief/Elder (Temne) - Man (Vai) *Kaifala *Kaima *Kaisamba *Kaloko *Kalom - Straightforward (Temne) *Kalomp - Straightforward (Temne) *Kambi *Kandeh *Kanneh *Kanuwally - “God, I thank you” (Limba) *Kapindi - Night-born child (Mende) *Karamoh *Karandi - Teacher / Scholar (Temne) *Karefa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Karifa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Kassim - “One Who Distributes” (Arabic) *Kassimu - “One Who Distributes” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Kaskami - “My Father” (Temne) *Kaskasu - “Our Father” (Temne) *Kehwalleh *Kei *Kelfa - Captain / Hero (Temne) “The One Who Pays” (Mandinka/Mande) *Kelfala *Kelefa - “The One Who Pays” (Mandinka/Mande) *Kemoh *Kemokai - “Man from Kemo” (Vai/Mandinka/Mande) *Kemokoh *Kenie *Kewullay *Komba *Komrabai - “Chief/Elder of our territory” (Temne) *Kohuneh - Joy / Happiness (Mende) *Koray *Kowa *Koyie *Koyon - Rain (Limba) *Kpana - Chief (Sherbro/Bullom) *Kuruuba - Hero (Temne) *Kuruugba - Hero (Temne) *Kusan *Lamin - “Trustworthy / Faithful / ‘Al-Amin’” (Arabic) *Lamie - “Trustworthy / Faithful / ‘Al-Amin’” (Arabic) *Lansana - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Luba - Blessing (Mende) *Mahai *Mai *Mahmadu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Majajieu *Maju *Makari *Makoo *Malakai - “My Messenger / My Angel / ‘Malaki’” (Hebrew) *Maliki - “King / Sovereign / ‘Malik’” (Arabic) *Mamadu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Mamudu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Mamo - “Thank You” (Temne) *Marwan *Mayon - First born (Limba) *Melleh *Minkailu *Mohamed - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Momodu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Momoh - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic - Mano River Basin Localised) *Morlai *Morlay *Mourie *Mukeh - “Our Father” (Mende) *Muliima - “Relying (on..)” (Mende) *Muloma - “Harmony” (Mende) *Muluku *Munda - “Our own” (Mende) *Musa - “Saved from the Water” (Arabic) ‘Moses’ (Hebrew) *Mustapha - “The Chosen One / ‘Mustafa’” (Arabic) *Nabie *Najee *Nbalie *Ndawa *Ndeleiva - “Let Peace Prevail” (Mende) *Nomolie - Stone Chief Figure Sculpture (Sherbro/Bullom) *Obrahim - “Father of Many / ‘Ibrahim’” (Arabic) *Okaskasu - “Our Father” (Temne) *Olobi *Osaio *Osman - Baby bustard desert bird; wisdom, strength, leadership / ‘Uthman’ (Arabic, cultural symbol) *Ousman - Baby bustard desert bird; wisdom, strength, leadership / ‘Uthman’ (Arabic, cultural symbol) *Oyola - “The Rich Man” (Temne) *Pilleh *Saa - First-born son *Saah - First-born son *Sadiq - “Truthful One / Sincere / ‘Siddiq’” (Arabic) *Sahr - First-born son *Said - “Fortunate / Blessed” (Arabic) *Saidu - “Fortunate / Blessed” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Sajalieu *Salfu - “Righteous / Pious / ‘Salih’” (Arabic) *Salieu - “Righteous / Pious / ‘Salih’” (Arabic) *Sallieu - “Righteous / Pious / ‘Salih’” (Arabic) *Samba *Sampa - (Temne) *Sampay *Sana *Sandima - Sunday-born (Mende) *Santigie *Sara *Sarjoh *Sarway *Segepoh *Sei *Sembeh - Strength (Limba) *Senesie *Senie *Seno - Arrow (Temne) *Sento *Serry *Sesay *Sheaka *Shekhu - “Chieftain / Religious Leader / ‘Sheikh’” (Arabic) *Sheikhu - “Chieftain / Religious Leader / ‘Sheikh’” (Arabic) *Sheriff - “Noble / Honorable / ‘Sharif’” (Arabic) *Siafa *Siaka *Sidi - “Truthful One / Sincere / ‘Siddiq’” (Arabic) *Sidiki - “Truthful One / Sincere / ‘Siddiq’” (Arabic) *Sidiq - “Truthful One / Sincere” (Arabic) *Sonsiama *Soragatta *Soriba *Sorie *Sulay - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Suley - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Sulaiman - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Suleiman - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Suleyman - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Sundiata - “Lion Prince” (Mande/Mandinka) *Sundima - Sunday-born (Mende) *Taiwo - “First Twin to Taste the World” (Yoruba) *Takothor *Tamarane - “Helper / Let Us Help” (Temne) *Tamba - Second-born son born after twins (Temne) *Tarasid *Taypineh - (Temne) *Tejan - Crown / royal headband / ‘Tijan’ (Arabic) *Thaduba - Blessing (Limba) *Thaimu - (Temne) *Thamba - Second-born son born after twins (Temne) *Thasneh - “Too much” (Temne) *Thegeka - “Mindful to their own” (Limba) *Thoyenkeh - (Temne) *Tokumboh *Umar - “Flourishing / Long-Lived / ‘Omar’” (Arabic) *Umaru - “Flourishing / Long-Lived / ‘Omar’” (Arabic) *Unisa *Usman - Baby bustard desert bird; wisdom, strength, leadership / ‘Uthman’ (Arabic, cultural symbol) *Wesseh *Wogba *Yahya *Yakub - “One Who Follows / Supplanter” (Arabic) ‘Jacob’ (Hebrew) *Yakuba - “One Who Follows / Supplanter / ‘Yakub’” (Arabic) ‘Jacob’ (Hebrew) *Yamba *Yarimeh - (Limba) ==Surnames== *Abdulai - “Servant of Allah / ‘Abdullah’” (Arabic) *Alieu - Strong (Mandinka/Mande) - High (Arabic) *Allieu - Strong (Mandinka/Mande) - High (Arabic) *Amara *Ansumana - "Protector of His Name"/ "One Who Defends His Name” (Mandinka/Mande) *Badoe *Bah *Bai - Chief / Strength (Temne) *Baion *Baken *Bakarr - Early Dawn / “Young Camel” ‘Abu Bakr’ - Arabic *Balde *Bangura *Banorah *Banya *Banyah *Barrie *Bassie *Baryoh *Bayoh *Bawoh *Beah *Bendu *Bengeh *Benya *Bio *Bockarie *Boima *Bongor *Bonghor *Brewah *Brima - Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) “Father of Many / ‘Ibrahim’” (Arabic) *Bundu *Carew *Caulker - A tradesperson who sealed seams in ships, barrels, or structures using materials like oakum or pitch to make them watertight (English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Challey *Cocker - Fighter / Wrangler (Middle English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Coker - Fighter / Wrangler (Middle English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Conteh *Corker - A tradesperson who sealed seams in ships, barrels, or structures using materials like oakum or pitch to make them watertight (English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Daboe *Daboh *Dabundeh *Dambeli *Dambelly *Daramy *Darboe *Dauda - “Beloved / Dear One / ‘Dawood’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Deen *Donkoh *Dukureh *Dumbuya *Entochema *Fasuluku *Fayombo *Fidawi *Foday - “Heart / Conscious / ‘Fuad’” (Arabic) *Fofana *Fofanah *Foh *Fomah *Fomba *Foray *Fornah *Funah *Funna *Gaba *Gaima *Ganda *Gassama *Gassimu *Gbaewoh *Gbamanja *Gbemeh *Gbla *Gblah *Gbondo *Gborie *Ghanghay *Gevao *Giawo *Gwary *Hariru *Ibemessie *Jabati *Jabbie *Jadama *Jah *Jajua *Jalloh *Jambawai *Jamboria *Jammeh *Janneh *Jarsey *Jawara *Jaward - “Open-handed / Generous / ‘Jawad’” (Arabic) *Jebbeh *Jinkang *Jobarteh *Joko *Jones - son of John (English) *common amongst the Krio *Juana *Jusu *Kabba *Kabbah *Kabia *Kaikai *Kailie *Kaingbanja *Kaisamba *Kakay *Kallay *Kallon *Kalokoh *Kamanda *Kamano *Kamanno *Kamara - “Protecting Village / Home” (Soninke) *Kanagborro *Kandeh *Kanneh *Kanu *Kanuteh *Kanuwally - “God, I thank you” (Limba) *Karefa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Karew *Karifa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Kargbo *Karimu *Katta *Kawa *Kebbie *Keita *Kellie *Khia *Kindi *Koedoyoma *Koita *Koker - Fighter / Wrangler (Middle English) *common amongst the Krio *Kolleh *Komai *Komagutu *Komba *Konateh *Kondewa *Kondeh *Koneh *Kongobah *Kongobay *Konneh *Konomanyi *Konteh *Konuwa *Koroma *Kortu *Kowa *Kpaka *Kurubally *Kutubu *Kuyateh *Kuyembeh *Lahai *Lamin - “Trustworthy / Faithful / ‘Al-Amin’” (Arabic) *Lansana - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Lavalie - (Mende) *Lebbie *Lewally *Lukulay *Lungay *Lunsar - “Lion’s town” “Place of stones” (Temne - Town in the Northern Province) *Luseni *MacCarthy - “son of Cárthach" "loving/beloved” (Irish / Gaelic) *common amongst the Krio *MacFoy - “Son of the Potter” (Scottish / Gaelic) *common amongst the Krio *Magona *Makaya *Maligie *Mallah *Maloma *Mani - (Kono / Kissi) *Manjang *Mankobo *Manneh *Mansaray *Mara - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Marah - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Margai *Marrah - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Massally *Massaquoi - “Chief / Ruler” (Vai) *Mattia *Matturie *Mayeh *Mbayo *Minah *Minteh *Moinina *Momoh - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic - Mano River Basin Localised) *Momokani *Mohai *Moriba *Morong *Moseray *Munu *Musa - “Saved from the Water” (Arabic) ‘Moses’ (Hebrew) *Ndulu *Ngegba *Ngekia *Ngobeh *Njai *Nyuma *Nyumah *Ordulsay *Palloh *Panneh *Pessima *Quee *Saboleh *Saccoh *Saffa *Saibureh *Saidu - “Fortunate / Blessed” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Salisu *Sall *Sama *Samah *Samai *Samba *Sambo *Samura *Samurah *Sandi *Sankarah *Sankareh *Sankoh - “Strong” (Temne) *Sannoh *Sanu - (Limba) *Sanusi *Sanyang *Sawaneh *Sawyerr - “One Who Saws Wood / Woodcutter” (English) *common amongst the Krio *Sedibeh *Seibureh *Sekoh *Sellu *Sembu *Senesie *Sengeh *Sengulay *Sesay *Sheriff - “Noble / Honorable / ‘Sharif’” (Arabic) *Siaffa *Sidibay *Sidibeh *Sidibey *Sillah *Sinneh *Sogbo *Sonko *Sorie *Sourie *Sow *Sowa *Suluku - Wolf / Hyena (Mande/Mandinka) *Suma *Sumailah *Sumana *Suso *Swaray *Swarray *Tajawie *Tamba - Second-born son born after twins *Tarawali *Tarawalie *Tarawallie *Tarawally *Taylor - Cutter of cloth / ‘Tailor’ (English / French) *common amongst the Krio *Teambo *Tejan - Crown / royal headband / ‘Tijan’ (Arabic) *Tengbeh *Tholley *Thoronka *Thullah *Timbo *Tongi *Tonkara *Torto *Tucker - Softener of cloth (English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Tugbay *Tugbawa *Tumbu *Tumoe *Tunkara *Turay *Vandi *Vandy *Vonjo *Vonjoe *Wariteh *Williams - son of William (English) *common amongst the Krio *Woneh *Wongbo *Woobay *Wulladeh *Wurie *Yakawa *Yambasu *Yancy *Yanka *Yansaneh *Yansanneh *Yavanah *Yavannah *Yiraia *Yokie *{{BookCat}} khghlrgrny2tvx10khdry6e6kvvqz2i 4671950 4671949 2026-09-23T11:52:55Z Serayinterlude 3571176 Added one name to a section. 4671950 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Usage note== Some Sierra Leonean given names are based on birth order, context and gender. These are indicated here. Sierra Leonean given names are sometimes borrowed from other local ethnic tribes, where one name can be rooted in one group, it may be commonly used within other overlapping groups. For example, ‘Tenneh’ means Monday in Limba, but the name is most commonly observed amongst Temne people too. It is also possible for the same name to have different meanings to different ethnic groups. Some names listed may not be Sierra Leonean by origin, but used frequently within the country. ==Girls' names== *Aba *Abiba - “Blessed / Loved One / “Habiba” (Arabic) *Abibatu - “Blessed / Loved One / “Habiba” (Arabic) *Adama - “Earth / Created from the Ground” (Hebrew) *Adiatu - “God’s Adornment” (Hebrew) *Aicha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Aisha - “Alive / Thriving” (Arabic) *Ajaratu - “Prosperous / Precious Stone / ‘Ajar’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Alanki - “Given by God” (Limba) *Alimatu - Gentle / Patient / ‘Halima’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Amara - “Grace” (Igbo) *Amie - “Protected / Devoted / ‘Amina’” (Arabic) *Amida - “Praised / Commendable / ‘Ameeda’” (Arabic) *Amina - “Protected / Devoted” (Arabic) *Aminata - “Protected / Devoted / ‘Amina’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Ashike - Prosperity (Temne) *Asuma *Awa - “Source of Life / Mother of All Living / ‘Hawa’” (Arabic) *Ayesha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Ayiki - Glory / Majesty (Temne) *Aysha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Badara *Bahnnie - “Remorseful / Emphathetic” (Temne) *Bentu - (Sherbro/Bullom) *Binta - Daughter / Girl / ‘Bint’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Bintu - Daughter / Girl / ‘Bint’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Bonyor - Gold (Temne) *Damoh - (Limba) *Dawa *Egbatima - Unique / Different (Mende) *Ejatu *Emivia *Eyaema - Desired Child (Temne) *Fanta - “One Who Abstains / ‘Fatima’” (Arabic - Mandinka Localised) *Fatima - “One Who Abstains” (Arabic) *Fatmata - “One Who Abstains / ‘Fatima’” (Arabic) *Fatumata - “One Who Abstains / ‘Fatima’” (Arabic) *Fenthi - Clean / Proper (Temne) *Finnoh - Beautiful (Temne) *Finnor - Beautiful (Temne) *Finda - Daughter born after second son, female third born *Fudia - “One Who Sacrifices Herself to Help Others / ‘Fadiya’” (Arabic) *Fudiatu - “One Who Sacrifices Herself to Help Others / ‘Fadiya’” (Arabic) *Gbatima - Unique / Different (Mende) *Gbegima - “Leave this one” (Mende) *Gbentha - Brightness (Temne) *Giloh - "Let this remain" (Mende) *Gita - “This one will survive” (Mende) *Habiba - “Blessed / Loved One” (Arabic) *Habibatu - “Blessed / Loved One / “Habiba” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Hadijatu - “Early Born Child / ‘Khadijah’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Haja - “The Pilgrim / Virtuous / ‘Hajja’” (Arabic) *Hajja - “The Pilgrim / Virtuous ” (Arabic) *Hajah - “The Pilgrim / Virtuous / ‘Hajja’” (Arabic) *Hajaratu “The Pilgrim / Virtuous / ‘Hajja’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Halimatu - Gentle / Patient / ‘Halima’ (Arabic - West African Localised) *Hassanatu - “Radiant Beauty / ‘Hasana’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Hawa - “Source of Life / Mother of All Living” (Arabic) Eve (Biblical) *Hawanatu - “Source of Life / Mother of All Living / ‘Hawa’” (Arabic - West African Localised) Eve (Biblical) *Hejawa - Abundance of Luck (Mende) *Isata - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Isatu - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Isha - “Alive / Thriving / ‘Aisha’” (Arabic) *Iya *Iyaema - Desired Child (Temne) *Iye *Jariatu *Jarieu *Jebbeh *Jebeh *Jeneba - “Gift from God / ‘Zaynab’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Jenneh - “Gift from God / ‘Zaynab’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Jilo - “Let this remain” (Mende) *Jiloh - “Let this remain” (Mende) *Jita - “This one will survive” (Mende) *Kadie - “Early Born Child” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Khadijah - “Early Born Child” (Arabic) *Khadijatu - “Early Born Child” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Kainday *Kamu - “It’s Yours” (Temne) *Kanyim - Born at night/dark (Temne) *Kathy - Sunday-born (Limba) *Kenia *Kilikuroo - “God-depending” (Temne) *Kisumana *Kohuneh - Joy / Happiness (Mende) *Koniaka - (Mende) *Kpatehnya - (Mende) *Kumba - Second girl after twins *Kutu *Koiya *Konya - (Mende) *Lavina - Purity (Latin) *Lavinia - Purity (Latin) *Lileh - Peace (Mende) *Lombe - “Remain for me” (Mende) *Luba - Blessing (Mende) *Mabaindu *Mabendu *Mabinty *Mafo - Afternoon-born child (Mende) *Magayai *Magbindi - Night-born child (Mende) *Magenda - Morning-born child (Mende) *Mahunbey - “To Take Care / Look After” (Mende) *Maleika - Angel (Arabic - Temne Localised) *Maleni - Flower / Blossom (Temne) *Manu - “Save, be sympathetic” (Mende) *Mariama - “Star of the Sea” (Hebrew - West African Localised) *Mariatu - “Star of the Sea” (Hebrew - West African Localised) *Mamie - Mother / Lady / Grandmother (Krio) *Mara - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Marie - “Star of the Sea” (Hebrew) *Maseray *Massa *Mateneh - “Mother born on a Monday” (Limba) *Mbalu *Meliana *Memuna - “Fortunate / Lucky / ‘Maymuna’” (Arabic) *Mentima - (Mende) *Mera - Heart / Mind (Temne) *Minta - Bold / Brave (Temne) *Muboneh - “Happiness” (Temne) *Mujeh - “Our Mother” (Mende) *Mujeni - “Our Mothers” (Mende) *Muliima - “Relying (on..)” (Mende) *Musu - “Beautiful Wife / Beautiful Woman” (Mande) *Nadewa - (Limba) *Namina - (Limba) *Nasratha - “Victory / ‘Nasrat’” (Arabic) *Nasratu - “Victory / ‘Nasrat’” (Arabic) *Nayana - (Limba) *Ndelei - “Peace / Blissful Heart” (Mende) *Ndeleiva - “Let Peace Prevail” (Mende) *Ndomayah - “Because of Love” (Mende) *Nekami - “Self-Pitying” (Temne) *Nemata *Neneh *Nepor - Courage (Mende) *Nikami - Self-Pitying (Temne) *Nimah *Nimatulai *Nouhou *Nyagua *Nyahagbayie - “Woman of Might” (Mende) *Nyahanina - (Mende) *Nyaleimava - (Mende) *Nyalima - (Mende) *Nyambe - “My Own” (Mende) *Nyanda - “My Own”(Mende) *Nyandamoqui - “Fine Leopard” (Mende) *Nyandu *Nyawa - (Mende) *Nyawo - (Mende) *Nyayah - (Mende) *Nyima - Beautiful / Good (Mandinka/Mande) *Nyuma *Okemi - “My Own” (Temne) *Okiya - Mine (Limba) *Okiyan - Mine (Limba) *Orkemi - “My Own” (Temne) *Othimo - Liked (Limba) *Posseh *Preysok - “Morning-born child” (Temne) *Pruvah *Rakiatu *Raliatu *Ramatu *Rianna - Heaven / ‘Rayyan’ (Arabic - Temne Localised) *Rukoh *Ruuba - Blessing/Thank You (Temne) *Rugiatu *Sabatu *Sadanmei - (Limba) *Sadira *Safiatu *Saffiatu *Sallay *Salamatu *Salimatu *Sampa - (Temne) *Sani *Sanni *Sapunka - Unbearable (Limba) *Sarieu *Sawie *Seinya *Selah *Serah - Firstborn daughter (Limba) *Seray *Sia - Gift (Mande) *Siabanda - Firstborn daughter *Sianeh *Simbiwa *Simithi - Saturday-born (Limba) *Sinna *Sira *Tachekor - “Protected child / “Left to be”” (Temne) *Tataigbon - “Untouchable” (Temne) *Tatessa - “Fairest of them all” (Temne) *Tenne - Monday-born (Limba) *Tenneh - Monday-born (Limba) *Tewoh - (Mende) *Thachaikor - “Protected child / “Left to be”” (Temne) *Thaduba - Blessing (Limba) *Thatema - (Limba) *Thathesa - “Fairest of them all” (Temne) *Thathesar - “Fairest of them all” (Temne) *Theneleh *Tilima - “Relying (on..)” (Mende) *Titi - Girl (Krio) *Umu - “Mother / ‘Ummu’” (Arabic) *Unama *Wuzairiatu *Ya - “Mother” (Temne) *Yabom *Yabomporro *Yabu *Yaddah *Yafeh - Peace (Temne) *Yakasu - (Temne) *Yakoiya - (Temne) *Yalie - Advice (Limba) *Yalienatu *Yandora *Yankain - (Limba) *Yanbakie - (Temne) *Yandi - Please (Limba) *Yarimeh - (Limba) *Yatta *Yayo - “Mother” (Temne) *Yayor - “Mother” (Temne) *Yeabu *Yealie *Yealinatu *Yeani - “Mothers” (Temne) *Yeanoh - “Mother” (Temne) *Yeanor - “Mother” (Temne) *Yenor - “Mother” (Temne) *Yietoma *Yoyonthor *Zainab - “Fragrant flower” (Arabic) *Zaria - “Princess / ‘Sarah’” (Hebrew) “Flower / ‘zahr’” (Arabic) *Zariatu - “Princess / ‘Sarah’” (Hebrew) “Flower / ‘zahr’” (Arabic) *Zairiatu - “To bloom / ‘zāra’” (Arabic) ==Boys' names== *Abass *Abdul - “Servant (of)” (Arabic) *Abdullah - “Servant of Allah” (Arabic) *Abdulai - “Servant of Allah / ‘Abdullah’” (Arabic) *Abu - “Father (of)” (Arabic) *Abubakar - “Father of a Young Camel / ‘Abu Bakr’” (Arabic) *Abudu - “Servant of Allah” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Agibu *Aiah - Third-born son born after twins (Temne) *Alasan - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Alhaji - “The Pilgrim / ‘Al-Hajj’” (Arabic) *Ali - High / Exalted / Elevated (Arabic) *Alieu - Strong (Mandinka/Mande) - High (Arabic) *Alikali - King / Chief Judge of Port Loko Territory (Temne) *Almamy - “The Leader / ‘Al-Imam’” (Arabic) *Alimamy - “The Leader / ‘Al-Imam’” (Arabic) *Alpha - “The Jurist / The Scholar / ‘Al-Fariq’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Alusine - “The Handsome / ‘Al-Husayn’” (Arabic) *Amadu - “The One Who Constantly Thanks God / Highly Commendable / ‘Ahmad’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Ampress *Ansumana - "Protector of His Name"/ "One Who Defends His Name” (Mandinka/Mande) *Arun - “High-ranking / Mountain of Strength / ‘Harun’” (Arabic) ‘Aaron’ (Hebrew) *Aruna - “High-ranking / Mountain of Strength / ‘Harun’” (Arabic) ‘Aaron’ (Hebrew) *Arsheke - (Temne) *Arshekeh - (Temne) *Aya - Third-born son born after twins (Temne) *Babah *Badara *Bai - Chief/Strength (Temne) *Bai-Bai - (Temne) *Baika - (Mende) *Baisharu - (Temne) *Bakar - Strong / Firm (Temne) Early Dawn / “Young Camel” ‘Abu Bakr’ (Arabic) *Baksene - ‘To strengthen himself” (Temne) *Balaka - (Sherbro/Bullom) *Bambara - Riverine Flooding, “One who has Force” (Limba) *Banekore - (Temne) *Bangali *Bankolo - “Don’t try it” (Limba) *Barikeh - “Thank You” (Temne) *Barlam *Barome - (Temne) *Benkutay - “Have you seen” (Limba) *Benya *Beyasi - Security (Limba) *Brima - Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) “Father of Many / ‘Ibrahim’” (Arabic) *Bockarie *Boimah *Boineh - Happy (Temne) *Bonyor - Gold (Temne) *Chernoh *Dauda - “Beloved / Dear One / ‘Dawood’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Dausie - “Beloved / Dear One / ‘Dawood’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Ervel *Fayia - Second-born boy (Kissi / Kono) *Fallah *Fatha *Fenthi - Clean / Proper (Temne) *Fino - Pretty (Temne) *Finnoh - Pretty (Temne) *Foday - “Heart / Conscious / ‘Fuad’” (Arabic) *Gbassay *Gbegima - “Leave this one” (Mende) *Gbemute - (Temne) *Gassimu *Hachim - “Born in temporary separation” (Temne) *Hassan - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Hassana - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Ibra - “Father of Many” (Arabic) *Ibrahim - “Father of Many” (Arabic) *Ibrahima - “Father of Many” (Arabic) *Idris - “Studious / Smart” (Arabic) *Idrissa - “Studious / Smart” (Arabic) *Ishmael *Jaiwal *Jami *Jaruga *Jibao - “Save this / Let this be well” (Mende) *Juma - Friday-born *Juldeh *Jusu *Kabane - Wonderful / Astonishing / Extraordinary (Temne) *Kabba *Kafo - Afternoon-born child (Mende) *Kai - Chief/Elder (Temne) - Man (Vai) *Kaifala *Kaima *Kaisamba *Kaloko *Kalom - Straightforward (Temne) *Kalomp - Straightforward (Temne) *Kambi *Kandeh *Kanneh *Kanuwally - “God, I thank you” (Limba) *Kapindi - Night-born child (Mende) *Karamoh *Karandi - Teacher / Scholar (Temne) *Karefa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Karifa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Kassim - “One Who Distributes” (Arabic) *Kassimu - “One Who Distributes” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Kaskami - “My Father” (Temne) *Kaskasu - “Our Father” (Temne) *Kehwalleh *Kei *Kelfa - Captain / Hero (Temne) “The One Who Pays” (Mandinka/Mande) *Kelfala *Kelefa - “The One Who Pays” (Mandinka/Mande) *Kemoh *Kemokai - “Man from Kemo” (Vai/Mandinka/Mande) *Kemokoh *Kenie *Kewullay *Komba *Komrabai - “Chief/Elder of our territory” (Temne) *Kohuneh - Joy / Happiness (Mende) *Koray *Kowa *Koyie *Koyon - Rain (Limba) *Kpana - Chief (Sherbro/Bullom) *Kuruuba - Hero (Temne) *Kuruugba - Hero (Temne) *Kusan *Lamin - “Trustworthy / Faithful / ‘Al-Amin’” (Arabic) *Lamie - “Trustworthy / Faithful / ‘Al-Amin’” (Arabic) *Lansana - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Luba - Blessing (Mende) *Mahai *Mai *Mahmadu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Majajieu *Maju *Makari *Makoo *Malakai - “My Messenger / My Angel / ‘Malaki’” (Hebrew) *Maliki - “King / Sovereign / ‘Malik’” (Arabic) *Mamadu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Mamudu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Mamo - “Thank You” (Temne) *Marwan *Mayon - First born (Limba) *Melleh *Minkailu *Mohamed - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Momodu - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic) *Momoh - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic - Mano River Basin Localised) *Morlai *Morlay *Mourie *Mukeh - “Our Father” (Mende) *Muliima - “Relying (on..)” (Mende) *Muloma - “Harmony” (Mende) *Muluku *Munda - “Our own” (Mende) *Musa - “Saved from the Water” (Arabic) ‘Moses’ (Hebrew) *Mustapha - “The Chosen One / ‘Mustafa’” (Arabic) *Nabie *Najee *Nbalie *Ndawa *Ndeleiva - “Let Peace Prevail” (Mende) *Nomolie - Stone Chief Figure Sculpture (Sherbro/Bullom) *Obrahim - “Father of Many / ‘Ibrahim’” (Arabic) *Okaskasu - “Our Father” (Temne) *Olobi *Osaio *Osman - Baby bustard desert bird; wisdom, strength, leadership / ‘Uthman’ (Arabic, cultural symbol) *Ousman - Baby bustard desert bird; wisdom, strength, leadership / ‘Uthman’ (Arabic, cultural symbol) *Oyola - “The Rich Man” (Temne) *Pilleh *Saa - First-born son *Saah - First-born son *Sadiq - “Truthful One / Sincere / ‘Siddiq’” (Arabic) *Sahr - First-born son *Said - “Fortunate / Blessed” (Arabic) *Saidu - “Fortunate / Blessed” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Sajalieu *Salfu - “Righteous / Pious / ‘Salih’” (Arabic) *Salieu - “Righteous / Pious / ‘Salih’” (Arabic) *Sallieu - “Righteous / Pious / ‘Salih’” (Arabic) *Samba *Sampa - (Temne) *Sampay *Sana *Sandima - Sunday-born (Mende) *Santigie *Sara *Sarjoh *Sarway *Segepoh *Sei *Sembeh - Strength (Limba) *Senesie *Senie *Seno - Arrow (Temne) *Sento *Serry *Sesay *Sheaka *Shekhu - “Chieftain / Religious Leader / ‘Sheikh’” (Arabic) *Sheikhu - “Chieftain / Religious Leader / ‘Sheikh’” (Arabic) *Sheriff - “Noble / Honorable / ‘Sharif’” (Arabic) *Siafa *Siaka *Sidi - “Truthful One / Sincere / ‘Siddiq’” (Arabic) *Sidiki - “Truthful One / Sincere / ‘Siddiq’” (Arabic) *Sidiq - “Truthful One / Sincere” (Arabic) *Sonsiama *Soragatta *Soriba *Sorie *Sulay - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Suley - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Sulaiman - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Suleiman - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Suleyman - “Man of Peace” (Arabic) *Sundiata - “Lion Prince” (Mande/Mandinka) *Sundima - Sunday-born (Mende) *Taiwo - “First Twin to Taste the World” (Yoruba) *Takothor *Tamarane - “Helper / Let Us Help” (Temne) *Tamba - Second-born son born after twins (Temne) *Tarasid *Taypineh - (Temne) *Tejan - Crown / royal headband / ‘Tijan’ (Arabic) *Thaduba - Blessing (Limba) *Thaimu - (Temne) *Thamba - Second-born son born after twins (Temne) *Thasneh - “Too much” (Temne) *Thegeka - “Mindful to their own” (Limba) *Thoyenkeh - (Temne) *Tokumboh *Umar - “Flourishing / Long-Lived / ‘Omar’” (Arabic) *Umaru - “Flourishing / Long-Lived / ‘Omar’” (Arabic) *Unisa *Usman - Baby bustard desert bird; wisdom, strength, leadership / ‘Uthman’ (Arabic, cultural symbol) *Wesseh *Wogba *Yahya *Yakub - “One Who Follows / Supplanter” (Arabic) ‘Jacob’ (Hebrew) *Yakuba - “One Who Follows / Supplanter / ‘Yakub’” (Arabic) ‘Jacob’ (Hebrew) *Yamba *Yarimeh - (Limba) ==Surnames== *Abdulai - “Servant of Allah / ‘Abdullah’” (Arabic) *Alieu - Strong (Mandinka/Mande) - High (Arabic) *Allieu - Strong (Mandinka/Mande) - High (Arabic) *Amara *Ansumana - "Protector of His Name"/ "One Who Defends His Name” (Mandinka/Mande) *Badoe *Bah *Bai - Chief / Strength (Temne) *Baion *Baken *Bakarr - Early Dawn / “Young Camel” ‘Abu Bakr’ - Arabic *Balde *Bangura *Banorah *Banya *Banyah *Barrie *Bassie *Baryoh *Bayoh *Bawoh *Beah *Bendu *Bengeh *Benya *Bio *Bockarie *Boima *Bongor *Bonghor *Brewah *Brima - Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) “Father of Many / ‘Ibrahim’” (Arabic) *Bundu *Carew *Caulker - A tradesperson who sealed seams in ships, barrels, or structures using materials like oakum or pitch to make them watertight (English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Challey *Cocker - Fighter / Wrangler (Middle English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Coker - Fighter / Wrangler (Middle English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Conteh *Corker - A tradesperson who sealed seams in ships, barrels, or structures using materials like oakum or pitch to make them watertight (English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Daboe *Daboh *Dabundeh *Dambeli *Dambelly *Daramy *Darboe *Dauda - “Beloved / Dear One / ‘Dawood’” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Deen *Donkoh *Dukureh *Dumbuya *Entochema *Fasuluku *Fayombo *Fidawi *Foday - “Heart / Conscious / ‘Fuad’” (Arabic) *Fofana *Fofanah *Foh *Fomah *Fomba *Foray *Fornah *Funah *Funna *Gaba *Gaima *Ganda *Gassama *Gassimu *Gbaewoh *Gbamanja *Gbemeh *Gbla *Gblah *Gbondo *Gborie *Ghanghay *Gevao *Giawo *Gwary *Hariru *Ibemessie *Jabati *Jabbie *Jadama *Jah *Jajua *Jalloh *Jambawai *Jamboria *Jammeh *Janneh *Jarsey *Jawara *Jaward - “Open-handed / Generous / ‘Jawad’” (Arabic) *Jebbeh *Jinkang *Jobarteh *Joko *Jones - son of John (English) *common amongst the Krio *Juana *Jusu *Kabba *Kabbah *Kabia *Kaikai *Kailie *Kaingbanja *Kaisamba *Kakay *Kallay *Kallon *Kalokoh *Kamanda *Kamano *Kamanno *Kamara - “Protecting Village / Home” (Soninke) *Kanagborro *Kandeh *Kanneh *Kanu *Kanuteh *Kanuwally - “God, I thank you” (Limba) *Karefa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Karew *Karifa - “Successor / Holy One / ‘Khalifa’”(Arabic) Second-born son (Mandinka/Mande) *Kargbo *Karimu *Katta *Kawa *Kebbie *Keita *Kellie *Khia *Kindi *Koedoyoma *Koita *Koker - Fighter / Wrangler (Middle English) *common amongst the Krio *Kolleh *Komai *Komagutu *Komba *Konateh *Kondewa *Kondeh *Koneh *Kongobah *Kongobay *Konneh *Konomanyi *Konteh *Konuwa *Koroma *Kortu *Kowa *Kpaka *Kurubally *Kutubu *Kuyateh *Kuyembeh *Lahai *Lamin - “Trustworthy / Faithful / ‘Al-Amin’” (Arabic) *Lansana - “The Virtuous / The Good / ‘Al-Hassan’” (Arabic) *Lavalie - (Mende) *Lebbie *Lewally *Lukulay *Lungay *Lunsar - “Lion’s town” “Place of stones” (Temne - Town in the Northern Province) *Luseni *MacCarthy - “son of Cárthach" "loving/beloved” (Irish / Gaelic) *common amongst the Krio *MacFoy - “Son of the Potter” (Scottish / Gaelic) *common amongst the Krio *Magona *Makaya *Maligie *Mallah *Maloma *Mani - (Kono / Kissi) *Manjang *Mankobo *Manneh *Mansaray *Mara - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Marah - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Margai *Marrah - “To Protect” (Soninke) *Massally *Massaquoi - “Chief / Ruler” (Vai) *Mattia *Matturie *Mayeh *Mbayo *Minah *Minteh *Moinina *Momoh - “Praiseworthy / Commendable / ‘Muhammad’” (Arabic - Mano River Basin Localised) *Momokani *Mohai *Moriba *Morong *Moseray *Munu *Musa - “Saved from the Water” (Arabic) ‘Moses’ (Hebrew) *Ndulu *Ngegba *Ngekia *Ngobeh *Njai *Nyuma *Nyumah *Ordulsay *Palloh *Panneh *Pessima *Quee *Saboleh *Saccoh *Saffa *Saibureh *Saidu - “Fortunate / Blessed” (Arabic - West African Localised) *Salisu *Sall *Sama *Samah *Samai *Samba *Sambo *Samura *Samurah *Sandi *Sankarah *Sankareh *Sankoh - “Strong” (Temne) *Sannoh *Sanu - (Limba) *Sanusi *Sanyang *Sawaneh *Sawyerr - “One Who Saws Wood / Woodcutter” (English) *common amongst the Krio *Sedibeh *Seibureh *Sekoh *Sellu *Sembu *Senesie *Sengeh *Sengulay *Sesay *Sheriff - “Noble / Honorable / ‘Sharif’” (Arabic) *Siaffa *Sidibay *Sidibeh *Sidibey *Sillah *Sinneh *Sogbo *Sonko *Sorie *Sourie *Sow *Sowa *Suluku - Wolf / Hyena (Mande/Mandinka) *Suma *Sumailah *Sumana *Suso *Swaray *Swarray *Tajawie *Tamba - Second-born son born after twins *Tarawali *Tarawalie *Tarawallie *Tarawally *Taylor - Cutter of cloth / ‘Tailor’ (English / French) *common amongst the Krio *Teambo *Tejan - Crown / royal headband / ‘Tijan’ (Arabic) *Tengbeh *Tholley *Thoronka *Thullah *Timbo *Tongi *Tonkara *Torto *Tucker - Softener of cloth (English) *common amongst the Krio and Sherbro *Tugbay *Tugbawa *Tumbu *Tumoe *Tunkara *Turay *Vandi *Vandy *Vonjo *Vonjoe *Wariteh *Williams - son of William (English) *common amongst the Krio *Woneh *Wongbo *Woobay *Wulladeh *Wurie *Yakawa *Yambasu *Yancy *Yanka *Yansaneh *Yansanneh *Yavanah *Yavannah *Yiraia *Yokie *{{BookCat}} 7h6qxacy30iz443nvjh2ruauls0y6mh 0 375579 4671935 4191407 2026-09-23T09:55:42Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671935 wikitext text/x-wiki This is an analysis of the journal article " 'Physical education makes you fit and healthy'. Physical education's contribution to young peoples physical activity levels" by Fairclough & Stratton (2004)<ref name="Fair">Fairclough, S., & Stratton, G. (2004) 'Physical education makes you fit and healthy'. Physical education's contribution to young peoples physical activity levels. Health Education Research, 20(1), 14-23. DOI: 10.1093/her/cyg101</ref> == What is the background to this research? == It is understood that a physically active lifestyle promotes health and decreases the chances of developing diseases associated with physical inactivity such as obesity, coronary heart disease, diabetes and depression to name a few.<ref name="ridgers2"/> In children, it has been observed that those who are more physically active achieve higher academic achievements, cooperate better with their peers and experience better psychological functioning.<ref>Trudeau, F., & Shephard, R. (2008) Physical education, school physical activity, school sports and academic performance. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, (5)10. DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-5-10</ref> Additionally, study's suggest that an active lifestyle in childhood decreases health risks later on in life.<ref>Rey-Lopez, J., Vicente-Rodriguez, G., Biosca, M., & Moreno, L. (2008) Sedentary behaviour and obesity development in children and adolescents. Nutrition, Metabolism & Cardiovascular Diseases, (18), 242-251. DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2007.07.008</ref><ref>Tremblay, M., LeBlanc, A., Kho, M., Saunders, T., Larouche, R., Colley, R., Goldfield, G., & Gorber, S. (2011) Systematic review of sedentary behaviour and health indicators in school-aged children and youth. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical activity, (8)98. DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-8-98</ref> Australian Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviour Guidelines recommend that youth aged 13–17 years should participate in at least an hour of moderate to vigorous physical activity daily.<ref>Australian Government. Department of Health. (2014). Fact Sheet. Young People (13-17 years) [Brochure]. Retrieved from: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-phys-act-guidelines/$File/FS-YPeople-13-17-Years.PDF</ref><ref>Australian Government. Department of Health (2015). Make your move - sit less. Be active for life! [Brochure]. Retrieved from: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/F01F92328EDADA5BCA257BF0001E720D/$File/brochure%20PA%20Guidelines_A5_13-17yrs.PDF</ref> The school physical education curricula strives to engage students in physical activity with the hopes of making kids more fit and healthy<ref name="Fair"/> as well as the promotion of regular participation in physical activity throughout their life.<ref name="stratton"/> This study explored the type of activity and intensity at which students were engaging in PE classes and assessed whether classes were fulfilling guideline requirements. The aims a Fairclough & Stratton were to investigate whether PE had a sufficient effect on children's health and well being. == Where is the research from? == Authors: * Fairclough: REACH (Research into Exercise, Activity and Children's Health) Group, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK & School of Physical Education, Sport and Dance, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK * Stratton: REACH (Research into Exercise, Activity and Children's Health) Group, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK & Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK Each respected author has contributed work to numerous research articles<ref name="ridgers2">Ridgers, N., Stratton, G., & Fairclough, S. (2006) Physical activity levels of children during school playtime. Sports Medicine, 36(4), 359-371</ref><ref name="ridgers">Ridgers, N., Stratton, G., Fairclough, S., & Twisk, J. (2007) Children's physical activity levels during school recess: a quasi-experimental intervention study. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 4(19), 1-9. DOI: 10.1186/1479-5868-4-19</ref><ref>Ridgers, N., Stratton, G., & Fairclough, S. (2005) Assessing physical activity during recess using accelerometry. Preventative Medicine, 41, 102-107. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.10.023</ref> relating to physical education in schools and its effects on child physical activity and health, published in respected journals such as The International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity and The Journal of Preventable Medicine to name a few. The following study received ethical approval from the Liverpool John Moores Research Degrees Ethics Committee.<ref name="Fair"/> Data was collected in the Merseyside area of North-West England. == What kind of research was this? == This research used stage sampling in order to obtain data. This method insured that the sample group used in the study was a random sample of mixed genders, PE classes, ages and fitness ability. This way, the objective of the study (to assess physical activity levels during high school physical education lessons) was explored without bias. == What did the research involve? == 122 students (62 male, 60 females) from 5 state high schools in years 7, 8 and 9 were randomly selected to take part. The students attended 2 weekly PE classes in single sex groups over a 12 week period and participated in a variety of group and individual activities. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Activities!! Examples |- | Team games || Football, hockey and softball |- | Individual games || Badminton, tennis and table tennis |- | Movement activities || Dance and gymnastics |- | Individual activities || Athletics, fitness and swimming |- |} The study involved monitoring individuals heart rates during PE sessions using short-range telemetry. Short-range telemetry is a system that traces physiological strain on the cardiovascular system and is a means understanding and interpreting frequency, duration and intensity of physical activity.<ref name="Fair"/> It is a highly valid and reliable way to measure young peoples physical activity and has therefore been utilized extensively in many PE settings.<ref name="Fair"/> Fairclough and Stratton calculated each subjects resting and maximum heart rate in order to assess what type of intensity each student would be working at during PE sessions. 50% between resting and maximum heart rate was considered moderate intensity and was the foreground for the decision on whether PE sessions proved to provide beneficial health benefits to students. === Limitations=== Limitations as understood by the authors highlighted that it was their intention to assess equal numbers of students during lessons in each four PE activity categories. Although this aim was unable to be met, due to school timetable restrictions and student absences. As a result, the number of boys and girls assessed in the different activities were not equal, which as a result could potentially make the findings less reliable. == What were the basic results? == Fairclough & Stratton found that the average duration of a PE class was 50.6 minutes. Within these classes they recorded moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and vigorous physical activity (VPA). Findings were as follows: MVPA experienced during PE: * 17.5 minutes per class on average * 18.9 minutes, male classes * 16.1 minutes, female classes VPA * 3.9 minutes per class on average * Males engaged in VPA more than females * 4% difference between the sexes Furthermore, the most MVPA was during team games and students participating in movement activities engaged in the least MVPA.<ref name="Fair"/> A limitation was that there was a significant variance in data collected with high standard variations. This could be attributed to the different learning objectives in individual PE classes, environment and different teaching styles.<ref name="Fair"/> === How did the researchers interpret the results === The researchers interpretation of the results was that "students only take part in health-enhancing activities for one-third of the recommended target"<ref name="Fair"/> and that the limited frequency of PE classes in the school curricula and length of classes did not allow students to participate in sufficient MVPA or VPA.<ref name="Fair"/> Furthermore, the limited duration of MVPA and VPA in classes did not allow for gains in cardiovascular fitness. In relation to males engaging in higher levels of MVPA and VPA, Fairclough & Stratton suggested that this was due to a combination of factors including different class structure and PE curricular for the sexes and different motivation and perception levels around PE.<ref name="Fair"/> In addition, it was stated that team games and individual activities promoted higher intensity activity, although while not contributing to cardiovascular fitness, movement activities incorperated flexibility, muscle strength and endurance training that was also fundamental in the PE curriculum.<ref name="Fair"/> Fairclough & Stratton concluded "PE may make a more significant contribution to young peoples regular physical activity partcipation if lessons are planned with MVPA goals in mind".<ref name="Fair"/> == What conclusions can we take from this research? == Physical education in schools provide time for students to be physically active and develop positive, active lifestyle behaviors.<ref name="stratton">Fairclough, S., Stratton, G., & Baldwin, G. (2002) The contribution of secondary school physical education to lifetime physical activity. European Physical Education, 8(1), 69-84. DOI: 10.1177/1356336X020081005</ref><ref name="2year">Sallis, J., McKenzie, T., Alcaraz, J., Kolody, B., Faucette, N., & Hovell, F. (1997) The effects of a 2 year physical education program (SPARK) on physical activity and fitness in elementary school student. American Journal of Public Health, 87(8), 1328-1334.</ref> It is obvious however, that the curricular time allocated towards physical education in schools is not meeting child physical activity guidelines<ref name="ridgers2"/><ref name="ridgers"/><ref name="2year"/> especially when it comes to high intensity activities. Although school is considered to be an ideal setting for intervention programs that aim to promote physical activity to benefit health,<ref name="ridgers2"/> children spend most of their physical activity outside of school.<ref>McKenzie, T., Marshall, S., Sallis, J., & Conway, T. (2000). Leisure-time physical activity in school environments: an observational study using SOPLAY. Preventative Medicine, 30, 70-77. DOI: 10.1006/pmed.1999.0591</ref> It is also apparent from this research that PE lessons should be more appropriately organised in order to target health guidelines for students<ref name="Fair"/> and should be developed in a way that incorporates maximum time spent doing high intensity activities. == What are the implications of this research? == This research has shown that although physical education provides a time for students to engage in physical activity, parents and their children should not rely on PE as a satisfactory means of activity because recommendations can not be met through PE alone. Furthermore, heads of PE in schools need to understand physical activity guidelines and modify curricula and classes in order to maximize time spent engaged in high intensity cardiovascular exercise to benefit students health. == Further information and resources == For further information on the benefits and guidelines of physical activity in youth, click on the links below: * Australia's Physical Activity and Sedentary Behsviour Guidelines, Young People: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/health-pubhlth-strateg-phys-act-guidelines/$File/FS-YPeople-13-17-Years.PDF * The Department of Health, Physical Activity: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/phy-activity * Make your move - sit less. Be active for life!: http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/F01F92328EDADA5BCA257BF0001E720D/$File/brochure%20PA%20Guidelines_A5_13-17yrs.PDF * Make a Difference at Your School: http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/keystrategies/pdf/make-a-difference.pdf == References == {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} tpccdudmfr95lyn25v1pjuo8mzhcbhd 0 416001 4671769 4671754 2026-09-22T12:16:47Z WereSpielChequers 248949 c/e 4671769 wikitext text/x-wiki {{incomplete}} {{TOC right|limit=3}} ==P.03 - Contents Banner== '''The Australasian Radio World''' Incorporating the '''All-Wave All-World DX News''' Vol. 5. - JULY, 1940 - No. 2. ==P.03 - Contents== '''CONTENTS:''' '''CONSTRUCTIONAL —''' "Tip-Top Three-Four Superhet" . . . . 5 Standard A.C. Power Unit . . . . 19 Two Novel Circuits From America . . . . 25 '''GENERAL TECHNICAL —''' Battery Chargers . . . . 11 Using An R.F. Oscillator . . . . 15 Rola Introduces "Kappa" Cones . . . . 35 '''AMPLIFIER SECTION —''' Amplifier Championship . . . . 22 '''SHORT-WAVE SECTION —''' Review . . . . 28 The Month's Loggings . . . . 30 '''JUNIOR TECHNICAL —''' Hints and Tips . . . . 37 Building a Galvanometer . . . . 38 '''TRADE NOTES —''' W . G. Watson Release 1940 Test Equipment . . . . 40 Meter Repairs . . . . 40 Free Resistor De-coder . . . . 40 Bargain Lines at Murdock's Radio Sale . . . . 42 '''SPEEDY QUERY SERVICE —''' Answers to Readers' Problems . . . . 41 ==P.03 - Publication Notes== The "Australasian Radio World" is published monthly by '''A. G. Hull.''' Editorial offices, 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W. Telephone FL2842. Cable address: "Repress," Sydney. Advertisers please note that copy should reach office of publication by 14th of month preceding that specified for insertion. Subscription rates: 1/- per copy, 10/6 per year (12 issues) post free to Australia and New Zealand. Printed by Bridge Printery Pty. Ltd., 117 Reservoir Street, Sydney, N.S.W., for the proprietors of the "Australasian Radio World," 117 Reservoir St., Sydney (Footnote P.40) ==P.03 - Our Front Cover== '''OUR FRONT COVER''' On June 6 His Excellency the Governor, accompanied by Lady Wakehurst and attended by Mr. Peter Lubbock, made a tour of inspection of the S.T.C. Sydney factory. In the picture (from left to right) are: Mr. R. S. Beckwith (S.T.C. director), Mr. Peter Lubbock, Mr. H. C. Trenam (managing director of the S.T.C.), Lady Wakehurst, His Excellency the Governor, and Mr. S. D. McPhee (S.T.C. works manager) are seen watching the assembly of condenser gangs for S.T.C. Radio Receivers. ==P.04 - Editorial== '''EDITORIAL . . .''' Life has been brighter this month. The office has assumed a new air of happiness. The reason — our new mantel model, "Tip Top", has been playing in the office, as you'll notice by the photograph at the top of the opposite page. We've heard a lot about the need for auxiliary receivers in the home, and we've always made a point of having two or three sets available. But we never thought that one could prove such a boon in the office. With extraordinary performance, considering its simplicity and I cost, "Tip Top" has been providing a background of soft music which has changed the whole atmosphere of the working day. It makes us feel sure that this little set is bound to find favour with our readers, too. You'll be bound to find a good use for it. Not so bright, however, is the paper position. Every month it becomes harder and harder to obtain supplies of the kind of smooth-finish paper which we have used in the past, and, of course, costs have risen considerably. We feel sure that our readers appreciate decent paper and clean printing, so our problem at the moment is to know how to give you all you want without using too much paper. The solution rests with you. If you can spare a moment we'd greatly appreciate it if you will give us an idea of what type of reading matter suits you best. For example, there is the short-wave section. In one way it is difficult to justify its inclusion in a paper with a policy of "100% Technical Radio", and yet we feel that it is the most accurate and authentic guide of its kind, and that it serves a valuable purpose to the keen radio man. Do you appreciate it, or would you rather have more articles about battery set design? Let us know how you feel about such matters and we'll do what we can to fulfil your requirements. In conclusion we would like to again draw your attention to the Amplifier Championship. This contest is proving a wonderful success in spite of the difficult times through which we are passing. Our greatest care in regard to the Amplifier Championship is that there must be many readers who would find the auditions of boundless interest, yet have not managed to find sufficient energy to fill in the application form for a seat reservation. Of course many have done so, and already more than a hundred have been along to the first three heats, but there must be hundreds more who don't know what they are missing. Action is called for. '''A. G. HULL''' ==P.05 - Constructional - "Tip-Top Three-Four Superhet"== ==P.11 - General Technical - Battery Chargers== ==P.15 - General Technical - Using An R.F. Oscillator== ==P.19 - Constructional - Standard A .C. Power Unit== ==P.22 - Amplifier Section - Amplifier Championship== ==P.25 - Constructional - Two Novel Circuits From America== ==P.28 - Shortwave Section - Review== '''Shortwave Review.''' D aylight Reception a t its Best ★ Stations in Frequency Order 4- Stations in “ Countries” Form ★ Australian Mail at Fadio Saigon * N. I. R. O. M. will Q. S. L. ★ Full List of Month’s Loggings ONDITIONS over the last month can only be described in the one word, “patchy.” The unusually warm weather experienced during the week-end of June 15 upset reception, as stations generally putting in a fine signal from 6 a.m. to 9 a.m., were very, very poor. However, when we have a thunderstorm in the middle of winter, I guess the short waves figure they have a right to play up. '''Daylight Reception Now At Its Best.''' But we can’t complain; daylight reception is now at its best and with the short period of "dead spot" from about 11 a.m. till 1 p.m. and sometimes not as long as this, the principal cities can be heard at terrific strength, and, what is more important, with almost incredible clarity, right throughout the day. From 6 p.m. till 9.30 p.m., with: the'exception of stations north of Australia, there is a lull, but quite often at this hour T.nid'm and Europe commence to trickle through. '''Choice of Stations.''' As the night wears on, and definitely by midnight, the choice of stations is very great. / Listeners at present have a good opportunity of hearing the Cubans and South Americans, as from just after mid-day till closing, which varies from 2 to 4 p.m., they are excelling themselves. Reference to observers’ and listeners’ reports will give a good idea of just what is coming through. It has been decided to print most, all if space permits, reports that are received, rather than have readers wade through a list of countries to find out just what stations are being heard. '''Stations in Frequency Order.''' We will also print each alternate month a list of stations in frequency order. This should enable a listener to look up at once any station he is hearing and of which he is doubtful. The list referred to commences with August issue. '''Stations in "Countries" Form.''' September issue will carry the stations in “Countries” form. I would appreciate opinions as to how the new system appeals. Since I have been conducting these pages, I have been compelled to chronicle the loss of some of our wellknown and regular transmitters. Unfortunately there are still more to be added to the already formidable list. This month records “Paris Mondial.” Admittedly, we still hear “This is Paris Mondial, the French Government Short Wave Station,” but is it? I venture to suggest that when I heard them on Saturday, June 15, at 2.15 p.m. on 31.51 metres, it was NOT our usual announcer, and am inclined to believe the speaker was NOT a Frenchman. I have heard London say on several occasions, "A Paris radio message says------but this most likely refers to a broadcast band. I do not know whether Berlin has reduced their power of a night, but lately London is heard much earlier, whereas the reverse was the rule, at my location anyway. Call sign of Moscow station on ll,900kc., 25.21m., is RIG. Radio Saigon puts over a Letter Bag session every Tuesday at 8.55 p.m. '''Radio Saigon Gets Mail from Australia.''' Judging by names and addresses called last Tuesday, their mail from Australia and New Zealand is of fair proportions. Talking of letters bags, TAP, Ankara (9465kc., 31.70m.), acknowledges letters from listeners on Sunday mornings, following their English talk at 6.50. As is usual in winter time, WBOS (31.35m.) are responsible for the hum that is heard on KZRM (31.35m.) from 8.30 p.m. onwards. '''N.I.R.O.M. Will QSL.''' N.I.R.O.M., Batavia, now send a QSL card in addition to a station booklet when verifying correct reports. JZK, Tokyo (15,160kc., 19.79m.), in addition to a special session for Hawaii in English and Japanese from 5 to 6 p.m., also conduct a special hour for the Near East from 1 a.m. to 2 a.m. English, Arabic, Hindustan, Burmese and Japanese are used. '''Java.''' The N.I.R.O.M. (Batavia) seem to be on the air much longer than as previously. In fact, I was told that several of their transmitters are continuously on the air. We have a more than ordinary interest in the Dutch East Indies at present, and I do wish that one of their many news sessions could be put over in English. If you want to hear a signal tune to YD A (61.22rn.) from 9 o’clock onwards. Mr. S. I. Nelson (Cairns, Q.) advises that TAQ, Ankara (19.74m.), is back on the air again and gives news in English at 10.15 p.m. Perhaps this is the reason for the hum on top of DJB at 10 o’clock. '''Verification Received.''' I have received a very dignified QSL card (black script on pink cardboard) from KZRC, “The Voice of Cebu,” “Cebu City, Philippines. It is a verification of my report of March 27. The owners are H. E. Heacock Co., and the card is signed by our old friend, Harry Fenton, as manager. Mr. Fenton will be remembered as the news commentator some time ago on KZRM. Station particulars are: 6100kc., 49.18m., 1000 watts, also long wave (1200kc.), 1000 watts. No time schedule is given, but I understand it to be: 2 p.m. to 3 p.m., 7 p.m. to 1 a.m. '''Hints On Sending For Verifications.''' When sending reports to foreign countries, it is well to spell the date out, as, say for example, May 1st. If written as 1/5/40, it would be taken in some countries, particularly America, as January 5, ’40. '''Hams.''' Although American amateurs are forbidden to "talk" to foreign stations, there appears to be plenty on the air that can still be heard. Here is a "bag" from '''Dr. Gaden''': 10 metres: W6- DGE, RDI, PKT, GOQ, SIM, DLW, QLD; W5BB; W7- GMB, W4HRF, K6SHZ, K6TCF. 20 metres: Plenty of W’s, IvA’s and K6’s — too common to list. C02GY, frequently heard, as also KF6JET, KF6JG, K4GMT, K7GMM, KC6HFS (gave 14,330kc.), ..KC6GK (gave 14,325kc.) KC60KS, KG6MU, KG6- PMV. Listeners will see there is quite a lot of sport to be had from the above loggings, as they cover a very wide range and take in a fair amount of territory that is in the limelight at the moment, such as Canton Is., Baker, Howland and Enderburv Is. Jarvis Is. (KG6) is also listed. Dr. Gaden regrets that, his knowledge of Spanish prevented him from deciphering a very strong signal in a talk between a K4 and a “ham” in Buenos Aires. The K4 was R Max.. Q5, and the B.A. R6, Q5. The Empire A .C. All-wave Three. Tunes continuously from 12.5 to 600 metres. Full description in issue of Dec., 1937. '''A New Cuban.''' Inadvertently, the following par was omitted from last issue:— COCSD, 11.75mc., 25.92m., Havana: 10.30 a.m. to 2.30 p.m. Reported by '''Dr. Gaden''' as weak on opening, but at good strength when closing. Receiving advice from U.S.A. on this new station, I mentioned it in a letter to Dr. Gaden, and sure enough he logged it. The station promised that those sending reports which were verified would be rewarded by view cards and booklets. Address: Senor Batista, P.O. 625. In reporting it, Dr. Gaden said he heard some remarks about call sign COK. The explanation, according to an American mail just to hand, is that they were operating first under the call sign COCSD, but latterly under COK. It is quite probable the station is now off the air, as it was used for the elections. ===The Jones' Super-Gainer Two=== (Start Photo Caption) The Jones' Super-Gainer Two, a two-valve shortwave superhet, using a 6F7 and a 79. Full details will be found in July, 1937, issue of "Radio World." Obtainable from this office, price 6d. (End Photo Caption) ==P.30 - Shortwave Section - The Month's Loggings== The Month’s Loggings ALL TIMES ARE AUSTRALIAN EASTERN STANARD. Official Observer '''Arthur T. Cushen''' (Invercargill, N.Z.) writes:— '''HCJB Ecuador''' (24.08m.), proud of their new 10,000 watt transmitter, have forwarded a souvenir booklet. They are most anxious for reports from Australia. '''YSP El Salvador''' (10,400 kc., 28.85 m.) is being heard well all over N.Z. around 3 p.m. Signals at times are very good. '''HP5A''' heard closing with good signals at 2 p.m. '''COK Havana''' (11.6mc., 25.92m.) a new station, was heard last month at good signal strength, but, owing to bad modulation and interference has only been identified as the call was hard to p«ck. The address is Box 625, Havana. All verified reports will be acknowledged by free coloured photos of Cuba. (See special note elsewhere.— Ed .). Although signals are weaker, '''COHI''' (6.46mc.) is still being heard at 10.30 p.m. '''CFRX''' (6.07mc., 49.42m.) was heard on one occasion closing at 2.30 p.m. Station is in Toronto, Canada, and is operated by the Rodger Radio Corp. Reports are asked for and they will QSL with a beautiful postcard. '''CJRO''' (6.147mc., 48.78m.), Winnipeg, can be heard with irregular signals closing at 4.30 p.m. '''WLWO''' (25.27m.) and '''WCAB''' (49.50m.) are both very good. '''Radio Maroc III.''' logged at 6.30 a.m. with fair signal. '''CNP Casablanca''' (34.13m ) can also be heard with fair signals around 6.30 p.m. '''FFZ Shanghai''' (24.83m.), good but lot of interference. '''TAP Ankara''' (31.70m ), very good at 7.10 a.m. on Sundays in Letter Bag session. '''EQC Iran''' (30.99m.) can be heard around 1 a.m., but is interfered with by '''VLQ-5'''. '''YUA Belgrade''' (49.18m.), fair signals in English at 7.30 a.m. '''"Radio Experimental," Bucharest, Rumania''' (32.46m.) heard with weak signals at 6 a.m. '''"British" Freedom Station''' (on 11.96mc., 25.13m.) at 6.30 a.m. Signal good. This can be heard again at 7.30.— Ed.). '''STOP PRESS''' '''KGEI''', Treasure Island, San Francisco, is now on 9670kc., 31.02m., from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. and 10 p.m. to 3 a.m., but from 9.30 a.m. to 2.15 p.m. on 15,330kc., 19.56m., as usual. Re '''Mozambique'''. A letter to hand states they have changed to 30.88m., the station being CR7BE, which was on 9.64mc., and was then badly interfered with. The change was made on March 25. They ask for reports. Official Observer '''W. M. Chapman''' (Sydney) sends along a list of his loggings, together with comments:— 13 metres: Very little value. 16 metres: TPB faint; others poor. 19 metres: GSF good forenoon and afternoon. GSI good early evening and a.m . WGEA fa ir a.m . and p.m. KGEI good early afternoon. OAX4R fair after 7 a.m . Sunday 2R06 good signal a.m . and afternoon. 2R014 good p.m. RV96 quite a strong signal 1 p.m. 20 metres: Station on 20.58m . May be German oi* French. French spoken in early forenoon. 24 metres: HCJB still going strong, p.m. 25 metres: GSD strong afternoon and a.m. GSE fa ir a.m . W RUL still good a.m . W PIT fair a.m . WCBX fair a.m . Radio Saigon strong p.m . RNE strong 7 a.m . HP5A good 10 p.m. PRF5 Brazil, good 8.30 a.m . Sunday. CB1180 fair 9.30 p.m. VUD-4 strong p.m. M TCY fiair a.m . JZJ fair a.m . and p.m. JVW -3 good p.m. XGOY good p.m. XMHA fair p.m. 2R04 strong a.m . IQY strong a.m . Radio Maroc strong 7 a.m . 27 metres: PLP fair p.m. CSW-5 good a.m . early. 29 metres: PMN fair p.m. 30 metres: TGWA fair Sunday afternoons. ZHP good p.m. JIE-3 fa ir late p.m. CR7BE fa ir a.m . 31 metres: GSB good a.m . and afternoon. GSC very good a.m . KGEI good afternoon. TIPG good 10 p.m. KZRM good p.m ., but some nterference. (Probably WBOS.— E d .). KZRH very good p.m. ZBW only fa ir p.m. VUD-2 strong p.m. 2R03 good a.m . and afternoons. 2R09 good a.m . TAP good a.m . RAN good a.m . 41 metres: GSW fa ir afternoon. 2R011 fa ir 7.30 a.m . EAJ-9 fair 7 a.m . 44 metres: PMH strong p.m. 49 metres: VQ7LO good 5 a.m . Mr. Chapm an has a verification from Delhi advising correct call sign of station on the old VUM wavelength is VUD-4, and wavelength is 25.28 metres. (Since this advice they have moved to ll,8 3 0 k c ., 25.36m ., evidently to get away from WLWO, who strangely enough interfere with Delhi on 31.28m .— E d ). Official Observer '''Wm. Bantow''' ( Edithvale, Vic.) received a letter from Delhi also regarding VUD-4. (See rem arks under M r. Chapm an's report.;— E d .). He also sends a long list of loggings:— North America: WLWO (2 5 .27 m .) strong at 9.30 p.m. (bad heterodyne). 31.28 fa ir 10 a.m ., strong later. WCAB (31.28) fair 10 a.m . W RCA (3 1 .0 2 ) fa ir 10 a.m . KGEI strong 10 p.m. Australia: VLR-3, strong 9.30 a.m . VLW -3 strong 9.30 a.m ., fa ir 8 p.m. VLR strong at night. VLW -2 strong at 10.45 p.m. VLQ-5 strong 5 p.m. 11 p.m ., fades badly. VLQ strong 5 p.m. The East: KZRH (3 1 .1 2 ) fairly strong (CW interference). KZRM strong 9.30 p.m. KZRF (4 8 .8 6 ) fa ir 9 p.m. KZRC Cebu strong 8.45 p.m. (Q R M ). JZ K strong 8.45 p.'m. JZJ strong 10.30 p.m ., also at 6.15 a.m . JVW-3 strong 9.30 p.m. ZBW -3 strong 10.30 p.m. VUD-4 fa ir 10 p.m. VUD-2 strong 10.15 p.m. ZH P strong 10 p.m. ZHJ Penang (49.3m .) strong 10.15 p.m. Radio Saigon strong 10 p.m. (interfered by CW some times). XGOY (2 5 .2 1 m .) strong nightly. FFZ (24.8 m .) strong 10.45 p.m. XPSA (4 2 .8 ) fairly strong 9.30 p.m. XGOZ ( ll,9 2 0 k c ., 2 5.17m .) strong a t 8.30 p.m. A t 9.15 p.m. gave calls as XGOX and XGOV. YDC, YDX and PMH strong. PLP and PMN only fair. X YZ Rangoon (4 9 .94 m .) strong at 12.45 a.m . CSW-7 (3 0 .8 ) fairly strong at 8.30 a.m . TAP (3 1 .70 ) strong 6.45 to 7.30 a.m . YU A Belgrade (4 9 .1 8 ) fa ir at 7 a.m . RV-96 (31.5m .) strong with English at 6 a.m . and 8 a.m . RV-96 (25.77-m.) fairly strong in English at 8 a.m . 2RO-3 (3 1 .13 m .) strong with English 7.45 a.m . '''Changes of Schedule''' London now gives news at 11 p.m., instead of 11.15. FG8AA (49.00m.), Noumea, is now heard daily, except Sundays, from 5.30 to 6.30 p.m. When closing down, the Marseillaise is played, followed now by “God Save the King.” '''Europeans in Wonderful Form.''' '''Dr. Keith B. Gaden''' (Tharmogindah, Q.) Here is what Dr. Gaden says about his loggings: "From daylight to dark the Europeans are in wonderful form , and the U .S.A . and S. Americans are well on the improve. From 2 p.m. I found ten worthwhile signals between XEWW (3 1 .58 m .) and COCQ '3 3 .9 8 m .), all of which sounded like Cubans or S.A .'s. TGWA (3 0 .98 m .) is very nice and clear at 2 p.m ., much better than XEQQ alongside. TG-2 Guatemala, at R7, Q5, gave its call sign in plain English. At 2.45 p.m . heard a very powerful South American on approximately 31.77m . (This was probably HCODA Guyaquil, Ecuador, 9445 kc., 31.77m .— E d .). R E P O R T S W E L C O M E D With the international situation as it now stands, it is becoming increasingly difficult to keep track of European stations, which more than ever are taking advantage of the short-wave prerogative of changing schedule without notice; therefore reports will be welcomed. Even a few words may enable us to identify the “stranger,” of which there seems to be many at the moment. At 5.30 W LW O (4 9 .5 m .), "The Nation's Station," closes with a very strong signal. FX8AA opens up nicely at 5.30. (This Noumean station which was heard only on Wednesdays and Saturdays, is now on the air daily except Sunday.— E d .). At 6 p.m. what I take to be COCH was coming through at great volume, and what I think was COCW came in at good strength at 9.40 p.m. Moscow gives a very fine signal at 2.30 p.m. on 25.75m ., but no English was heard. (Moscow, on 19.76, gives a talk in English at 10.15 a .m ., followed by news in English; reception for the last week has been excellent.— E d .). H12G Trujillo (9.29m c., 3 2.29m .) opens at 2.30 p.m . with chimes, then a vocal hymn, followed by lady speaker. Quality of signal is poor. Amongst the morning stations heard, the following are worthy of mention:— YUG Belgrade (1 9 .68 m .) is very good at noon. Martinique (30.92m.) opens up a t 8.30 a.m . Session is in French, and is generally gone by 10, although the other day it was quite O .K . at this hour. '''An Interesting Item.''' Heard a most interesting item on June 12 from YUC (3 1 .56 m .) at 9 a.m . Whilst the quality was poor, I was able to learn that a representative of the N .B.C . was to give a talk. A ll the N .B .C . stations re-broadcast it, and W RCA (3 1 .0 2 ), who are very good at this time, put over an R8, Q5 signal. The talk , which was certainly worth hearing, dealt with the Yugoslav reaction to Italy's entry into the War. Other morning stations are : PSH Brazil (2 9 .35 m .) good at 9 a .m ., weakens by 10. PYA-2 Rio de Janiero (3 2 .59 ) poor at 8 a.m ., fair at 9. PRF5 (2 5 .3 ) was not heard as DJP (2 5 .32 ) is very strong. Just above PYA-2, same strength, is HC2ET Guyaquil (3 2 .6 4 m .). They were heard at 8 a.m . To-day (June 1 5 ), at 9.5 a.m . on 29m ., were chimes very similar to that of ORK. Quality was poor. At 10 a.m . the two Chilian stations, CB-1180 (2 5 .12 m .) and CB-1190 (2 5 .19 m .) were noted and an Asiatic on approximately 25.18m . (This is probably XGOV, "The Voice of C h in a ."— E d .). CSW-7 (3 0 .8 ) was still on, but only fair; HJFK (3 0 .8 3 ) good and clear. Just above GRX at only fair quality wnar was most likely LRA-1 (3 0 .9 6 m .). Would especially draw your attention to WBOS (3 1 .35 m .) in their News Flashes at 3.35 p.m ., which are excellent and, as events have turned out, accurate. * * * Mr. '''S. I. Nelson''' <AW 577-DX), Cairns, Queensland, sends an interesting report and advises hearing one or two "strangers." The first was on 26.2m . and sounded like Spanish closing at 5.30 p.m. (This may have been TG5JG Guatemala, who operate on 26.22m ., but who are supposed to go off the air at 1.30.— E d .). The second is on 24.15m . and sounded like Russian. This closed at 5.45 p.m. (It is quite possible it may have been Moscow; they have sprung many surprises lately as regards frequencies. They are likely to bob up anywhere.— E d .). '''Several New German Transmitters.''' Mr. Nelson says he heard several new German transmitters on Hitler's birthday. (The two mentioned, v iz ., DXD (2 8 .5 m .) and DZB (29.86m .) are used for transmissions to America. According to my records the schedule is 9 to 10 a.m . and 6 a.m . to 1.45 p.m ., respectively.— E d .). I used to hear regularly CXA7 Montevideo (2 6 .13 m .) at 10 p.m ., but have not logged them lately. (I think they can be heard round about mid-day.— E d .). Some of the best Central and South Americans are : TIPG, HP5A, COCH, COCQ, HP5J, CB1180, HJFK. The two Mexicans, XEWW and XEQQ, put in loud signals at Cairns in the afternoon. Another -mystery station is on 32.5m . in the mornings. It is interfered with by C .W . and is still on the air at 8 a.m . (This is very likely PYA-2 Rio de Janiero, 32.59m .— E d .). The 49 metre band is never of entertainment level here. Occasionally it brightens up and a few stations are heard. I have logged the new Manila station, KZRC, "The Voice of Cebu," although very weak here. I have just finished listening to COCQ. They gave an English session from 10 to 10.15 p.m. (S u n d a y). The Russian on 25.77m . was on mmiimiimmiiiiimiMiiiiimiiiiiimiit WITH THE REPORTERS. With the exception of Tasmania, South Australia and West Australia, reports have reached us from all over Australia and both islands in New Zealand. Those who have helped in th’e compilation of the month’s loggings are:— Official Observers: '''Arthur T. Cushen''', Invercargill, N.Z. '''W. M. Chapman''', Kingsford, Sydney. '''Wm. Bantow''', Edithvale, Victoria. and '''Dr. Keith Gaden''', Tharmogindah, Queensland. Mr. '''S. I. Nelson''', Cairns, Queensland. Mr. '''Alf. Deppeler''', Edmonton, Queensland. Mr. '''V. W. Curran''', Bathurst, N.S.W. Mr. '''N. E. Gandy''', Wellington, N.Z. Sincere thanks are tendered. '1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111' the a ir around 2.30 p.m . in p arallel with RNE (2 5 m .). (T h a n k you, Mr. Nelson, glad to welcome you to the D X Club, and w ill look forward to further reports.— E d .). Mr. V. W. Curran (Bathurst, N.S.W.) adv ses having received some nice verifications during last month or so. Here is the list: Vot.can City, W PIT, W RCA, HS8PJ, X YZ , HP59, Addis-Ababa, W RUL, HP5G. The fo rego- ng were in form of QSL cards, while from •: :••• -c re 'eceived letters of confirm a- * = f 'eports WLWO, M TCY, VQ7LO, COHI, CR7BE XPSA and HP5G. (A little m ail a n yone would be proud o f.— E d .). V ' Curran refers to hearing COCH 31.52r- a t 3.25 p.m. on Sunday, when, apar* from usual Cuban type of programm e, a ofrtery w as drawn. He could hear the mart»ies in the barrel while it w as rolled out; I should say rolled round. Figures were c a lled out and checked. The station closed at 6 p - m . Mon— stations are referred to as fo llo w s — SUX, Cairo , (3 8 .1 5 m .) 6 to 6.30. Io4m M fo c <25.1 3 m .), 7 a.m . LRX 31.06m . from 8.23 to 9 a .m ., R7 to R5. W RCA 38.10 to 8.23. I ------ *ere Delhi 31.28 at 1 1 p m . COCX 3 2 .6 ' 11 p .m .; COCO (34.48m ) 10.15 p r ZBW-3 ^ 3 1.4 9 m J, and all M anila stct z^s- YSP 125-85 opened a t II p.m. WLWO KZRC (49.1 m. * X Y Z < 4 9 .9 *n .l„ doses a r 1 a .m .t, R 9; XTC (32.28» opens a t 11 p.m . M r. Curran also refers to the seldom heard HI IN TrvpHo 12 4 9G kc 24.02m as opening c t ' p .— 2ca3SR»3; • Radio Tananarive ooe*~s ct ’ -3C a-r* S O T 1 a.m . as reported. M r. Curran concludes by sa> .ng he received a nice long letter froc- Station HP5G Panama City 25 4~~- signed by G . Williams, and c sx'v g fo r reoorrs from Australia. As reception improves. he proposes to put on a special DX programme. Further particulars c*er Geo. W .i e rrs of HOA and HP5G Panama City, -s the man who sent the famous signal in 1918 announcing the surrender of the German High Sea Fleet in Scapa Flow. He has spent much of his life in radio work and has a vast store of information available. He was due to put over a special DX programme on Monday, June 3 between noon and 1 p.m. Listeners should keep a look out for him. He wants reports, and address is: Box 3 4 , Panama City, Panama, Central America. Station HOA mentioned is on long waves, 2:34m c.— E d .). Mr. Alf. Deppeler (A W 535-D X), Edmonton, via Cairns, Q., sends a great list of loggings secured on two receivers, a 4 -valve t.r.f. and a 7 -valve all-w ave vibrator. GST, GSJ and GSH are classed as erratic, some nights being good. (Just as I commenced to write these notes (9.35 P - m . , June 27 ), I turned on the receiver and to my surprise I found all the three London transmitters on 13 metres audible, GSJ being surprisingly good. The signal was infinitely better than ZHP Singapore, and every word of the B .B .C . news could be heard.— E d .). New Station? Official Observer Wm. Bantow (AW353-DX), Edithvale, Victoria, advises as having heard Szechwan, on ll,920kc., 25.17m., with a strong signal a t 8.30 p.m. At 9.15 p.m. they gave call sign as ZGOX and XGOV. (This station is also heard as ‘'The Voice of China” at 7.30 a.m. with news in English.—Ed.). GSG (1 6 .8 6 ) very scratchy around 9.30 p.m. GSB, GSF and GSD are classed as good, GSF even being heard some nights at 9.30. GRX, GSW and GSA are classed as weak. (The interval signal on foreign broadcasts is actually a metronome.— E d .). GST (2 5 .2 9 ) good at 10.30 a.m . VLR strong at 6.30 p.m . and most of the night. VLW -3 very strong in early morning and late afternoons. VLW very good nightly. VPD-2 Suva, good a t 8.30 p .m .; FK8AA (4 9 m .) fair 6.20 p.m .; 2RO-3 (3 1 .1 3 ) good between 4 and 5 p.m. 2RO-20 (1 6 .87 m .) heard at 1.30 p.m . on Sunday in special broadcast to U.S^A. 2RO-4 (2 5 .4 0 m .) good at 8.15 a.m . M r. Deppeler finds most of the German transmitters O .K ., particularly DJL (1 9 .85 m .) at 3.15 p.'m. YDC, PLP, JZ K , JVW -3, KZRM , ZBW, KZRH and YDX are all classed as good to very good. RW96 (1 9 .7 6 ) very loud in afternoon. (Incidentally, this is one of the loudest stations on the air at 8.30 a.m ., when news in English is given.— E d .). W NBI, W PIT, EAQ, TAP, COCQ and RNE good. (Thanks, M r. Deppeler, hope to hear from you again .— E d .). Mr. N. E. Gandy < Wellington, N.Z.) sends another fine list of loggings, and it would appear most of the stations received in Australia are being heard across the Tasm a r. Best reception times are 5-30 to 8 a.m . 10.30 a.m . to 1 p.m ., 2 .30 p.m . to 5 p.m. After that, things are patchy. The difference in ti'me helps N .Z ., as they get an hour and a half with CFRX (2 5 .60 ) on Sunday afternoons, 3 to 4.30 p.m. (5 to 6.30 .Z . . London, Rome, America and the East all give fine signals, while the South Americans, as well as Central America, are all given good reports. T6PG Costa Rica (31.19m .) is specially mentioned, as also is OAX4J Peru (32.12m . . Manila is being heard well, KZRM and K ZIB having choice of place. Regret that pressure of space prevents list being given in full. (Always glad to hear from the North Island. Please write again, Mr. Gandy.— E d .). ==P.35 - General Technical - Rola Introduces "Kappa" Cones== ==P.37 - Junior Technical - Hints and Tips== ==P.38 - Junior Technical - Building a Galvanometer== ==P.40 - Trade Notes - W. G. Watson Release 1940 Test Equipment== ==P.40 - Trade Notes - Meter Repairs== ==P.40 - Trade Notes - Free Resistor De-coder== ==P.41 - Speedy Query Service - Answers to Readers' Problems== ==P.42 - Trade Notes - Bargain Lines at Murdock's Radio Sale== {{BookCat}} 8ealhid44bkubmnvwc26mouynba8pif 0 433335 4671916 4665036 2026-09-23T08:07:52Z ~2026-51385-23 3626656 4671916 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Jurchen (ctd.)''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !style="width:4%"|U+!!style="width:6%"|0!!style="width:6%"|1!!style="width:6%"|2!!style="width:6%"|3!!style="width:6%"|4!!style="width:6%"|5!!style="width:6%"|6!!style="width:6%"|7!!style="width:6%"|8!!style="width:6%"|9!!style="width:6%"|A!!style="width:6%"|B!!style="width:6%"|C!!style="width:6%"|D!!style="width:6%"|E!!style="width:6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1900x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; 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|----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1911x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1912x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1913x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1914x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1915x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1916x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1917x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1918x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1919x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Jurchen Radicals''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !style="width:4%"|U+!!style="width:6%"|0!!style="width:6%"|1!!style="width:6%"|2!!style="width:6%"|3!!style="width:6%"|4!!style="width:6%"|5!!style="width:6%"|6!!style="width:6%"|7!!style="width:6%"|8!!style="width:6%"|9!!style="width:6%"|A!!style="width:6%"|B!!style="width:6%"|C!!style="width:6%"|D!!style="width:6%"|E!!style="width:6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|191Ax |style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JURCHEN RADICAL-01|&#x191a0;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JURCHEN RADICAL-02|&#x191a1;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JURCHEN RADICAL-03|&#x191a2;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JURCHEN RADICAL-04|&#x191a3;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|191Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|191Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|191Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Khitan Small Script Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !style="width:4%"|U+!!style="width:6%"|0!!style="width:6%"|1!!style="width:6%"|2!!style="width:6%"|3!!style="width:6%"|4!!style="width:6%"|5!!style="width:6%"|6!!style="width:6%"|7!!style="width:6%"|8!!style="width:6%"|9!!style="width:6%"|A!!style="width:6%"|B!!style="width:6%"|C!!style="width:6%"|D!!style="width:6%"|E!!style="width:6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|191Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|191Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Khitan Large Script''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1920x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1921x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1922x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1923x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1924x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1925x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1926x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1927x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1928x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1929x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|192Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|192Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|192Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|192Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|192Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|192Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1930x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1931x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1932x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1933x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1934x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1935x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1936x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1937x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1938x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1939x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|193Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|193Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|193Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|193Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|193Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|193Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1940x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1941x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1942x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1943x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1944x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1945x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1946x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1947x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1948x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1949x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|194Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|194Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|194Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|194Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|194Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|194Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1950x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1951x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1952x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1953x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1954x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1955x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1956x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1957x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1958x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1959x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|195Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|195Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|195Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|195Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|195Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|195Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1960x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1961x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1962x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1963x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1964x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1965x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1966x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1967x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1968x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1969x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|196Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|196Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|196Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|196Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|196Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|196Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1970x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1971x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1972x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1973x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1974x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1975x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1976x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1977x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1978x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1979x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|197Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|197Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|197Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|197Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|197Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|197Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1980x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1981x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1982x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1983x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1984x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1985x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1986x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1987x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1988x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1989x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|198Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|198Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|198Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|198Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|198Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|198Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1990x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1991x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1992x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1993x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1994x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1995x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1996x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1997x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1998x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1999x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|199Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|199Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|199Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|199Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|199Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|199Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Yi Extensions''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19A9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19AAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19ABx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19ACx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19ADx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19AEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19AFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19B9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19BAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19BBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19BCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19BDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19BEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19BFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19C9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19CAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19CBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19CCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19CDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19CEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19CFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19D9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19DAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19DBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19DCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19DDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19DEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19DFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Pau Cin Hau Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19E0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; 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|----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19E9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19EAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19EBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19ECx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19EDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19EEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19EFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19F0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; 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|----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19F5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19F6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19F7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19F8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19F9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19FAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19FBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19FCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19FDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19FEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|19FFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} bhc8f43nka3lbaxfebkor7c4a2trzxr 3 442343 4671820 4670355 2026-09-22T23:50:40Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Confirmed user */ new section 4671820 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="3" |Talk Page Archives |- |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2022|2022]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2023|2023]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2024|2024]] |} == That IP range calculator == Following [[phab:T381138|T381138]], I have now become the maintainer of the IP range calculator you like. You can find it [[toolforge:ftools/general/ip-range-calc.html|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:10, 9 January 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the heads-up! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:56, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == A merge and unmerge from two years ago == I was browsing through the history merge log when I saw that you merged [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] into [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]], and then promptly reverted it. What happened here exactly? Could I correct it? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 15:55, 10 January 2025 (UTC) :Good question! I can't remember what I was trying to do, but it looks like I didn't succeed at what I wanted based on the log comment. You're just trying to history merge to get [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]] to have continuity of history? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:35, 10 January 2025 (UTC) ::I think I figured out your mistake: it outright moved the revisions from the first page to the second, rather than copying them. This would have caused the other two [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] pages to have incomplete histories. I think the only solution would be to XML import the pre-April 2023 revisions from the first page to the other three, and I'm not sure if that's the best idea, and I am technically unable to do so. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:49, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == Undeletion request == I wouldn't be surprised if you expected this, but I'd like to ask you to undelete the subpages of [[Rotorcraft Fundamentals]] you just deleted with the summary "Use of copyrighted work without permission. Please read Terms of Use: page needs to be imported for attribution", so that I can do that. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 19:54, 14 January 2025 (UTC) :Done! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:57, 14 January 2025 (UTC) ::Upon further investigation, this might actually be a rare case where an [[WB:UT|unmerged transwiki]] is ''preferred'' (this is part of why I stopped calling them "bad transwikis"), since only a small portion of the Wikipedia article (with over 2,000 revisions) was copied over. Importation is generally only needed if the ''majority'' of the page is copied across wikis. I'll just leave a null edit providing attribution and add {{tlx|Copied}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 21:19, 14 January 2025 (UTC) == Reusing [[Cookbook:8 Desserts in 1 Pan]] on wikiHow == Hi, I am a user on wikiHow, see [[wikihow:User:Xeverything11]]. I would like to create a new recipe on wikiHow. I wanted to let us know if I can give permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe from Wikibooks to wikiHow. I (as a copyright holder) created this recipe on Wikibooks, but you contributed to this recipe. If not, I'll use the revision before you contributed since I was the only author. Wikibooks uses CC-BY-SA 4.0 while wikiHow uses CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0, which both licenses are incompatible due to ShareAlike conditions. Thanks [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 08:27, 15 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] I'm personally fine with this as long as proper attribution is given back to the original recipe page here. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:52, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::I adapted this [[wikihow:Make-8-Desserts-in-1-Pan|recipe]] on wikiHow with attribution, and got a Rising Star (an achievement used for best new articles on wikiHow). Thank you! [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 19:49, 24 January 2025 (UTC) == Wikibooks community == Hi, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am trying to contribute more to English Wikibooks. My main contributions will focus on the Cookbook, especially on Indonesian recipes. Do you have a community group where we can discuss and share ideas together? I am looking forward to join. Thank you! [[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 08:47, 16 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] Sorry I missed this, and welcome! Are you asking about a Cookbook-specific area for discussion? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:39, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::Yes. Do you know place for this? ::Thank you ::[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 09:41, 21 January 2025 (UTC) :::Honestly, there's not a centralized Cookbook-specific discussion space, especially since there aren't currently a ton of active contributors. Some people ask questions at [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. I'm currently the most consistently active and involved Cookbook editor, so feel free to ask me questions! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:46, 22 January 2025 (UTC) == Congratulations! == [[File:Admin T-shirt.svg|thumb|You get this now.]] You are now a permanent administrator. Welcome to the team (I am entitled to say this because I technically got the extension a few hours before you did)!{{FBDB}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 10:33, 29 January 2025 (UTC) :Thanks :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:29, 29 January 2025 (UTC) == Is there a way to contact a Steward on WikiBooks? == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Is there a way to contact a Steward on WB? I tried to find who the active Stewards are here at [[Special:ActiveUsers?username=&groups%5B%5D=steward&wpFormIdentifier=specialactiveusers]] but nothing shows up. The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the [[Wikimania-wiki]], but I just visited the [[wikimania 2014 wiki]] and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the [[Wikimania 2014 main-page talk]] but disovered that the Stewards have protected it. Is there a way wikibookians can communicate with Stewards at WB? Thanks in advance for answering this non-urgent question, and apologies for all the red-links which I can bluify if needed. Cheers [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:37, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] You can ask this on somewhere like [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]]. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:01, 7 February 2025 (UTC) <s>:@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] seconding what Leaderboard said—we no longer have any active stewards at enWB.</s> Had a brain fade there and mixed up stewards with bureaucrats. Yes, meta is the place for this. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::@Kittycataclysm,@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], or anyone else: ::Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb. I myself am indef-blocked at META so could not participate at [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]] even if I waned to. ::Since [[Wikimania]] is a topic of interest to all members of the [[wikimedia movement]] why can't wikibookians talk to thier elected representatives here? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:56, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :::@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] I can check with the blocking admin to see if they'd be willing to unblock you, if you'd like. The reason things like these are done at Meta is that Meta is a cross-project coordination platform - stewards ''cannot'' be expected to watch every project after all. Now you could message any steward here on Wikibooks if you really wanted to, but that is not normally a good idea. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 02:26, 8 February 2025 (UTC) ::::Wikimania is the annual conference celebrating all the free knowledge projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF). It is a wikimedia initiative which is meant to help all of our projects (including wikibooks), gain more readership, educate more wiki-editors, foster better communications, and much more. The wmf has been hosting a Wikimania-wiki dedicated to each Wikimania annual event since 2004. These wikis contain a wealth of information, but can benefit from wiki-improvements, starting from spelling and grammar errors that detract from their to appeal to the general membership. It would be nice if Stewards paid more attention to it. ::::@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], I truly appreciate your offer, but I posted this here not in order to get someone to advocate for one unblocking at META. As I said earlier: ::::* "Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb" ::::* "The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the Wikimania-wiki, but I just visited the wikimania 2014 wiki and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the Wikimania 2014 main-page talk but disovered that the Stewards have protected it" ::::I would much rather see more wikimedia members question blocking in general at META. One cannot run such large movement of people from different backgrounds and nationalities simply by silencing minorities IMIO. [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:12, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Crystal ball]] == That page appears to be a mixture of isolated paragraphs from [[w:Crystal ball|Crystal ball]], hence my tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 03:04, 9 February 2025 (UTC) :Yep, that seems correct! I also queried it simply because it does not seem suitable for inclusion at all. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:09, 9 February 2025 (UTC) == Question about an edit suggestion == Hi Kittycataclysm, Thanks for the great work you do as an admin! I wanted to clarify a suggestion you made on a recently published page I’m working on. You recommended splitting it into smaller sections—would you suggest creating separate pages for these sections, or would a higher-level header for some topics be sufficient? Any specific recommendations you have would be greatly appreciated! Here’s the link to the page I’m referring to: [[Funding and Finance of Transportation Projects in the United States of America]] Thank you! [[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]] ([[User talk:Svrmustafa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Svrmustafa|contribs]]) 18:19, 18 February 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]], and thanks for asking! Splitting refers to creating new pages, each with a smaller amount of content. The main page should then contain a table of contents, and each page can contain a navigation template for easier navigation. I'll create the table of contents based on the current work and move some content to one of those pages as an example for you; then, you can do the rest. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:26, 19 February 2025 (UTC) ::Following up on this—I noticed that you use the term "paper". However, technically Wikibooks hosts books not papers, so you should probably change this wording. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:38, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Talkback == {{Talkback|Cookbook talk:Chilli Crab|Recipe Questions}} [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 09:54, 19 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] I also made [[Cookbook:Prata|this]] [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:15, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Hello == Can you look at my latest recipe? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 00:10, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :I saw it! It needs a few corrections, which I'll note. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:23, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] How do you write recipe summary, correct headers [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 06:04, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :::Please see [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]]. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:08, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 02:33, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook == Hi there, Kittycataclysm. I wandered over here from Wikipedia, and I'm quite enamoured with this cookbook. I noticed you seem to be the one maintaining it, and I thought I'd reach out. Can I really just start cranking out recipes from public domain cookbooks and my family recipes? It's that simple? I was also wondering about the featured recipes section. There's not very many in there, and I imagine there's not very many folks around to do reviews compared to GAR on Wikipedia. How do you handle content review? Thanks. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:51, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] and welcome! For some context, the Cookbook has been around since the very beginning of Wikibooks, but it had gotten into a bit of disarray over the course of about two decades by the time I found it. I started the long process of overhauling, standardizing, and expanding it just over four years ago—I finished standardizing the recipe formatting and quality a while back and am currently working my way through the ingredient pages before moving on to equipment, techniques, and cuisines. You can absolutely add any public domain recipes as well as your own recipes—they just need to conform to the [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template|recipe template]] and [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy overall]]. It's even better if you've made the recipe and can contribute a nice picture and specific guidance/instructions/notes! Please feel free to ask me any questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:27, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::Oh, and regarding the featured recipes section, I actually haven't gotten around to looking into that yet—there's been a lot to do! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:28, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::That's great, thanks a lot for your response. This is just delightful. Maybe content review is something that we could collaborate on. There's a lot of recipes in here and it would be nice to know which ones are the best. Question for you, [[:Category:Brown sauces]] is really bothering me. How can I move that to Brown sauce recipes? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:29, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::Good catch on that category! It seems like it was created two decades ago and never got corrected—feel free to recategorize those recipes. Thank you also for introducing the hideprefix parameter to the category trees—I didn't realize that was an option, and it reduces the visual clutter! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:38, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::My pleasure! As I continue to look at the categories, this is actually worse than I thought. We have both [[:Category:Sauce recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes for condiments]] and I suspect that's just the beginning. I want to go through and categorize everything properly, but the bones aren't even there... How long do I have to be here before it'll let me create and move around categories? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:40, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Regarding the categories, the category overhauling is in progress, since I address the category when I overhaul the associated page. The variation in titling is actually somewhat deliberate—I started changing it from "____ recipes" in certain cases to solve a particular categorization problem. Sometimes, there is an item that is used in recipes as an ingredient but for which there are also recipes. For example, [[:Category:Recipes for bread]] versus [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]. The different naming scheme is necessary to properly delineate the categories, and I'm working on implementing it a bit more consistently as I go. While you're still getting started, it would be great if you could check with me when something looks odd or out of place—that way I can take a look and weigh in on whether that's normal or not and maybe provide some context. Just off the top of my head, I think you will have to wait for autoreview status to make move changes. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:56, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::I see what you're saying, I've been trying to wrap my head around that. Maybe it would be beneficial to try to put together some sort of a Cookbook MOS regarding category structure? It's kind of all over the place right now. Using your bread example, would it perhaps make more sense to have [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]? There would be no ambiguity with just those two categories, but when you add the extra [[:Category:Recipes for bread]], that's when things start getting a little whacky. What do you think? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:05, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::Either that or get rid of [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and keep the other two. But one of these categories gotta go, I reckon. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::::I see you already had the same thought as me. I think all categories should include "for" or "using". Take for example, [[:Category:Recipes for pancakes]] as opposed to [[:Category:Pancake recipes]]. Well obviously there's no recipes using pancakes. But for something like [[:Category:Recipes for gravy]], there may also be a need for [[:Category:Recipes using gravy]]. The lack of consistency in this regard means the only way to achieve consistency across the categories is by changing them over to that format. Sorry for clogging up your talk page! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:18, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::::Same heads-up as below—migrating this over to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]] —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:10, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :Also, on [[Cookbook:Table of Contents]], could you please add a wikilink for [[Cookbook:Breakfast]], and maybe add cooknav to the top for seamless navigation between all the top level articles? Can't edit that article yet. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:47, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == More Table of Content Edits == Hello again. I've been going through everything and this is my list of suggestions for edits to the table of contents. Unfortunately there's not much else I can do for now, because without autoconfirmed my ability to change anything is very limited. I was going to ask for someone to check off the confirmed box for me at RfP but I can't post there either, so I guess I'll be back in four days. * Fix Bread wikilink * Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing * [[Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Low-Carb]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] to [[Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine]] for parity * Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting * Create [[:Category:Lunch recipes]], wikilink to ToC * Wikilink [[Cookbook:Dessert]] under Meals * Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category * Create [[Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine]] so I can add the recipes from [[:Category:East Asian recipes]] to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC * Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction" * Appendix and Equipment sections switch places Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:46, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :I took the liberty of doing it myself in my userspace. You can just copy it over from [[User:MediaKyle/sandbox]]. Figured I'd save you the trouble of trying to figure out what I'm talking about. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 14:15, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Circling back to this! It seems like your suggestions are getting at a couple different things. I'll try to go through them point-by-point below: :* {{xt|Fix Bread wikilink}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing}} see below comments on TOC. :* {{xt|Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for now because I don't fully understand the urgency and I want to triage/prioritize things for you, but please feel free to make this change yourself once you can! :* {{xt|Cookbook:Low-Carb points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for same reason as above. :* {{xt|Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean to Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine for parity}} {{not done}} for now just because we do have a lot of cuisine pages that follow the form "Cuisine of ____". It could be good to standardize, and I had been planning to do that once I got around to the cuisines. :* {{xt|Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting}} {{not done}} for same reason as other redirects :* {{xt|Create Category:Lunch recipes, wikilink to ToC}} Not quite sure what you mean here, and I didn't see what it corresponded to in your linked sandbox page :* {{xt|Wikilink Cookbook:Dessert under Meals}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category}} I'm not sure about this—brunch is in many places considered a separate entity, and I don't necessarily think it would cause confusion. But, overall it's hard to determine whether it should have its own page and TOC link because I haven't actually gotten around to evaluating the meal pages and what role they should play. See also the TOC notes below. :* {{xt|Create Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine so I can add the recipes from Category:East Asian recipes to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC}} {{done}} for now; however, I'm not sure yet whether it will ultimately make sense to keep that as a content page. I think content pages should be reasonably focused, and it may not be the best to have a cuisine page that is so broad. This is something I planned to consider once I made my way around the overhauling the cuisines. :* {{xt|Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction"}} The reason I made it "Introductory Matter" instead of "Introduction" is because there's already a chapter itself titled "Introduction"—it felt odd to have the entire section titled that as well. Happy to discuss other header options (e.g. "Front Matter", which is a generally accepted book term) :* {{xt|Appendix and Equipment sections switch places}} see below comments on TOC. :* '''Comments on the TOC:''' So, I think a fundamental issue with the current TOC is that it somewhat arbitrarily picks and chooses individual pages to link. It also sometimes direct-links to categories and sometimes to content pages, which I don't think we should do. Because the cookbook is so expansive, it's been established that manual indices intending to capture detail in large areas don't really make sense and quickly get bulky and out-of-date. This is why categorytree is such a useful tool! After thinking on it for a while and making some small tweaks, I think I'd ultimately like to overhaul the TOC and come to a solution that keeps a few broad headers/links to the small handful of the primary content pages while perhaps stashing away more detailed and self-updating lists in a collapsible way to reduce clutter but allow for customizable user navigation. Much to think about, and I'll probably workshop some things on the side to see how they feel. :Let me know if I've misunderstood anything! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:24, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for the notes! Here's my thoughts: ::* On the Cuisine titling, it actually seems like [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] and [[Cookbook:East Asian cuisines]] are the only ones that don't follow the naming scheme, i.e. "[[Cookbook:African Cuisine]]", and I think that shorter titles are preferable where it makes sense. ::* On your note about East Asian Cuisine, I actually had the same thought after going through the cuisine pages. Having three separate pages for different kinds of Asian cuisine does seem a little silly, doesn't it? Do you think it might be better to combine all of them under one "Asian Cuisine", but put the different locales under separate headers? ::* On Brunch - I honestly think there's way too much ambiguity around what exactly constitutes as "brunch" to keep that in. I feel as though the term brunch more applies to the time you're eating, rather than the kind of food. I think it would be easier to keep meals that include commonly accepted breakfast foods in the Breakfast category, and things that don't fit neatly into that, into the Lunch category. This would prevent any dilemmas in the future where we can't decide whether something is breakfast or brunch. ::* You're right that it looks a little awkward to have the header as Introduction when there's a page called introduction. I still think that to say "Introductory Matter", or "Front Matter" as you mentioned, is a little long-winded and reflects a more academic tone than needed for a cookbook. Upon further reflection, I think maybe rather than worrying about the header at this point, we should perhaps think about trying to compile all of those short introductory type pages into one comprehensive introductory page. Then we likely won't even need a header for it on the ToC. ::* The ToC is definitely a bit cluttered, and it bothers me too that there's a real lack of consistency across whether the wikilinks lead to a page or a category. I'm not sure how I would feel about cutting away too much of the navigation from it, though, because just about every page on there does have a reason to be there, it's just that they're not presented very nicely. Some of it can certainly get nested or combined though. I'll play around with it over the next few days in my sandbox as well and let you know if I come up with anything. ::* As an aside, the first thing on my to-do list once my autoconfirmed comes through is to start subcategorizing all of the recipes so that they're all nicely sorted in the category trees. When you have a chance, I'd love to hear your thoughts on what we should use as the standard naming for categories. Once we determine this, I think we can also take the liberty of updating the cookbook MoS to reflect it. ::Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:33, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :::Note: After writing this, I realized what you were getting at about slashing away some of the subpages. Maybe we can come up with a system where all of those subpages are under their main subpage rather than on the ToC. For example, all the Cuisines are under [[Cookbook:Cuisines]], all techniques under [[Cookbook:Cooking Techniques]], to keep the subpages off the main ToC. Also, I wonder if maybe we should try to make a centralized discussion for this somewhere, in case anyone else wants to join in at some point? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:45, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::Heads-up: to make it easier to keep track of these and since I think they deserve their own discussions, I'm going to gradually migrate them over individually to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:52, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Good idea. Can you remove the semi-protection from that talk page? I see no reason why it should be protected. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:23, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook ToC == Hi [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. I was just wondering why you didn't respond to my above message, and started a separate sandbox for the ToC instead? It seems as though you don't really want to collaborate. It would be nice if we could work on this together. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 22:43, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] thanks for the ping! I'm sorry you feel like I don't want to collaborate—the opposite is true, and please understand that this is good-faith editing. The reason I haven't responded to the above points is mostly since you've been modifying a bunch of content and adding suggestions lately, and I've been working my way through these while continuing with my routine contributions and real life as well—things happen a little more slowly here than on other projects, and I'm the one person dedicated to the cookbook right now. The reason I created that sandbox was because I saw [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#Modernize the shelves|your comment]] at the reading room and wanted to play around and think about your suggestion without touching the actual TOC. You're right that it's not the best, and it's been something I've been thinking about for a bit now. Please understand also that it can be overwhelming when a new editor unfamiliar with the Cookbook begins making a high volume of edits and suggestions without having much experience with it or its history—this isn't to say that you don't have good ideas or things worth contributing. In fact, you have already made a few helpful changes, as I've mentioned. I just want to do this properly and take the time to evaluate your suggestions together with the current efforts that are underway, and that can take a bit. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:03, 2 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for getting back to me. While I may be new to Wikibooks, I'm certainly not new to MediaWiki, and I've been working with small wiki projects for a number of years. Perhaps it's been a misunderstanding to some degree, but I've found my reception here to be unusually unwelcoming. The way to do this properly, as you said, would be to have discussions and form consensus. Yesterday, when you reached out to me about adding hideroot to the pages, I gave you my rationale and was more than happy to have a discussion about it, but you did not reply. I noticed a similar situation happened with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Ottawahitech#Category_sorting Ottawahitech], regarding category sorting. I'm aware that you're the main person looking after the cookbook right now, which is why I reached out to you right from the get go. ::I understand why you would want to create your own sandbox to play around with options for the ToC, but I'm sure you can understand why it would draw my attention that you would do this without implementing any of the wikilink fixes I mentioned, or making an attempt to discuss it further. This came across to me as not wanting my help. ::I invite you to check out my page on Wikipedia. I've made contributions across quite a wide area of topics there, as well as the other Wikimedia projects, and this is the first time I've encountered any sort of resistance to my contributions. I think Wikibooks has enormous potential, and I'm very excited to contribute to helping it grow. On most projects, this would be something to be encouraged. I don't feel like "I'm sorry that you feel that way" was really an appropriate response. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:59, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :::I think you're right that this has been a mix of misunderstanding and miscommunication, and I think I can understand how things came across as unwelcoming! For whatever it's worth, I absolutely plan on circling back to the various discussions at hand (I have all the relevant pages open to return to), but it seems like the order I did things made it seem like I was ignoring you (if I'm understanding correctly). I am pretty busy, so sometimes items on my to-do list do get lost/shunted or it takes me a bit to get around to something—please don't hesitate to give me a ping if it seems like I'm taking a while to get back to something. Looking forward to more collaboration! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:49, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::I'm glad you can understand where I'm coming from. To clarify, my intent is not to try to rush you, or to try to push you to make changes that you don't agree with. It's really easy to misinterpret things over the Internet, and I think a short message can go a long way. I apologize if I've caused you any undue stress by coming into the cookbook and unleashing a flurry of alterations, but do rest assured that I'm not married to any of my changes, I'm always open for discussion, and I want to see the cookbook improve just like you do. The great thing about wikis is that no change is permanent. I think we'll have it in tip-top shape in no time! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:19, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Polish Doughnuts (Paczki)]] == Do you see any reason not to just add this to Featured Recipes? At least we know this one works, and it seems like this is now one of the few recipes to have a picture that actually aligns with the recipe used. I was thinking later on we'll come up with a content review system where a couple editors will actually try the recipes nominated for FR, but in the absence of that I'd just add it to the list. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 12:25, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :I'm fine with adding it to the featured recipes. You're right that we'll want to come up with a good system for this going forward, though it's lower down on my personal priority list at moment. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Cream Cheese American Buttercream]] == Hi! I am a wikiHow user and I am planning to adapt this recipe to wikiHow. Since you contributed to this recipe, I wanted to know if I can get permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe. Thanks. [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 21:41, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] that's fine with me as long as proper attribution and linking back to the original recipe page here are included at the top. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:28, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[A Companion to Our Literary Journey]] == Hi! I feel that we have started to outline the scope in a clearer and more precise way and that’s the work we are going to do with the students this and for the next years, adding more sections and content. Do you think that would be enough? [[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]] ([[User talk:Ferdi2005|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ferdi2005|contribs]]) 22:43, 6 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]]! Yes, this seems to be reasonably outlined. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:51, 7 March 2025 (UTC) == Exercising care with copyright == When deleting a page as a copyright violation, it is important that you '''do not quote any content from the deleted page'''. If you do, then your log entry is itself a copyright violation. I have redacted a recent deletion that you performed because of this. If you want to make sure that none of your past deletions have been problematic for this reason, you can [[quarry:query/90444|run this SQL query]] to get a list of every deletion that could be eligible for redaction. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 18:32, 21 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] and thank you for the message. In the most recent instance that I think you're referencing, I do not see any material in the edit summary that posed a significant risk—I don't believe the few listed words would be a copyright concern. However, I do understand your concern! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:31, 21 March 2025 (UTC) == Splitting Pages == Hi I have recently made the book on the [[History of the Nawabs of Bengal]] and you gave a notice on how you believe it should be split into smaller bits. As I am still new to wikibooks I don't know how to do this. Can you please assist me on renaming the page so I can split the page into multiple pages? @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 19:47, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]]: You did it. I've removed the tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:44, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :Like @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] said, you're all set! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 29 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks! @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 10:24, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == Minecraft book == Is it good creating pages like this, [[Minecraft#Husk]]? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 12:43, 9 May 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:18, 10 May 2025 (UTC) ::are we allowed to create pages like that? like for every mob [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:02, 11 May 2025 (UTC) :::To be honest, I don't think the structure and formatting of the book is very good. Several of the mob pages, for example, have very little information and aren't particularly helpful on their own. If I were working on it, I would restructure the book. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:09, 11 May 2025 (UTC) ::::I am planning to do that. [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 04:19, 12 May 2025 (UTC) == Request to Review Adjusted User Page (XoriantTeam) == Hello [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I hope you're well. I noticed that my user page ([[User:XoriantTeam]]) was recently deleted for appearing promotional or inappropriate for Wikibooks. Thank you for keeping the community standards in check. I’ve since revised the content with closer attention to neutrality and compliance with Wikibooks guidelines. My intent is to participate constructively, especially in areas related to digital engineering and educational content creation. If possible, I’d appreciate your help reviewing the revised version. I'm happy to share it or upload it as a file if there’s a preferred method. Please let me know how best to proceed. I welcome any suggestions and will gladly make further adjustments. Best regards, XoriantTeam [[User:XoriantTeam|XoriantTeam]] ([[User talk:XoriantTeam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/XoriantTeam|contribs]]) 11:02, 15 May 2025 (UTC) :Hi there—you can publish an updated user page, but I'd caution you against talking about your company. Keep it limited to your involvement with Wikibooks. You may contribute productively here, but further promotional materials are grounds for an indefinite block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:30, 15 May 2025 (UTC) == Planning to use AWB to update categories on the cookbook == Hello. I noticed in recent changes that you were moving some categories using HotCat (e.g. moving Category:Chile recipes to Category:Recipes using chile), which can be time-consuming. Therefore, I plan to help you with moving the cookbook categories by adding myself to enabledusers and enabledbots in [[Wikibooks:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON]]. Would this be fine if I assist you and to add myself to the check page? I am familiar with using AWB after testing on a non-Wikimedia project. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:42, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—thank you for the tip! I just installed JWB, so this should make my mass cat changes much faster. Thanks again! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:11, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for the information. Also, is it okay if I change (for example) [[:Category:Vinegar recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes using vinegar]] (I can redirect the former category to the latter), given that we should move {{tq|Category:[ingredient] recipes}} to {{tq|Category:Recipes using [ingredient]}} for consistency? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :::Sure thing—go ahead! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:53, 8 June 2025 (UTC) == Tool for even faster category changes == See [[:c:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot#As_your_user_gadget]]. I just [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Koavf/common.js&action=history installed it] and used it dozens of times in a click. Let me know if you need any help. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:36, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Thanks! I'm having a little trouble activating it, but I'll keep trying. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:54, 19 June 2025 (UTC) ::A lot of times, a purge will do the trick. See [[:mw:Purge]]. Usually just <kbd>Ctrl+Shift+R</kbd> once or twice. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:55, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :::Took several purges, but we're set now! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:16, 19 June 2025 (UTC) == Advice on when I should run for adminship == Hi, I hope you are doing well. I am asking for some advice on when I should run for enwikibooks adminship, given the following below: Currently, I am doing some optimizations for dark mode on this project, and some of the message box/MediaWiki interface/template pages might be outdated, fully protected, or can use a little help using mw-parser-output. These unfortunately might hinder the process of updating these pages/templates for Vector 2022's dark mode.<br> Additionally, I have a solid expertise with edit filters, as I have requested some administrators to update deprecated filter variables, switching filters from warn and disallow to disallow only, and I can also monitor the filter log for potential false positives (from local or global filters). A fellow English Wikibooks administrator also said to me that they are willing to support me in a few months when I run for adminship, as I am generally trusted. I hold two advanced global permissions, and I hold an edit filter helper permission on the English Wikipedia, to be sure. Thank you for your consideration. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:02, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—good question! I agree that you are a trusted user, and I think it would be reasonable for you to run for adminship, especially given our need to fix up technical aspects of the project. If you don't plan to commit to Wikibooks long-term (i.e. you have some projects you'd like to take a few months to complete and then be done), you can always request temporary adminship. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:30, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for your feedback, but I also plan to monitor for vandalism/spam, and to commit to reduce the administrative assistance reading room backlog, should I be elected for adminship (and I forgot to mention those). Anyway, regarding your feedback, I might run by August or even July, given that I've lately started contributing more often to Wikibooks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:29, 23 June 2025 (UTC) ::: [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am pinging you one more time to see if you have read my response above yours. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:34, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]! I'm not sure what you mean—was there an additional question you had? Everything you've outlined seems quite reasonable. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:26, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::: Apologies for the confusion, I don't have any questions to ask. I was clarifying that I can help with implementing edit requests and to block obvious vandals and spammers, aside from the skills I mentioned earlier. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:32, 26 June 2025 (UTC) == how is it you feel able to interfere in my sandbox? == you deleted a page in my sandbox that was my way of providing my response to a request from an OpenSCAD dev team leader for a couple of text blurbs for use on a web page of the OpenSCAD site. now that you have deleted my page i have to recreate the texts from a screenshot to be able to offer the suggestions, which i will This kind of high handed treatment is what keeps me from being a wiki-anything contributor .. If it is Wiki policy to interfere in the documentation of an open source project because it is hosted on Wikibooks then i will take up the task of moving our online docs to a site where you cannot interfere. -- [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 21:56, 29 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]]—thanks for bringing this to my attention. I now understand that this was intended to be in your user namespace—I've undeleted it and moved it to the correct namespace for you. Let me know if anything else comes up! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:05, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::ah .. err .. umm .. well that is a gentle answer to my ire. Thanks for being so gracious [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:29, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::and .. isn't my sandbox in my namespace by default? [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:30, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :::No worries—it looks like you didn't add the prefix "User:" before writing out the full page titles, so the pages you created were technically in the project's Main space with the official published materials. Going forward, you can just double-check that the page title starts with "'''User:'''VulcanWikiEdit/sandbox", and that should keep everything in the right place! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:36, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::::BTW .. i love the play on cat lover name [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 15:35, 1 July 2025 (UTC) :::::Thank you! That's very kind. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:46, 1 July 2025 (UTC) == Regarding the user Codename Tameirao == Could this be Matthew again (the Unicode LTA)? I believe it might be him based on his usage of edit summaries, and his usual edits to [[Unicode/Versions]]. I just blocked his recent account, and then I protected and stabilized that Unicode book. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 23:51, 12 August 2025 (UTC) :I suspect you're right! That seems like a reasonable course of action. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:56, 13 August 2025 (UTC) :: I recently encountered another possible LTA, see [[Special:Contributions/~2025-55706-6]] (as well as [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]]). I can email you more details if you want. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 16:30, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::I think this is the same LTA, yes! I've protected [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]], but I think it would be a good idea if we could automate this monitoring somewhat using the edit filter. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:07, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I don't think that was Matthew, as he typically uses edit summaries. The deleted page was not protected, as it was protected before you deleted it; I salted it from creation for one year. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:22, 9 September 2025 (UTC) ::::: You might want to look at [[Special:Contributions/Freddy Fazbearing Others]]. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:18, 26 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you! I went ahead and blocked them. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:54, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == IP block exempt == Hi Kitty, I currently have IP block exemption on enwiki, Commons and Wikidata as I use VPNs connected to my internet security software. Can you please grant me the right on wikibooks. I have a strong password and use two factor authentication. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 10:51, 22 August 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TarnishedPath|TarnishedPath]]! This doesn't sound unreasonable to me, but I think it would be good if you requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] so we can have a discussion—I have not granted this right before. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:50, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::Kitty, thanks for pointing me in the right direction. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:25, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::See [[Wikibooks:Requests_for_permissions#TarnishedPath_(discuss_·_contribs_·_count_·_logs_·_block_log_·_rfp_·_rights)_(IP_Block_Exemption)]] ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:35, 23 August 2025 (UTC) == You've got mail! == {{You've got mail|sig=<span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 00:20, 6 September 2025 (UTC)}} :Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:06, 6 September 2025 (UTC) == Are you able to import? == I made a few requests over at https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Requests_for_import . [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 22:32, 4 October 2025 (UTC) : [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]], I'll go ahead and start the imports. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you for your help [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 16:51, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::: My apologies for not doing this sooner, because some database error appears when I am trying to mass import. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:39, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::::I also tried to make this import earlier and ran into issues with the software. I was hoping it was a temporary bug, but it seems to be persisting. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:01, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::This seems like I should get involved. {{working}}... [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:11, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::: I believe there are five pages that have massive page histories they fail to import here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:13, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::::I backed up the XMLs of them locally but im unsure how much that'd do. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 15:18, 6 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Just became an importer. The reason is prob understandable but I cannot upload the XML file to here locally. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 17:23, 10 October 2025 (UTC) == About the category parameter in the recipe summary template == When it uses a "recipe by type" category, should it use a "[type/food] recipes" name or "Recipes for [type/food]"? I recently operated JWB to change from [[:Category:Dessert recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes for dessert]] in multiple Cookbook recipes, and from what I've said before, I've changed to ''Recipes for dessert'' in the category parameter of Cookbook recipes. Hope you don't mind that this was over more than 250 changes (not counting the recent category changes after moving some recipe categories). Thanks. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:07, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—those JWB changes you made seem fine to me! I'm not quite sure what you're asking in your first sentence, though. Assuming I understand correctly: in general, I think the default format should be whatever the actual category name is. BUT if there is a redirect, it ultimately shouldn't matter too much. And, because I'm not convinced of the utility of that infobox parameter in the first place (thinking of removing it), I'm not hugely concerned about it for the time being. Does this help? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:21, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :: Probably, but I will say the following below (for my first sentence) to clarify: :: On the <code>|category =</code> parameter, when placing a recipe category name, should it either be {{tq|Sandwich recipes}} or {{tq|Recipes for sandwiches}}? I hope this clears the confusion. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:39, 27 October 2025 (UTC) == Please no more Unicode LTA == Please don't block me again. I promise I will edit Unicode stuff and add correct information. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2025-30839-28|&#126;2025-30839-28]] ([[User talk:&#126;2025-30839-28|talk]]) 20:54, 1 November 2025 (UTC) :<small>I am a bit out of the loop, so correct me if I'm wrong - I'm assuming here</small> I think the point is that they want you to ''not'' edit the Unicode stuff? Also hi kitty, it's been a ... very long time.. ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:13, 5 November 2025 (UTC) ::Ok so apparently not as long as I thought, but it feels like I've been away for at least a year lol ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:23, 5 November 2025 (UTC) :::Nice to see you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:41, 5 November 2025 (UTC) == Administrator and reviewer user right combinations are not needed anymore == Given that administrators can review edits in addition to reviewers, I would suggest for you (and other administrators) to kindly remove the reviewer permission from (own) accounts. What I'm saying is that if one holds administrator and reviewer permissions together, they can remove the reviewer permission from their own account and retain their administrator permission. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:06, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Gotcha—is there a reason it's bad for one user to have both these rights? If so, I can remove my reviewer right. Otherwise, it seems fairly harmless? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:26, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :: The thing is, administrators have the <code>review</code> user right, as well as some permissions in the reviewer user group in the administrator toolset. That means that having the reviewer user group together with the admin user group is redundant. Hope this explains it. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:59, 11 November 2025 (UTC) ::: @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] <s>I'll do this tomorrow morning, as well as to remove autoreviewed user permissions from users who are reviewers.</s> ({{doing}}) [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:24, 12 November 2025 (UTC) : I have removed the autoreviewed user permission from users who are reviewers. As for administrators, I will do so later today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:40, 13 November 2025 (UTC) == Nesting in Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities == Hi Kittycataclysm, I am editor of wikipedia since 2004. We have the habit if we have a concern using the talk page to clarify the case. I am not sure to delete meaningful content without previous notification and doing major redirection without agreeing the main contributor(s) is an adequate admin act and sign of good manner of host (see [[W:Wikipedia:Etiquette|Wikipedia:Etiquette]].) Yes, It will be not an average book but above the regular. This is the exact case: ''"this may be appropriate, such as with large textbooks that contain subsections with a lot of content."'' ''for to establish good structural and stylistic practices'' I have a data management certification. If you asking it will have 4 nest level on strict purpose. If you saw the introduction of the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] is/will be a global collection making effective collaboration over borders and continents. One structured + categorized(!) page for each community willing to show up. The Postal addresses has also same or larger deepness, this is unavoidable (Country/Postal Code/Location/Street/House/floor/door). Here will looks like: '''Eco-comm/Continent/Regio code/Community name''' The goal of this system to open bridge + experience highway for the communities using the same permaculture technics what collected parallelly in [[Open Book of Permaculture]]. That is also part of this knowledge base please dont do simplification steps on that without discussion. I am kindly asking to revert your edits in this book. After that I will put a notification template about "This book is under construction with major changes. Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History. Common clarifications/ guides are on the primary talk page." Thanks: [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 02:22, 12 November 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]], and thank you both for your contributions and for reaching out! Yes, I did make the following changes to [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]: :* I moved the pages from the [[Eco-comm]] namespace to the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] namespace, since the table of contents and pages for a given book should be under that book's namespace. :* I removed the links to Wikipedia that were on [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]], since outlinking has been discouraged at en.Wikibooks as a matter of practice. Compilations of links may not fall into WB scope as an instructional text, and [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Piano Solo Music: An Encyclopedia|there is precedent for deleting them]]. But, I do see that the tool I used didn't just remove links to enWP, so I will restore the prior revision and ping the tool developer. :* I flagged it as needing denesting—you're right that nested entries can sometimes be appropriate. In this case, I was primarily flagging for a denest because the table of contents needs to be moved onto the main page, and it shouldn't have hidden navigation within the nested portions. :Could you clarify which of these edits you do not agree with so I can make sure they are individually addressed? As an aside, it could be helpful to create a [[Help:Local manuals of style|local manual of style]] for the book in order to clearly outline the expectations. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:59, 12 November 2025 (UTC) ::My main concern not about moving and flagging but '''deleting''' [[Eco-comm]] against [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy]] and not mentioning in the clarification even after my notification. Should I note all administrators [[Wikibooks:Please do not bite the newcomers]] - or will they do speedy deleting one by one until I make them individually addressed? :::The <u> local manual of style</u> development is ongoing together with the sample pages. ::'''MAIN PAGE''' ::The '''Main page''' and '''Namespace''' is the [[Eco-comm]]. The '''Full Title''' or '''Cover''' is [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]. Because of the high level of nesting the below extra-long-full-text-title to be avoided the Cover page is a redirection with preface/intro etc. ::'''NESTING ''' :::Featured book with 3 level nesting: [[Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Theory]] :::5 level nesting example: [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] ::'''Categories''' The [[:Category:Eco-comm]] will let the users make practical sub-categories e.g. [[:Category:Eco-comm/Project/numundo]] [[:Category:Eco-comm/]] ::: ::[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 03:44, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you for elaborating! I'm unfortunately not sure what you mean about deleting [[Eco-comm]]—are you referring to the fact that I moved it without leaving a redirect? Regarding the nesting, I do honestly think those other books you linked should have their navigation denested since I find their format difficult to parse, and they have some navigation issues. Looping in some other active admins (@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] (@[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]) so they can get eyes on this and voice anything they think is important. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 04:12, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::It makes no sense to have some crazy abbreviation as a "main page" or "namespace" (whatever that means in this context) for a book in order to allow it to be deep nested. Nobody needs to type the whole name of the nesting because that's what navigation templates do, and it is a simple matter to override the page title. I also take issue with the statement, above, "Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History." Anybody can edit, and nobody gets to own and control any work. Taken together, this complaint looks like a case of attempting to assert ownership and to operate against the normal practices of Wikibooks. As such, I am completely aligned with the changes made. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::::That. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 14:59, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]]@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] for the contribution, btw the [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] also looks crazy long, is'nt it? Lets continue in the [[Wikibooks:Reading_room/General]] keeping this page for personal messages. [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 23:07, 20 November 2025 (UTC) == Deletions of Wikibook subpages == Hello @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], regarding the [[Thesis Writing Guide]] subpage deletions, should I just recreate them when I keep working on them or was there an automatic deletion that we could undo? This document will grow, but really slowly. Best, Tim [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 11:37, 16 December 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]]! Since there was so little content on the deleted pages, my recommendation would just be for you to gradually recreate the chapters as you go. Does that make sense? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:54, 17 December 2025 (UTC) ::Makes sense, not my ideal solution, but also not far from it :) The end result will be the same, the in-between will just feel a little bit weird from time to time. ::Thank you for taking time to curate and quality-control Wikibooks - wishing wonderful holidays and a happy new year! [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 20:43, 17 December 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you, and happy holidays to you as well :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:13, 17 December 2025 (UTC) == help with "Media Literacy and You" == {{re|Kittycataclysm}} What do I need to do to get a quality review of ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', or whatever is needed to remove <nowiki>{{Qr-em|not clear how this is to be structured as a book}}</nowiki>? I ask, because you added that flag just over 2 hours after I created it. I later found that I had accidentally created it as an anonymous user. I've since started using my standard Wikiname, and I tried to respond to the requests both by creating a discussion on the "Discussion" page associated with that book and by upgrading the content. The upgrades included adding the "Introduction" chapter by revising an article on Wikiversity that convinced me to start this Wikibook. I have other articles that I plan to rewrite to create 9 of the remaining 11 chapters in the current table of contents, as indicated in this table of contents. ??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:23, 8 February 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]]! I removed the query flag, since this is clearly not a test page. I do have concerns about the suitability of this book for Wikibooks, since it seems to be more in line with essays and original research/analysis (which are [[Wikibooks:WIW|out of scope here]]). Wikiversity seems like a very suitable place for them—is there a specific reason you want to move them here? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:24, 8 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::This book is intended to accelerate the diffusion of [[w:Media literacy|media literacy]] by making it easier for humans to (a) access training materials and (b) connect with research on the most important issues that concern them and (c) discuss those issues with others who may believe differently in a nonthreatening context that encourages dialogue and a shared search for what can honestly be said about any particular issue. This is an extension of "The wisdom of polarized crowds" discussed in [[Wikipedia:Reliability of Wikipedia]]. ::I don't know about you, but I'm frightened by the collapse of nuclear arms control agreements since the year 2000, by global warming, by the threats of the Trump administration to invade Canada and Greenland, etc. If this book project is successful, it will make a material contribution to reversing these trends -- unless this kind of dialogue is [[v:Responding to a nuclear attack|interrupted by a nuclear war]]. === Who is DavidMCEddy === ::I'm a [[w:Vietnam veteran|Vietnam-era veteran]] with a PhD in statistics and a publication record for which [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Spencer-Graves-3 ReserchGate has found over 1,200 academic publications that have cited my work.] Since [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikipedia.org/DavidMCEddy 2010 I have logged] * 6,000+ edits in each of Wikipedia and Wikiversity, * 1,000+ in Wikimedia Commons, * 30,000+ in Wikidata, and * almost 1,000 in other Wikimedia Foundation projects like Wikiquote and edits to the Spanish, French and German Wikipedias. This includes dozens of research reports posted to Wikiversity under [[v:Category:Freedom and abundance]] and 44 posts under [[v:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] that provide a platform for documenting and discussing 44 episodes of a fortnightly "Media & Democracy" series of 29:00 mm:ss podcasts syndicated for the [https://pacificanetwork.org/stations-2/ Pacifica Radio Network] featuring the opinions of leading experts on the increase in political polarization and violence and what those experts think should be done about this. I've just posted another chapter to [[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. I hope you will agree that this book can make a positive contribution to Wikibooks and to [[w:Jimmy Wales|Jimbo Wales]]' [[w:Wikipedia:Prime objective|Prime Directive]] to create "a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge." Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 01:19, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Thank you and I understand this, but I am asking why you think this material is more suitable at Wikibooks rather than at Wikiversity. From what I can see, Wikiversity seems like the more appropriate home for it given our [[Wikibooks:WIW|scope]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:59, 9 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::"Media Literacy and You" is textbook to support both self study and classes on media literacy. ::I have been posting content to Wikiversity since 2014 and have not encountered support there for books. A search just now turned up a hint of a book on Wikiversity, but I could not easily find anything on how to do it, etc. ::I think this "Media Literacy and You" project would lose the vast majority of its potential if it were not on Wikibooks. ::??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:22, 9 February 2026 (UTC) {{outdent}} {{re|Kittycataclysm}} Will you please help me with the protocols of creating a book on Wikiversity? 1. I have found documentation that claims that Wikiversity supports such. However, the documentation seems incomplete, potentially out of date, etc. For example, I could not see how to follow the instructions for [[Wikiversity:Help:Books#Step 1: Enable the "Book creator" tool]]. So I posted a question to [[Wikiversity:Help talk:Books]]. 2. What do you suggest I do next? :I can create an article on Wikiversity titled, "Media Literacy and You", and port everything I've posted to Wikibooks there, then replace the pages on Wikibooks with redirects to [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You]], [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/Introduction]], and [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. :If you think that's the best way to build this book project, great. It would actually be easier for me, because there would be less translation between what I already have on Wikiversity and a version for Wikibooks. (Also, Wikiversity supports <nowiki>{{cite Q|...}}</nowiki>, which I have used extensively for years.) :Thanks for your help. [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 13:26, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Unfortunately, I am not familiar with the exact workings of Wikiversity, so I can't be much help there. My personal recommendation is that you ask there for help on how best to structure your materials to match the WV requirements. If you'd like some additional opinions/insight, please feel free to also check in at the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General|reading room]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:22, 10 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} I believe I have finished migrating all of ''Media Literacy and You'' to Wikiversity and replacing the parts of it on Wikibooks with redirects. Comments? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 17:32, 10 February 2026 (UTC) == Thank you! == Heya, thanks for reviewing my stuff! Just to note, the first lesson page was done and so that'll need moving. If you want to discuss anything with me, I am easily reachable on Discord @ xiluosi233. I can explain philosophy, approach, and so on from my teaching experience if you want anything regarding that. [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 February 2026 (UTC) :It appears [[An Introduction to the Han Script]] was moved wrong - should it not be [[General Literary Chinese from Scratch/An Introduction to the Han Script]]? [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:52, 17 February 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] good catch! I accidentally removed more of the title than intended. I've fixed this now. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:18, 18 February 2026 (UTC) == A test request == Just to see whether a recent Luna update turned out as intended, could you briefly revert your [[User:Kittycataclysm/lunaoptions.json|Luna preferences page]] to the first revision? Since you don't appear to have any custom preferences in the first place, I don't think there should be any conflicts. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:49, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Done! But, it seems to have perhaps auto-updated again immediately afterwards. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:39, 10 April 2026 (UTC) == Linking == Hi,<br> For my edification, why is a link from [[Cookbook:nettle|nettle]] to [[w:Urtica_dioica|Urtica dioica]] not appropriate? The Wikipedia article has more information & seems relevant.<br> Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 01:53, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] good question! Wikibooks discourages outlinking, since books should be self-contained units. Instead of linking to [[w:Urtica dioica]], the correct approach would be to flesh out the actual chapter here at Wikibooks. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC) ::Should all material in the Wikipedia article about Urtica dioica relevant to cooking be duplicated into the nettle article in the cookbook? Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 02:30, 2 May 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] you could do that, although you should only include information that is sourced. However, I recommend that you wait, because I am coincidentally working on the page right now and fleshing it out significantly. I should publish today. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:40, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::The nettle page is better now. Thanks. ::::I still wonder, given that the link to ''The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, ...'' is permitted, why not a link to the botanically oriented page in Wikipedia. What if someone reads the Cookbook article and is interested in the toxin for example? Seems that non-Wikimedia references are more privileged than Wikimedia references. ::::Also, by chance, just noticed the [[w:Nettle_soup|Nettle soup]] article in Wikipedia. Better in the Cookbook? ::::Thx, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 19:10, 5 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Another good question. The reason those books are linked is because they are reputable and topical sources for the subject matter (nettles as used in cooking from an instructional perspective), and the links are part of the citations—this makes it different from a simple outlink to a Wikipedia page. Wikipedia pages should also not be cited themselves as sources. Regarding nettle soup, I don't think it makes sense to have that as a standalone page here in the cookbook due to its encyclopedic tone, and I don't see any recipes there. Does this make sense? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:21, 6 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::Somewhat. Certainly a recipe wouldn't be incongruous in a cookbook. Still seems unhelpful that relevant information in Wikipedia is inaccessible from a Wikibook. In effect there's a "Berlin Wall" between two Wikimedia projects. Would a "See also" section be permissible? ::::::Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 14:00, 7 May 2026 (UTC) == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:32, 28 April 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30471751 --> == Undeletion request == Hello, I am writing to request an undeletion of the page Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad. You stated you are a frequent visitor of the Lentis page and are thus familiar with it. This page was part of a class assignment and was in progress at the time of deletion. The work deleted is what we will be graded on for our class, so we would appreciate the restoration. [[User:Yqj3km|Yqj3km]] ([[User talk:Yqj3km|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yqj3km|contribs]]) 19:36, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Yqj3km|Yqj3km]] see my response below regarding undeletion. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Undeletion request == About the page on Lentis called Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad: I, too, request undeletion, please. If the authors made any msitakes, the fault is 100 percent mine, for failing to guide them correctly. Like all chapters in this book, this team's chapter is a class assignment. I will be interested also in the reason for deletion so that I can guide authors better. I want to help my students be constructive contributors. Many thanks! [[User:Norton|Norton]] ([[User talk:Norton|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Norton|contribs]]) 20:03, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Norton|Norton]] and thanks for the ping! I deleted it because it was not titled/filed correctly, so I didn't realize it was part of [[Lentis]]. I have undeleted it and moved it to [[Lentis/Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:14, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::Many, many thanks, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am very grateful as always for everything you do for Wikibooks! ::[[User:Norton|Norton]] ([[User talk:Norton|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Norton|contribs]]) 22:27, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Log in issues == Hi, messaging you as you seem to be the most active admin at the moment. I can't log in (as posted at <bdi>[[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance]] and also on my WP page at</bdi> [[w:User_talk:Xania]]). Seems to be an issue with extra security for admins? I am asked to use my authenticator app (which I can't as I have never set it up for Wikibooks) or a recovery code (which I don't have). Any idea what I should do in this situation? Xania [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28255-89|&#126;2026-28255-89]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28255-89|talk]]) 18:21, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :Apologies for missing this yesterday! It seems like we have a few people working on it over in the reading room, and I'll keep track there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Splitting pages == FYI, I untagged [[Art Print Production Methods]] as for splitting: the page is rather small with its 20 KB and does not need splitting, in my view. Ideally, there would be an operationalized, fairly detailed policy on the matter, but I do not know of one. Single-page books are in [[:Category:One-page books]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:45, 20 May 2026 (UTC) == <s>Slander</s> == <S>Your tag is slanderous and very easily proven wrong.</s>[https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654455] Given you likely didn't bother to look at the edit history, I would remind you that your given reason that you think it was AI is because you see the chapter is "numbered". That however was 100% my own personal decision after I reviewed my work and thought to myself that I later wrote in the introduction that there is a first to fourth chapter. However I thought to myself that the readers would not be easily made aware of what is meant by first to fourth as I didn't number them - so is why I dedicated an entire edit to make it less ambiguous [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654328]. I should not have to be falsely penalized because I wanted to be more considerate and ensure better clarity. I do however request AI to help me figure out coding like this - [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654329] as I don't know how to link. But I intentionally take great efforts to not rely on AI to write that book and find your wrongful presumptions troubling. [[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 06:00, 15 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] thank you for clarifying! I flagged it for review because it matched a common pattern we see associated with LLM use here. If that is not the case, then nothing needs to happen in that respect; however, you will likely want to fix the lists so that they are correctly formatted in the Wikitext and not hard-written—let me know if you have any questions about that. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:14, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::Yeah, I don't instantly understand what you mean by "correctly formatted" list. At first, I assumed you were referring to chapter 4 - (''Further reading'')? But I think I know what you mean. I made this edit here [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654738] to align with how I see wikibooks typically do lists. Did I fix it? If not, feel free to clarify.[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 18:35, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::I thought about how I responded earlier. Even tho I still disagree, I probably shouldn't have used such a tone. I imagine admins like yourself do a lot of work overseeing wiki and the project owes a lot to you guys. So I take back my harsh words, and I hope we're good.[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 03:38, 17 July 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] I appreciate that—thank you! And thank you for [[Special:Diff/4654738|making those changes to the lists]], which was indeed what I was referring to. Happy editing! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:31, 17 July 2026 (UTC) == The Geoguide == I literally wrote all of this myself I used no AI if you want to you can highlight the areas that seem way too formal and ill fix them [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 04:22, 18 July 2026 (UTC) :Thank you! I have removed the flag. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:41, 20 July 2026 (UTC) == Vandalism == your recent changes may not be constructive. {{Warning}} [[User:Duodeca 12|Duodeca 12]] ([[User talk:Duodeca 12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Duodeca 12|contribs]]) 20:39, 2 August 2026 (UTC) == Your recent revert == Could you explain [[Special:Diff/4670314]]? This seems to be you ''restoring'' vandalism, which was originally introduced by [[Special:Diff/4669920]]. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 20:06, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :Good catch! Somehow I didn't have the most recent version of a page loaded, and it seems like Luna reverts the most recent edit of a page and not the specific edit you're viewing. The edit in question should be fixed now. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:11, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry {{PAGENAME}} for butting in here, I hope you don't mind. ::Just wanted to mention that I have had a few similar experiences when editing (not having the most recent version of a page loaded). Once this caused me friction with an admin who was convinced I was willfully undoing their edit. This happened years ago on another wikimedia project. ::Ottawahitech [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 01:18, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == Confirmed user == If this is one, could I perhaps be a confirmed user? The software has not granted me autoconfirmed, despite me having the requirements. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:50, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 5m7amruuw7rwedjl9qoafo079lkoy87 4671822 4671820 2026-09-22T23:58:58Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Confirmed user */ 4671822 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="3" |Talk Page Archives |- |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2022|2022]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2023|2023]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2024|2024]] |} == That IP range calculator == Following [[phab:T381138|T381138]], I have now become the maintainer of the IP range calculator you like. You can find it [[toolforge:ftools/general/ip-range-calc.html|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:10, 9 January 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the heads-up! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:56, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == A merge and unmerge from two years ago == I was browsing through the history merge log when I saw that you merged [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] into [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]], and then promptly reverted it. What happened here exactly? Could I correct it? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 15:55, 10 January 2025 (UTC) :Good question! I can't remember what I was trying to do, but it looks like I didn't succeed at what I wanted based on the log comment. You're just trying to history merge to get [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]] to have continuity of history? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:35, 10 January 2025 (UTC) ::I think I figured out your mistake: it outright moved the revisions from the first page to the second, rather than copying them. This would have caused the other two [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] pages to have incomplete histories. I think the only solution would be to XML import the pre-April 2023 revisions from the first page to the other three, and I'm not sure if that's the best idea, and I am technically unable to do so. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:49, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == Undeletion request == I wouldn't be surprised if you expected this, but I'd like to ask you to undelete the subpages of [[Rotorcraft Fundamentals]] you just deleted with the summary "Use of copyrighted work without permission. Please read Terms of Use: page needs to be imported for attribution", so that I can do that. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 19:54, 14 January 2025 (UTC) :Done! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:57, 14 January 2025 (UTC) ::Upon further investigation, this might actually be a rare case where an [[WB:UT|unmerged transwiki]] is ''preferred'' (this is part of why I stopped calling them "bad transwikis"), since only a small portion of the Wikipedia article (with over 2,000 revisions) was copied over. Importation is generally only needed if the ''majority'' of the page is copied across wikis. I'll just leave a null edit providing attribution and add {{tlx|Copied}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 21:19, 14 January 2025 (UTC) == Reusing [[Cookbook:8 Desserts in 1 Pan]] on wikiHow == Hi, I am a user on wikiHow, see [[wikihow:User:Xeverything11]]. I would like to create a new recipe on wikiHow. I wanted to let us know if I can give permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe from Wikibooks to wikiHow. I (as a copyright holder) created this recipe on Wikibooks, but you contributed to this recipe. If not, I'll use the revision before you contributed since I was the only author. Wikibooks uses CC-BY-SA 4.0 while wikiHow uses CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0, which both licenses are incompatible due to ShareAlike conditions. Thanks [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 08:27, 15 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] I'm personally fine with this as long as proper attribution is given back to the original recipe page here. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:52, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::I adapted this [[wikihow:Make-8-Desserts-in-1-Pan|recipe]] on wikiHow with attribution, and got a Rising Star (an achievement used for best new articles on wikiHow). Thank you! [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 19:49, 24 January 2025 (UTC) == Wikibooks community == Hi, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am trying to contribute more to English Wikibooks. My main contributions will focus on the Cookbook, especially on Indonesian recipes. Do you have a community group where we can discuss and share ideas together? I am looking forward to join. Thank you! [[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 08:47, 16 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] Sorry I missed this, and welcome! Are you asking about a Cookbook-specific area for discussion? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:39, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::Yes. Do you know place for this? ::Thank you ::[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 09:41, 21 January 2025 (UTC) :::Honestly, there's not a centralized Cookbook-specific discussion space, especially since there aren't currently a ton of active contributors. Some people ask questions at [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. I'm currently the most consistently active and involved Cookbook editor, so feel free to ask me questions! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:46, 22 January 2025 (UTC) == Congratulations! == [[File:Admin T-shirt.svg|thumb|You get this now.]] You are now a permanent administrator. Welcome to the team (I am entitled to say this because I technically got the extension a few hours before you did)!{{FBDB}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 10:33, 29 January 2025 (UTC) :Thanks :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:29, 29 January 2025 (UTC) == Is there a way to contact a Steward on WikiBooks? == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Is there a way to contact a Steward on WB? I tried to find who the active Stewards are here at [[Special:ActiveUsers?username=&groups%5B%5D=steward&wpFormIdentifier=specialactiveusers]] but nothing shows up. The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the [[Wikimania-wiki]], but I just visited the [[wikimania 2014 wiki]] and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the [[Wikimania 2014 main-page talk]] but disovered that the Stewards have protected it. Is there a way wikibookians can communicate with Stewards at WB? Thanks in advance for answering this non-urgent question, and apologies for all the red-links which I can bluify if needed. Cheers [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:37, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] You can ask this on somewhere like [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]]. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:01, 7 February 2025 (UTC) <s>:@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] seconding what Leaderboard said—we no longer have any active stewards at enWB.</s> Had a brain fade there and mixed up stewards with bureaucrats. Yes, meta is the place for this. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::@Kittycataclysm,@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], or anyone else: ::Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb. I myself am indef-blocked at META so could not participate at [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]] even if I waned to. ::Since [[Wikimania]] is a topic of interest to all members of the [[wikimedia movement]] why can't wikibookians talk to thier elected representatives here? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:56, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :::@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] I can check with the blocking admin to see if they'd be willing to unblock you, if you'd like. The reason things like these are done at Meta is that Meta is a cross-project coordination platform - stewards ''cannot'' be expected to watch every project after all. Now you could message any steward here on Wikibooks if you really wanted to, but that is not normally a good idea. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 02:26, 8 February 2025 (UTC) ::::Wikimania is the annual conference celebrating all the free knowledge projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF). It is a wikimedia initiative which is meant to help all of our projects (including wikibooks), gain more readership, educate more wiki-editors, foster better communications, and much more. The wmf has been hosting a Wikimania-wiki dedicated to each Wikimania annual event since 2004. These wikis contain a wealth of information, but can benefit from wiki-improvements, starting from spelling and grammar errors that detract from their to appeal to the general membership. It would be nice if Stewards paid more attention to it. ::::@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], I truly appreciate your offer, but I posted this here not in order to get someone to advocate for one unblocking at META. As I said earlier: ::::* "Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb" ::::* "The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the Wikimania-wiki, but I just visited the wikimania 2014 wiki and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the Wikimania 2014 main-page talk but disovered that the Stewards have protected it" ::::I would much rather see more wikimedia members question blocking in general at META. One cannot run such large movement of people from different backgrounds and nationalities simply by silencing minorities IMIO. [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:12, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Crystal ball]] == That page appears to be a mixture of isolated paragraphs from [[w:Crystal ball|Crystal ball]], hence my tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 03:04, 9 February 2025 (UTC) :Yep, that seems correct! I also queried it simply because it does not seem suitable for inclusion at all. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:09, 9 February 2025 (UTC) == Question about an edit suggestion == Hi Kittycataclysm, Thanks for the great work you do as an admin! I wanted to clarify a suggestion you made on a recently published page I’m working on. You recommended splitting it into smaller sections—would you suggest creating separate pages for these sections, or would a higher-level header for some topics be sufficient? Any specific recommendations you have would be greatly appreciated! Here’s the link to the page I’m referring to: [[Funding and Finance of Transportation Projects in the United States of America]] Thank you! [[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]] ([[User talk:Svrmustafa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Svrmustafa|contribs]]) 18:19, 18 February 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]], and thanks for asking! Splitting refers to creating new pages, each with a smaller amount of content. The main page should then contain a table of contents, and each page can contain a navigation template for easier navigation. I'll create the table of contents based on the current work and move some content to one of those pages as an example for you; then, you can do the rest. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:26, 19 February 2025 (UTC) ::Following up on this—I noticed that you use the term "paper". However, technically Wikibooks hosts books not papers, so you should probably change this wording. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:38, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Talkback == {{Talkback|Cookbook talk:Chilli Crab|Recipe Questions}} [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 09:54, 19 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] I also made [[Cookbook:Prata|this]] [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:15, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Hello == Can you look at my latest recipe? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 00:10, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :I saw it! It needs a few corrections, which I'll note. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:23, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] How do you write recipe summary, correct headers [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 06:04, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :::Please see [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]]. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:08, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 02:33, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook == Hi there, Kittycataclysm. I wandered over here from Wikipedia, and I'm quite enamoured with this cookbook. I noticed you seem to be the one maintaining it, and I thought I'd reach out. Can I really just start cranking out recipes from public domain cookbooks and my family recipes? It's that simple? I was also wondering about the featured recipes section. There's not very many in there, and I imagine there's not very many folks around to do reviews compared to GAR on Wikipedia. How do you handle content review? Thanks. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:51, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] and welcome! For some context, the Cookbook has been around since the very beginning of Wikibooks, but it had gotten into a bit of disarray over the course of about two decades by the time I found it. I started the long process of overhauling, standardizing, and expanding it just over four years ago—I finished standardizing the recipe formatting and quality a while back and am currently working my way through the ingredient pages before moving on to equipment, techniques, and cuisines. You can absolutely add any public domain recipes as well as your own recipes—they just need to conform to the [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template|recipe template]] and [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy overall]]. It's even better if you've made the recipe and can contribute a nice picture and specific guidance/instructions/notes! Please feel free to ask me any questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:27, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::Oh, and regarding the featured recipes section, I actually haven't gotten around to looking into that yet—there's been a lot to do! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:28, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::That's great, thanks a lot for your response. This is just delightful. Maybe content review is something that we could collaborate on. There's a lot of recipes in here and it would be nice to know which ones are the best. Question for you, [[:Category:Brown sauces]] is really bothering me. How can I move that to Brown sauce recipes? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:29, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::Good catch on that category! It seems like it was created two decades ago and never got corrected—feel free to recategorize those recipes. Thank you also for introducing the hideprefix parameter to the category trees—I didn't realize that was an option, and it reduces the visual clutter! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:38, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::My pleasure! As I continue to look at the categories, this is actually worse than I thought. We have both [[:Category:Sauce recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes for condiments]] and I suspect that's just the beginning. I want to go through and categorize everything properly, but the bones aren't even there... How long do I have to be here before it'll let me create and move around categories? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:40, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Regarding the categories, the category overhauling is in progress, since I address the category when I overhaul the associated page. The variation in titling is actually somewhat deliberate—I started changing it from "____ recipes" in certain cases to solve a particular categorization problem. Sometimes, there is an item that is used in recipes as an ingredient but for which there are also recipes. For example, [[:Category:Recipes for bread]] versus [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]. The different naming scheme is necessary to properly delineate the categories, and I'm working on implementing it a bit more consistently as I go. While you're still getting started, it would be great if you could check with me when something looks odd or out of place—that way I can take a look and weigh in on whether that's normal or not and maybe provide some context. Just off the top of my head, I think you will have to wait for autoreview status to make move changes. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:56, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::I see what you're saying, I've been trying to wrap my head around that. Maybe it would be beneficial to try to put together some sort of a Cookbook MOS regarding category structure? It's kind of all over the place right now. Using your bread example, would it perhaps make more sense to have [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]? There would be no ambiguity with just those two categories, but when you add the extra [[:Category:Recipes for bread]], that's when things start getting a little whacky. What do you think? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:05, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::Either that or get rid of [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and keep the other two. But one of these categories gotta go, I reckon. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::::I see you already had the same thought as me. I think all categories should include "for" or "using". Take for example, [[:Category:Recipes for pancakes]] as opposed to [[:Category:Pancake recipes]]. Well obviously there's no recipes using pancakes. But for something like [[:Category:Recipes for gravy]], there may also be a need for [[:Category:Recipes using gravy]]. The lack of consistency in this regard means the only way to achieve consistency across the categories is by changing them over to that format. Sorry for clogging up your talk page! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:18, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::::Same heads-up as below—migrating this over to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]] —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:10, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :Also, on [[Cookbook:Table of Contents]], could you please add a wikilink for [[Cookbook:Breakfast]], and maybe add cooknav to the top for seamless navigation between all the top level articles? Can't edit that article yet. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:47, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == More Table of Content Edits == Hello again. I've been going through everything and this is my list of suggestions for edits to the table of contents. Unfortunately there's not much else I can do for now, because without autoconfirmed my ability to change anything is very limited. I was going to ask for someone to check off the confirmed box for me at RfP but I can't post there either, so I guess I'll be back in four days. * Fix Bread wikilink * Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing * [[Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Low-Carb]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] to [[Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine]] for parity * Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting * Create [[:Category:Lunch recipes]], wikilink to ToC * Wikilink [[Cookbook:Dessert]] under Meals * Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category * Create [[Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine]] so I can add the recipes from [[:Category:East Asian recipes]] to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC * Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction" * Appendix and Equipment sections switch places Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:46, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :I took the liberty of doing it myself in my userspace. You can just copy it over from [[User:MediaKyle/sandbox]]. Figured I'd save you the trouble of trying to figure out what I'm talking about. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 14:15, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Circling back to this! It seems like your suggestions are getting at a couple different things. I'll try to go through them point-by-point below: :* {{xt|Fix Bread wikilink}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing}} see below comments on TOC. :* {{xt|Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for now because I don't fully understand the urgency and I want to triage/prioritize things for you, but please feel free to make this change yourself once you can! :* {{xt|Cookbook:Low-Carb points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for same reason as above. :* {{xt|Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean to Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine for parity}} {{not done}} for now just because we do have a lot of cuisine pages that follow the form "Cuisine of ____". It could be good to standardize, and I had been planning to do that once I got around to the cuisines. :* {{xt|Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting}} {{not done}} for same reason as other redirects :* {{xt|Create Category:Lunch recipes, wikilink to ToC}} Not quite sure what you mean here, and I didn't see what it corresponded to in your linked sandbox page :* {{xt|Wikilink Cookbook:Dessert under Meals}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category}} I'm not sure about this—brunch is in many places considered a separate entity, and I don't necessarily think it would cause confusion. But, overall it's hard to determine whether it should have its own page and TOC link because I haven't actually gotten around to evaluating the meal pages and what role they should play. See also the TOC notes below. :* {{xt|Create Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine so I can add the recipes from Category:East Asian recipes to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC}} {{done}} for now; however, I'm not sure yet whether it will ultimately make sense to keep that as a content page. I think content pages should be reasonably focused, and it may not be the best to have a cuisine page that is so broad. This is something I planned to consider once I made my way around the overhauling the cuisines. :* {{xt|Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction"}} The reason I made it "Introductory Matter" instead of "Introduction" is because there's already a chapter itself titled "Introduction"—it felt odd to have the entire section titled that as well. Happy to discuss other header options (e.g. "Front Matter", which is a generally accepted book term) :* {{xt|Appendix and Equipment sections switch places}} see below comments on TOC. :* '''Comments on the TOC:''' So, I think a fundamental issue with the current TOC is that it somewhat arbitrarily picks and chooses individual pages to link. It also sometimes direct-links to categories and sometimes to content pages, which I don't think we should do. Because the cookbook is so expansive, it's been established that manual indices intending to capture detail in large areas don't really make sense and quickly get bulky and out-of-date. This is why categorytree is such a useful tool! After thinking on it for a while and making some small tweaks, I think I'd ultimately like to overhaul the TOC and come to a solution that keeps a few broad headers/links to the small handful of the primary content pages while perhaps stashing away more detailed and self-updating lists in a collapsible way to reduce clutter but allow for customizable user navigation. Much to think about, and I'll probably workshop some things on the side to see how they feel. :Let me know if I've misunderstood anything! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:24, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for the notes! Here's my thoughts: ::* On the Cuisine titling, it actually seems like [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] and [[Cookbook:East Asian cuisines]] are the only ones that don't follow the naming scheme, i.e. "[[Cookbook:African Cuisine]]", and I think that shorter titles are preferable where it makes sense. ::* On your note about East Asian Cuisine, I actually had the same thought after going through the cuisine pages. Having three separate pages for different kinds of Asian cuisine does seem a little silly, doesn't it? Do you think it might be better to combine all of them under one "Asian Cuisine", but put the different locales under separate headers? ::* On Brunch - I honestly think there's way too much ambiguity around what exactly constitutes as "brunch" to keep that in. I feel as though the term brunch more applies to the time you're eating, rather than the kind of food. I think it would be easier to keep meals that include commonly accepted breakfast foods in the Breakfast category, and things that don't fit neatly into that, into the Lunch category. This would prevent any dilemmas in the future where we can't decide whether something is breakfast or brunch. ::* You're right that it looks a little awkward to have the header as Introduction when there's a page called introduction. I still think that to say "Introductory Matter", or "Front Matter" as you mentioned, is a little long-winded and reflects a more academic tone than needed for a cookbook. Upon further reflection, I think maybe rather than worrying about the header at this point, we should perhaps think about trying to compile all of those short introductory type pages into one comprehensive introductory page. Then we likely won't even need a header for it on the ToC. ::* The ToC is definitely a bit cluttered, and it bothers me too that there's a real lack of consistency across whether the wikilinks lead to a page or a category. I'm not sure how I would feel about cutting away too much of the navigation from it, though, because just about every page on there does have a reason to be there, it's just that they're not presented very nicely. Some of it can certainly get nested or combined though. I'll play around with it over the next few days in my sandbox as well and let you know if I come up with anything. ::* As an aside, the first thing on my to-do list once my autoconfirmed comes through is to start subcategorizing all of the recipes so that they're all nicely sorted in the category trees. When you have a chance, I'd love to hear your thoughts on what we should use as the standard naming for categories. Once we determine this, I think we can also take the liberty of updating the cookbook MoS to reflect it. ::Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:33, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :::Note: After writing this, I realized what you were getting at about slashing away some of the subpages. Maybe we can come up with a system where all of those subpages are under their main subpage rather than on the ToC. For example, all the Cuisines are under [[Cookbook:Cuisines]], all techniques under [[Cookbook:Cooking Techniques]], to keep the subpages off the main ToC. Also, I wonder if maybe we should try to make a centralized discussion for this somewhere, in case anyone else wants to join in at some point? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:45, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::Heads-up: to make it easier to keep track of these and since I think they deserve their own discussions, I'm going to gradually migrate them over individually to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:52, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Good idea. Can you remove the semi-protection from that talk page? I see no reason why it should be protected. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:23, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook ToC == Hi [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. I was just wondering why you didn't respond to my above message, and started a separate sandbox for the ToC instead? It seems as though you don't really want to collaborate. It would be nice if we could work on this together. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 22:43, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] thanks for the ping! I'm sorry you feel like I don't want to collaborate—the opposite is true, and please understand that this is good-faith editing. The reason I haven't responded to the above points is mostly since you've been modifying a bunch of content and adding suggestions lately, and I've been working my way through these while continuing with my routine contributions and real life as well—things happen a little more slowly here than on other projects, and I'm the one person dedicated to the cookbook right now. The reason I created that sandbox was because I saw [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#Modernize the shelves|your comment]] at the reading room and wanted to play around and think about your suggestion without touching the actual TOC. You're right that it's not the best, and it's been something I've been thinking about for a bit now. Please understand also that it can be overwhelming when a new editor unfamiliar with the Cookbook begins making a high volume of edits and suggestions without having much experience with it or its history—this isn't to say that you don't have good ideas or things worth contributing. In fact, you have already made a few helpful changes, as I've mentioned. I just want to do this properly and take the time to evaluate your suggestions together with the current efforts that are underway, and that can take a bit. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:03, 2 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for getting back to me. While I may be new to Wikibooks, I'm certainly not new to MediaWiki, and I've been working with small wiki projects for a number of years. Perhaps it's been a misunderstanding to some degree, but I've found my reception here to be unusually unwelcoming. The way to do this properly, as you said, would be to have discussions and form consensus. Yesterday, when you reached out to me about adding hideroot to the pages, I gave you my rationale and was more than happy to have a discussion about it, but you did not reply. I noticed a similar situation happened with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Ottawahitech#Category_sorting Ottawahitech], regarding category sorting. I'm aware that you're the main person looking after the cookbook right now, which is why I reached out to you right from the get go. ::I understand why you would want to create your own sandbox to play around with options for the ToC, but I'm sure you can understand why it would draw my attention that you would do this without implementing any of the wikilink fixes I mentioned, or making an attempt to discuss it further. This came across to me as not wanting my help. ::I invite you to check out my page on Wikipedia. I've made contributions across quite a wide area of topics there, as well as the other Wikimedia projects, and this is the first time I've encountered any sort of resistance to my contributions. I think Wikibooks has enormous potential, and I'm very excited to contribute to helping it grow. On most projects, this would be something to be encouraged. I don't feel like "I'm sorry that you feel that way" was really an appropriate response. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:59, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :::I think you're right that this has been a mix of misunderstanding and miscommunication, and I think I can understand how things came across as unwelcoming! For whatever it's worth, I absolutely plan on circling back to the various discussions at hand (I have all the relevant pages open to return to), but it seems like the order I did things made it seem like I was ignoring you (if I'm understanding correctly). I am pretty busy, so sometimes items on my to-do list do get lost/shunted or it takes me a bit to get around to something—please don't hesitate to give me a ping if it seems like I'm taking a while to get back to something. Looking forward to more collaboration! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:49, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::I'm glad you can understand where I'm coming from. To clarify, my intent is not to try to rush you, or to try to push you to make changes that you don't agree with. It's really easy to misinterpret things over the Internet, and I think a short message can go a long way. I apologize if I've caused you any undue stress by coming into the cookbook and unleashing a flurry of alterations, but do rest assured that I'm not married to any of my changes, I'm always open for discussion, and I want to see the cookbook improve just like you do. The great thing about wikis is that no change is permanent. I think we'll have it in tip-top shape in no time! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:19, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Polish Doughnuts (Paczki)]] == Do you see any reason not to just add this to Featured Recipes? At least we know this one works, and it seems like this is now one of the few recipes to have a picture that actually aligns with the recipe used. I was thinking later on we'll come up with a content review system where a couple editors will actually try the recipes nominated for FR, but in the absence of that I'd just add it to the list. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 12:25, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :I'm fine with adding it to the featured recipes. You're right that we'll want to come up with a good system for this going forward, though it's lower down on my personal priority list at moment. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Cream Cheese American Buttercream]] == Hi! I am a wikiHow user and I am planning to adapt this recipe to wikiHow. Since you contributed to this recipe, I wanted to know if I can get permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe. Thanks. [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 21:41, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] that's fine with me as long as proper attribution and linking back to the original recipe page here are included at the top. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:28, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[A Companion to Our Literary Journey]] == Hi! I feel that we have started to outline the scope in a clearer and more precise way and that’s the work we are going to do with the students this and for the next years, adding more sections and content. Do you think that would be enough? [[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]] ([[User talk:Ferdi2005|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ferdi2005|contribs]]) 22:43, 6 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]]! Yes, this seems to be reasonably outlined. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:51, 7 March 2025 (UTC) == Exercising care with copyright == When deleting a page as a copyright violation, it is important that you '''do not quote any content from the deleted page'''. If you do, then your log entry is itself a copyright violation. I have redacted a recent deletion that you performed because of this. If you want to make sure that none of your past deletions have been problematic for this reason, you can [[quarry:query/90444|run this SQL query]] to get a list of every deletion that could be eligible for redaction. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 18:32, 21 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] and thank you for the message. In the most recent instance that I think you're referencing, I do not see any material in the edit summary that posed a significant risk—I don't believe the few listed words would be a copyright concern. However, I do understand your concern! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:31, 21 March 2025 (UTC) == Splitting Pages == Hi I have recently made the book on the [[History of the Nawabs of Bengal]] and you gave a notice on how you believe it should be split into smaller bits. As I am still new to wikibooks I don't know how to do this. Can you please assist me on renaming the page so I can split the page into multiple pages? @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 19:47, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]]: You did it. I've removed the tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:44, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :Like @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] said, you're all set! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 29 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks! @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 10:24, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == Minecraft book == Is it good creating pages like this, [[Minecraft#Husk]]? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 12:43, 9 May 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:18, 10 May 2025 (UTC) ::are we allowed to create pages like that? like for every mob [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:02, 11 May 2025 (UTC) :::To be honest, I don't think the structure and formatting of the book is very good. Several of the mob pages, for example, have very little information and aren't particularly helpful on their own. If I were working on it, I would restructure the book. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:09, 11 May 2025 (UTC) ::::I am planning to do that. [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 04:19, 12 May 2025 (UTC) == Request to Review Adjusted User Page (XoriantTeam) == Hello [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I hope you're well. I noticed that my user page ([[User:XoriantTeam]]) was recently deleted for appearing promotional or inappropriate for Wikibooks. Thank you for keeping the community standards in check. I’ve since revised the content with closer attention to neutrality and compliance with Wikibooks guidelines. My intent is to participate constructively, especially in areas related to digital engineering and educational content creation. If possible, I’d appreciate your help reviewing the revised version. I'm happy to share it or upload it as a file if there’s a preferred method. Please let me know how best to proceed. I welcome any suggestions and will gladly make further adjustments. Best regards, XoriantTeam [[User:XoriantTeam|XoriantTeam]] ([[User talk:XoriantTeam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/XoriantTeam|contribs]]) 11:02, 15 May 2025 (UTC) :Hi there—you can publish an updated user page, but I'd caution you against talking about your company. Keep it limited to your involvement with Wikibooks. You may contribute productively here, but further promotional materials are grounds for an indefinite block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:30, 15 May 2025 (UTC) == Planning to use AWB to update categories on the cookbook == Hello. I noticed in recent changes that you were moving some categories using HotCat (e.g. moving Category:Chile recipes to Category:Recipes using chile), which can be time-consuming. Therefore, I plan to help you with moving the cookbook categories by adding myself to enabledusers and enabledbots in [[Wikibooks:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON]]. Would this be fine if I assist you and to add myself to the check page? I am familiar with using AWB after testing on a non-Wikimedia project. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:42, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—thank you for the tip! I just installed JWB, so this should make my mass cat changes much faster. Thanks again! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:11, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for the information. Also, is it okay if I change (for example) [[:Category:Vinegar recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes using vinegar]] (I can redirect the former category to the latter), given that we should move {{tq|Category:[ingredient] recipes}} to {{tq|Category:Recipes using [ingredient]}} for consistency? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :::Sure thing—go ahead! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:53, 8 June 2025 (UTC) == Tool for even faster category changes == See [[:c:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot#As_your_user_gadget]]. I just [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Koavf/common.js&action=history installed it] and used it dozens of times in a click. Let me know if you need any help. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:36, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Thanks! I'm having a little trouble activating it, but I'll keep trying. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:54, 19 June 2025 (UTC) ::A lot of times, a purge will do the trick. See [[:mw:Purge]]. Usually just <kbd>Ctrl+Shift+R</kbd> once or twice. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:55, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :::Took several purges, but we're set now! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:16, 19 June 2025 (UTC) == Advice on when I should run for adminship == Hi, I hope you are doing well. I am asking for some advice on when I should run for enwikibooks adminship, given the following below: Currently, I am doing some optimizations for dark mode on this project, and some of the message box/MediaWiki interface/template pages might be outdated, fully protected, or can use a little help using mw-parser-output. These unfortunately might hinder the process of updating these pages/templates for Vector 2022's dark mode.<br> Additionally, I have a solid expertise with edit filters, as I have requested some administrators to update deprecated filter variables, switching filters from warn and disallow to disallow only, and I can also monitor the filter log for potential false positives (from local or global filters). A fellow English Wikibooks administrator also said to me that they are willing to support me in a few months when I run for adminship, as I am generally trusted. I hold two advanced global permissions, and I hold an edit filter helper permission on the English Wikipedia, to be sure. Thank you for your consideration. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:02, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—good question! I agree that you are a trusted user, and I think it would be reasonable for you to run for adminship, especially given our need to fix up technical aspects of the project. If you don't plan to commit to Wikibooks long-term (i.e. you have some projects you'd like to take a few months to complete and then be done), you can always request temporary adminship. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:30, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for your feedback, but I also plan to monitor for vandalism/spam, and to commit to reduce the administrative assistance reading room backlog, should I be elected for adminship (and I forgot to mention those). Anyway, regarding your feedback, I might run by August or even July, given that I've lately started contributing more often to Wikibooks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:29, 23 June 2025 (UTC) ::: [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am pinging you one more time to see if you have read my response above yours. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:34, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]! I'm not sure what you mean—was there an additional question you had? Everything you've outlined seems quite reasonable. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:26, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::: Apologies for the confusion, I don't have any questions to ask. I was clarifying that I can help with implementing edit requests and to block obvious vandals and spammers, aside from the skills I mentioned earlier. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:32, 26 June 2025 (UTC) == how is it you feel able to interfere in my sandbox? == you deleted a page in my sandbox that was my way of providing my response to a request from an OpenSCAD dev team leader for a couple of text blurbs for use on a web page of the OpenSCAD site. now that you have deleted my page i have to recreate the texts from a screenshot to be able to offer the suggestions, which i will This kind of high handed treatment is what keeps me from being a wiki-anything contributor .. If it is Wiki policy to interfere in the documentation of an open source project because it is hosted on Wikibooks then i will take up the task of moving our online docs to a site where you cannot interfere. -- [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 21:56, 29 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]]—thanks for bringing this to my attention. I now understand that this was intended to be in your user namespace—I've undeleted it and moved it to the correct namespace for you. Let me know if anything else comes up! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:05, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::ah .. err .. umm .. well that is a gentle answer to my ire. Thanks for being so gracious [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:29, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::and .. isn't my sandbox in my namespace by default? [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:30, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :::No worries—it looks like you didn't add the prefix "User:" before writing out the full page titles, so the pages you created were technically in the project's Main space with the official published materials. Going forward, you can just double-check that the page title starts with "'''User:'''VulcanWikiEdit/sandbox", and that should keep everything in the right place! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:36, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::::BTW .. i love the play on cat lover name [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 15:35, 1 July 2025 (UTC) :::::Thank you! That's very kind. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:46, 1 July 2025 (UTC) == Regarding the user Codename Tameirao == Could this be Matthew again (the Unicode LTA)? I believe it might be him based on his usage of edit summaries, and his usual edits to [[Unicode/Versions]]. I just blocked his recent account, and then I protected and stabilized that Unicode book. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 23:51, 12 August 2025 (UTC) :I suspect you're right! That seems like a reasonable course of action. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:56, 13 August 2025 (UTC) :: I recently encountered another possible LTA, see [[Special:Contributions/~2025-55706-6]] (as well as [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]]). I can email you more details if you want. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 16:30, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::I think this is the same LTA, yes! I've protected [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]], but I think it would be a good idea if we could automate this monitoring somewhat using the edit filter. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:07, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I don't think that was Matthew, as he typically uses edit summaries. The deleted page was not protected, as it was protected before you deleted it; I salted it from creation for one year. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:22, 9 September 2025 (UTC) ::::: You might want to look at [[Special:Contributions/Freddy Fazbearing Others]]. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:18, 26 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you! I went ahead and blocked them. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:54, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == IP block exempt == Hi Kitty, I currently have IP block exemption on enwiki, Commons and Wikidata as I use VPNs connected to my internet security software. Can you please grant me the right on wikibooks. I have a strong password and use two factor authentication. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 10:51, 22 August 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TarnishedPath|TarnishedPath]]! This doesn't sound unreasonable to me, but I think it would be good if you requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] so we can have a discussion—I have not granted this right before. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:50, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::Kitty, thanks for pointing me in the right direction. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:25, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::See [[Wikibooks:Requests_for_permissions#TarnishedPath_(discuss_·_contribs_·_count_·_logs_·_block_log_·_rfp_·_rights)_(IP_Block_Exemption)]] ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:35, 23 August 2025 (UTC) == You've got mail! == {{You've got mail|sig=<span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 00:20, 6 September 2025 (UTC)}} :Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:06, 6 September 2025 (UTC) == Are you able to import? == I made a few requests over at https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Requests_for_import . [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 22:32, 4 October 2025 (UTC) : [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]], I'll go ahead and start the imports. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you for your help [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 16:51, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::: My apologies for not doing this sooner, because some database error appears when I am trying to mass import. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:39, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::::I also tried to make this import earlier and ran into issues with the software. I was hoping it was a temporary bug, but it seems to be persisting. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:01, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::This seems like I should get involved. {{working}}... [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:11, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::: I believe there are five pages that have massive page histories they fail to import here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:13, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::::I backed up the XMLs of them locally but im unsure how much that'd do. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 15:18, 6 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Just became an importer. The reason is prob understandable but I cannot upload the XML file to here locally. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 17:23, 10 October 2025 (UTC) == About the category parameter in the recipe summary template == When it uses a "recipe by type" category, should it use a "[type/food] recipes" name or "Recipes for [type/food]"? I recently operated JWB to change from [[:Category:Dessert recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes for dessert]] in multiple Cookbook recipes, and from what I've said before, I've changed to ''Recipes for dessert'' in the category parameter of Cookbook recipes. Hope you don't mind that this was over more than 250 changes (not counting the recent category changes after moving some recipe categories). Thanks. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:07, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—those JWB changes you made seem fine to me! I'm not quite sure what you're asking in your first sentence, though. Assuming I understand correctly: in general, I think the default format should be whatever the actual category name is. BUT if there is a redirect, it ultimately shouldn't matter too much. And, because I'm not convinced of the utility of that infobox parameter in the first place (thinking of removing it), I'm not hugely concerned about it for the time being. Does this help? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:21, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :: Probably, but I will say the following below (for my first sentence) to clarify: :: On the <code>|category =</code> parameter, when placing a recipe category name, should it either be {{tq|Sandwich recipes}} or {{tq|Recipes for sandwiches}}? I hope this clears the confusion. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:39, 27 October 2025 (UTC) == Please no more Unicode LTA == Please don't block me again. I promise I will edit Unicode stuff and add correct information. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2025-30839-28|&#126;2025-30839-28]] ([[User talk:&#126;2025-30839-28|talk]]) 20:54, 1 November 2025 (UTC) :<small>I am a bit out of the loop, so correct me if I'm wrong - I'm assuming here</small> I think the point is that they want you to ''not'' edit the Unicode stuff? Also hi kitty, it's been a ... very long time.. ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:13, 5 November 2025 (UTC) ::Ok so apparently not as long as I thought, but it feels like I've been away for at least a year lol ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:23, 5 November 2025 (UTC) :::Nice to see you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:41, 5 November 2025 (UTC) == Administrator and reviewer user right combinations are not needed anymore == Given that administrators can review edits in addition to reviewers, I would suggest for you (and other administrators) to kindly remove the reviewer permission from (own) accounts. What I'm saying is that if one holds administrator and reviewer permissions together, they can remove the reviewer permission from their own account and retain their administrator permission. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:06, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Gotcha—is there a reason it's bad for one user to have both these rights? If so, I can remove my reviewer right. Otherwise, it seems fairly harmless? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:26, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :: The thing is, administrators have the <code>review</code> user right, as well as some permissions in the reviewer user group in the administrator toolset. That means that having the reviewer user group together with the admin user group is redundant. Hope this explains it. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:59, 11 November 2025 (UTC) ::: @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] <s>I'll do this tomorrow morning, as well as to remove autoreviewed user permissions from users who are reviewers.</s> ({{doing}}) [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:24, 12 November 2025 (UTC) : I have removed the autoreviewed user permission from users who are reviewers. As for administrators, I will do so later today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:40, 13 November 2025 (UTC) == Nesting in Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities == Hi Kittycataclysm, I am editor of wikipedia since 2004. We have the habit if we have a concern using the talk page to clarify the case. I am not sure to delete meaningful content without previous notification and doing major redirection without agreeing the main contributor(s) is an adequate admin act and sign of good manner of host (see [[W:Wikipedia:Etiquette|Wikipedia:Etiquette]].) Yes, It will be not an average book but above the regular. This is the exact case: ''"this may be appropriate, such as with large textbooks that contain subsections with a lot of content."'' ''for to establish good structural and stylistic practices'' I have a data management certification. If you asking it will have 4 nest level on strict purpose. If you saw the introduction of the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] is/will be a global collection making effective collaboration over borders and continents. One structured + categorized(!) page for each community willing to show up. The Postal addresses has also same or larger deepness, this is unavoidable (Country/Postal Code/Location/Street/House/floor/door). Here will looks like: '''Eco-comm/Continent/Regio code/Community name''' The goal of this system to open bridge + experience highway for the communities using the same permaculture technics what collected parallelly in [[Open Book of Permaculture]]. That is also part of this knowledge base please dont do simplification steps on that without discussion. I am kindly asking to revert your edits in this book. After that I will put a notification template about "This book is under construction with major changes. Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History. Common clarifications/ guides are on the primary talk page." Thanks: [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 02:22, 12 November 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]], and thank you both for your contributions and for reaching out! Yes, I did make the following changes to [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]: :* I moved the pages from the [[Eco-comm]] namespace to the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] namespace, since the table of contents and pages for a given book should be under that book's namespace. :* I removed the links to Wikipedia that were on [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]], since outlinking has been discouraged at en.Wikibooks as a matter of practice. Compilations of links may not fall into WB scope as an instructional text, and [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Piano Solo Music: An Encyclopedia|there is precedent for deleting them]]. But, I do see that the tool I used didn't just remove links to enWP, so I will restore the prior revision and ping the tool developer. :* I flagged it as needing denesting—you're right that nested entries can sometimes be appropriate. In this case, I was primarily flagging for a denest because the table of contents needs to be moved onto the main page, and it shouldn't have hidden navigation within the nested portions. :Could you clarify which of these edits you do not agree with so I can make sure they are individually addressed? As an aside, it could be helpful to create a [[Help:Local manuals of style|local manual of style]] for the book in order to clearly outline the expectations. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:59, 12 November 2025 (UTC) ::My main concern not about moving and flagging but '''deleting''' [[Eco-comm]] against [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy]] and not mentioning in the clarification even after my notification. Should I note all administrators [[Wikibooks:Please do not bite the newcomers]] - or will they do speedy deleting one by one until I make them individually addressed? :::The <u> local manual of style</u> development is ongoing together with the sample pages. ::'''MAIN PAGE''' ::The '''Main page''' and '''Namespace''' is the [[Eco-comm]]. The '''Full Title''' or '''Cover''' is [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]. Because of the high level of nesting the below extra-long-full-text-title to be avoided the Cover page is a redirection with preface/intro etc. ::'''NESTING ''' :::Featured book with 3 level nesting: [[Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Theory]] :::5 level nesting example: [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] ::'''Categories''' The [[:Category:Eco-comm]] will let the users make practical sub-categories e.g. [[:Category:Eco-comm/Project/numundo]] [[:Category:Eco-comm/]] ::: ::[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 03:44, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you for elaborating! I'm unfortunately not sure what you mean about deleting [[Eco-comm]]—are you referring to the fact that I moved it without leaving a redirect? Regarding the nesting, I do honestly think those other books you linked should have their navigation denested since I find their format difficult to parse, and they have some navigation issues. Looping in some other active admins (@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] (@[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]) so they can get eyes on this and voice anything they think is important. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 04:12, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::It makes no sense to have some crazy abbreviation as a "main page" or "namespace" (whatever that means in this context) for a book in order to allow it to be deep nested. Nobody needs to type the whole name of the nesting because that's what navigation templates do, and it is a simple matter to override the page title. I also take issue with the statement, above, "Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History." Anybody can edit, and nobody gets to own and control any work. Taken together, this complaint looks like a case of attempting to assert ownership and to operate against the normal practices of Wikibooks. As such, I am completely aligned with the changes made. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::::That. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 14:59, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]]@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] for the contribution, btw the [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] also looks crazy long, is'nt it? Lets continue in the [[Wikibooks:Reading_room/General]] keeping this page for personal messages. [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 23:07, 20 November 2025 (UTC) == Deletions of Wikibook subpages == Hello @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], regarding the [[Thesis Writing Guide]] subpage deletions, should I just recreate them when I keep working on them or was there an automatic deletion that we could undo? This document will grow, but really slowly. Best, Tim [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 11:37, 16 December 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]]! Since there was so little content on the deleted pages, my recommendation would just be for you to gradually recreate the chapters as you go. Does that make sense? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:54, 17 December 2025 (UTC) ::Makes sense, not my ideal solution, but also not far from it :) The end result will be the same, the in-between will just feel a little bit weird from time to time. ::Thank you for taking time to curate and quality-control Wikibooks - wishing wonderful holidays and a happy new year! [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 20:43, 17 December 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you, and happy holidays to you as well :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:13, 17 December 2025 (UTC) == help with "Media Literacy and You" == {{re|Kittycataclysm}} What do I need to do to get a quality review of ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', or whatever is needed to remove <nowiki>{{Qr-em|not clear how this is to be structured as a book}}</nowiki>? I ask, because you added that flag just over 2 hours after I created it. I later found that I had accidentally created it as an anonymous user. I've since started using my standard Wikiname, and I tried to respond to the requests both by creating a discussion on the "Discussion" page associated with that book and by upgrading the content. The upgrades included adding the "Introduction" chapter by revising an article on Wikiversity that convinced me to start this Wikibook. I have other articles that I plan to rewrite to create 9 of the remaining 11 chapters in the current table of contents, as indicated in this table of contents. ??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:23, 8 February 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]]! I removed the query flag, since this is clearly not a test page. I do have concerns about the suitability of this book for Wikibooks, since it seems to be more in line with essays and original research/analysis (which are [[Wikibooks:WIW|out of scope here]]). Wikiversity seems like a very suitable place for them—is there a specific reason you want to move them here? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:24, 8 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::This book is intended to accelerate the diffusion of [[w:Media literacy|media literacy]] by making it easier for humans to (a) access training materials and (b) connect with research on the most important issues that concern them and (c) discuss those issues with others who may believe differently in a nonthreatening context that encourages dialogue and a shared search for what can honestly be said about any particular issue. This is an extension of "The wisdom of polarized crowds" discussed in [[Wikipedia:Reliability of Wikipedia]]. ::I don't know about you, but I'm frightened by the collapse of nuclear arms control agreements since the year 2000, by global warming, by the threats of the Trump administration to invade Canada and Greenland, etc. If this book project is successful, it will make a material contribution to reversing these trends -- unless this kind of dialogue is [[v:Responding to a nuclear attack|interrupted by a nuclear war]]. === Who is DavidMCEddy === ::I'm a [[w:Vietnam veteran|Vietnam-era veteran]] with a PhD in statistics and a publication record for which [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Spencer-Graves-3 ReserchGate has found over 1,200 academic publications that have cited my work.] Since [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikipedia.org/DavidMCEddy 2010 I have logged] * 6,000+ edits in each of Wikipedia and Wikiversity, * 1,000+ in Wikimedia Commons, * 30,000+ in Wikidata, and * almost 1,000 in other Wikimedia Foundation projects like Wikiquote and edits to the Spanish, French and German Wikipedias. This includes dozens of research reports posted to Wikiversity under [[v:Category:Freedom and abundance]] and 44 posts under [[v:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] that provide a platform for documenting and discussing 44 episodes of a fortnightly "Media & Democracy" series of 29:00 mm:ss podcasts syndicated for the [https://pacificanetwork.org/stations-2/ Pacifica Radio Network] featuring the opinions of leading experts on the increase in political polarization and violence and what those experts think should be done about this. I've just posted another chapter to [[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. I hope you will agree that this book can make a positive contribution to Wikibooks and to [[w:Jimmy Wales|Jimbo Wales]]' [[w:Wikipedia:Prime objective|Prime Directive]] to create "a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge." Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 01:19, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Thank you and I understand this, but I am asking why you think this material is more suitable at Wikibooks rather than at Wikiversity. From what I can see, Wikiversity seems like the more appropriate home for it given our [[Wikibooks:WIW|scope]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:59, 9 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::"Media Literacy and You" is textbook to support both self study and classes on media literacy. ::I have been posting content to Wikiversity since 2014 and have not encountered support there for books. A search just now turned up a hint of a book on Wikiversity, but I could not easily find anything on how to do it, etc. ::I think this "Media Literacy and You" project would lose the vast majority of its potential if it were not on Wikibooks. ::??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:22, 9 February 2026 (UTC) {{outdent}} {{re|Kittycataclysm}} Will you please help me with the protocols of creating a book on Wikiversity? 1. I have found documentation that claims that Wikiversity supports such. However, the documentation seems incomplete, potentially out of date, etc. For example, I could not see how to follow the instructions for [[Wikiversity:Help:Books#Step 1: Enable the "Book creator" tool]]. So I posted a question to [[Wikiversity:Help talk:Books]]. 2. What do you suggest I do next? :I can create an article on Wikiversity titled, "Media Literacy and You", and port everything I've posted to Wikibooks there, then replace the pages on Wikibooks with redirects to [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You]], [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/Introduction]], and [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. :If you think that's the best way to build this book project, great. It would actually be easier for me, because there would be less translation between what I already have on Wikiversity and a version for Wikibooks. (Also, Wikiversity supports <nowiki>{{cite Q|...}}</nowiki>, which I have used extensively for years.) :Thanks for your help. [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 13:26, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Unfortunately, I am not familiar with the exact workings of Wikiversity, so I can't be much help there. My personal recommendation is that you ask there for help on how best to structure your materials to match the WV requirements. If you'd like some additional opinions/insight, please feel free to also check in at the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General|reading room]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:22, 10 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} I believe I have finished migrating all of ''Media Literacy and You'' to Wikiversity and replacing the parts of it on Wikibooks with redirects. Comments? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 17:32, 10 February 2026 (UTC) == Thank you! == Heya, thanks for reviewing my stuff! Just to note, the first lesson page was done and so that'll need moving. If you want to discuss anything with me, I am easily reachable on Discord @ xiluosi233. I can explain philosophy, approach, and so on from my teaching experience if you want anything regarding that. [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 February 2026 (UTC) :It appears [[An Introduction to the Han Script]] was moved wrong - should it not be [[General Literary Chinese from Scratch/An Introduction to the Han Script]]? [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:52, 17 February 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] good catch! I accidentally removed more of the title than intended. I've fixed this now. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:18, 18 February 2026 (UTC) == A test request == Just to see whether a recent Luna update turned out as intended, could you briefly revert your [[User:Kittycataclysm/lunaoptions.json|Luna preferences page]] to the first revision? Since you don't appear to have any custom preferences in the first place, I don't think there should be any conflicts. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:49, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Done! But, it seems to have perhaps auto-updated again immediately afterwards. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:39, 10 April 2026 (UTC) == Linking == Hi,<br> For my edification, why is a link from [[Cookbook:nettle|nettle]] to [[w:Urtica_dioica|Urtica dioica]] not appropriate? The Wikipedia article has more information & seems relevant.<br> Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 01:53, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] good question! Wikibooks discourages outlinking, since books should be self-contained units. Instead of linking to [[w:Urtica dioica]], the correct approach would be to flesh out the actual chapter here at Wikibooks. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC) ::Should all material in the Wikipedia article about Urtica dioica relevant to cooking be duplicated into the nettle article in the cookbook? Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 02:30, 2 May 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] you could do that, although you should only include information that is sourced. However, I recommend that you wait, because I am coincidentally working on the page right now and fleshing it out significantly. I should publish today. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:40, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::The nettle page is better now. Thanks. ::::I still wonder, given that the link to ''The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, ...'' is permitted, why not a link to the botanically oriented page in Wikipedia. What if someone reads the Cookbook article and is interested in the toxin for example? Seems that non-Wikimedia references are more privileged than Wikimedia references. ::::Also, by chance, just noticed the [[w:Nettle_soup|Nettle soup]] article in Wikipedia. Better in the Cookbook? ::::Thx, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 19:10, 5 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Another good question. The reason those books are linked is because they are reputable and topical sources for the subject matter (nettles as used in cooking from an instructional perspective), and the links are part of the citations—this makes it different from a simple outlink to a Wikipedia page. Wikipedia pages should also not be cited themselves as sources. Regarding nettle soup, I don't think it makes sense to have that as a standalone page here in the cookbook due to its encyclopedic tone, and I don't see any recipes there. Does this make sense? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:21, 6 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::Somewhat. Certainly a recipe wouldn't be incongruous in a cookbook. Still seems unhelpful that relevant information in Wikipedia is inaccessible from a Wikibook. In effect there's a "Berlin Wall" between two Wikimedia projects. Would a "See also" section be permissible? ::::::Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 14:00, 7 May 2026 (UTC) == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:32, 28 April 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30471751 --> == Undeletion request == Hello, I am writing to request an undeletion of the page Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad. You stated you are a frequent visitor of the Lentis page and are thus familiar with it. This page was part of a class assignment and was in progress at the time of deletion. The work deleted is what we will be graded on for our class, so we would appreciate the restoration. [[User:Yqj3km|Yqj3km]] ([[User talk:Yqj3km|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yqj3km|contribs]]) 19:36, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Yqj3km|Yqj3km]] see my response below regarding undeletion. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Undeletion request == About the page on Lentis called Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad: I, too, request undeletion, please. If the authors made any msitakes, the fault is 100 percent mine, for failing to guide them correctly. Like all chapters in this book, this team's chapter is a class assignment. I will be interested also in the reason for deletion so that I can guide authors better. I want to help my students be constructive contributors. Many thanks! [[User:Norton|Norton]] ([[User talk:Norton|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Norton|contribs]]) 20:03, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Norton|Norton]] and thanks for the ping! I deleted it because it was not titled/filed correctly, so I didn't realize it was part of [[Lentis]]. I have undeleted it and moved it to [[Lentis/Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:14, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::Many, many thanks, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am very grateful as always for everything you do for Wikibooks! ::[[User:Norton|Norton]] ([[User talk:Norton|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Norton|contribs]]) 22:27, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Log in issues == Hi, messaging you as you seem to be the most active admin at the moment. I can't log in (as posted at <bdi>[[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance]] and also on my WP page at</bdi> [[w:User_talk:Xania]]). Seems to be an issue with extra security for admins? I am asked to use my authenticator app (which I can't as I have never set it up for Wikibooks) or a recovery code (which I don't have). Any idea what I should do in this situation? Xania [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28255-89|&#126;2026-28255-89]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28255-89|talk]]) 18:21, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :Apologies for missing this yesterday! It seems like we have a few people working on it over in the reading room, and I'll keep track there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Splitting pages == FYI, I untagged [[Art Print Production Methods]] as for splitting: the page is rather small with its 20 KB and does not need splitting, in my view. Ideally, there would be an operationalized, fairly detailed policy on the matter, but I do not know of one. Single-page books are in [[:Category:One-page books]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:45, 20 May 2026 (UTC) == <s>Slander</s> == <S>Your tag is slanderous and very easily proven wrong.</s>[https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654455] Given you likely didn't bother to look at the edit history, I would remind you that your given reason that you think it was AI is because you see the chapter is "numbered". That however was 100% my own personal decision after I reviewed my work and thought to myself that I later wrote in the introduction that there is a first to fourth chapter. However I thought to myself that the readers would not be easily made aware of what is meant by first to fourth as I didn't number them - so is why I dedicated an entire edit to make it less ambiguous [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654328]. I should not have to be falsely penalized because I wanted to be more considerate and ensure better clarity. I do however request AI to help me figure out coding like this - [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654329] as I don't know how to link. But I intentionally take great efforts to not rely on AI to write that book and find your wrongful presumptions troubling. [[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 06:00, 15 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] thank you for clarifying! I flagged it for review because it matched a common pattern we see associated with LLM use here. If that is not the case, then nothing needs to happen in that respect; however, you will likely want to fix the lists so that they are correctly formatted in the Wikitext and not hard-written—let me know if you have any questions about that. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:14, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::Yeah, I don't instantly understand what you mean by "correctly formatted" list. At first, I assumed you were referring to chapter 4 - (''Further reading'')? But I think I know what you mean. I made this edit here [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654738] to align with how I see wikibooks typically do lists. Did I fix it? If not, feel free to clarify.[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 18:35, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::I thought about how I responded earlier. Even tho I still disagree, I probably shouldn't have used such a tone. I imagine admins like yourself do a lot of work overseeing wiki and the project owes a lot to you guys. So I take back my harsh words, and I hope we're good.[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 03:38, 17 July 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] I appreciate that—thank you! And thank you for [[Special:Diff/4654738|making those changes to the lists]], which was indeed what I was referring to. Happy editing! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:31, 17 July 2026 (UTC) == The Geoguide == I literally wrote all of this myself I used no AI if you want to you can highlight the areas that seem way too formal and ill fix them [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 04:22, 18 July 2026 (UTC) :Thank you! I have removed the flag. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:41, 20 July 2026 (UTC) == Vandalism == your recent changes may not be constructive. {{Warning}} [[User:Duodeca 12|Duodeca 12]] ([[User talk:Duodeca 12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Duodeca 12|contribs]]) 20:39, 2 August 2026 (UTC) == Your recent revert == Could you explain [[Special:Diff/4670314]]? This seems to be you ''restoring'' vandalism, which was originally introduced by [[Special:Diff/4669920]]. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 20:06, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :Good catch! Somehow I didn't have the most recent version of a page loaded, and it seems like Luna reverts the most recent edit of a page and not the specific edit you're viewing. The edit in question should be fixed now. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:11, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry {{PAGENAME}} for butting in here, I hope you don't mind. ::Just wanted to mention that I have had a few similar experiences when editing (not having the most recent version of a page loaded). Once this caused me friction with an admin who was convinced I was willfully undoing their edit. This happened years ago on another wikimedia project. ::Ottawahitech [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 01:18, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == Confirmed user == <s>If this is one, could I perhaps be a confirmed user? The software has not granted me autoconfirmed, despite me having the requirements.</s> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:50, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :This is not needed anymore, thank you! [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) e1ox29h2zznnghat4fk22cfv52j79p2 4671829 4671822 2026-09-23T01:56:34Z ~2026-51006-30 3626614 /* Message */ new section 4671829 wikitext text/x-wiki {| class="wikitable" |+ ! colspan="3" |Talk Page Archives |- |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2022|2022]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2023|2023]] |[[User talk:Kittycataclysm/Archive 2024|2024]] |} == That IP range calculator == Following [[phab:T381138|T381138]], I have now become the maintainer of the IP range calculator you like. You can find it [[toolforge:ftools/general/ip-range-calc.html|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 23:10, 9 January 2025 (UTC) :Thank you for the heads-up! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:56, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == A merge and unmerge from two years ago == I was browsing through the history merge log when I saw that you merged [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] into [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]], and then promptly reverted it. What happened here exactly? Could I correct it? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 15:55, 10 January 2025 (UTC) :Good question! I can't remember what I was trying to do, but it looks like I didn't succeed at what I wanted based on the log comment. You're just trying to history merge to get [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog I]] to have continuity of history? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:35, 10 January 2025 (UTC) ::I think I figured out your mistake: it outright moved the revisions from the first page to the second, rather than copying them. This would have caused the other two [[Cookbook:Chicken Bog]] pages to have incomplete histories. I think the only solution would be to XML import the pre-April 2023 revisions from the first page to the other three, and I'm not sure if that's the best idea, and I am technically unable to do so. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 16:49, 10 January 2025 (UTC) == Undeletion request == I wouldn't be surprised if you expected this, but I'd like to ask you to undelete the subpages of [[Rotorcraft Fundamentals]] you just deleted with the summary "Use of copyrighted work without permission. Please read Terms of Use: page needs to be imported for attribution", so that I can do that. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 19:54, 14 January 2025 (UTC) :Done! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:57, 14 January 2025 (UTC) ::Upon further investigation, this might actually be a rare case where an [[WB:UT|unmerged transwiki]] is ''preferred'' (this is part of why I stopped calling them "bad transwikis"), since only a small portion of the Wikipedia article (with over 2,000 revisions) was copied over. Importation is generally only needed if the ''majority'' of the page is copied across wikis. I'll just leave a null edit providing attribution and add {{tlx|Copied}}. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 21:19, 14 January 2025 (UTC) == Reusing [[Cookbook:8 Desserts in 1 Pan]] on wikiHow == Hi, I am a user on wikiHow, see [[wikihow:User:Xeverything11]]. I would like to create a new recipe on wikiHow. I wanted to let us know if I can give permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe from Wikibooks to wikiHow. I (as a copyright holder) created this recipe on Wikibooks, but you contributed to this recipe. If not, I'll use the revision before you contributed since I was the only author. Wikibooks uses CC-BY-SA 4.0 while wikiHow uses CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0, which both licenses are incompatible due to ShareAlike conditions. Thanks [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 08:27, 15 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] I'm personally fine with this as long as proper attribution is given back to the original recipe page here. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:52, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::I adapted this [[wikihow:Make-8-Desserts-in-1-Pan|recipe]] on wikiHow with attribution, and got a Rising Star (an achievement used for best new articles on wikiHow). Thank you! [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 19:49, 24 January 2025 (UTC) == Wikibooks community == Hi, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am trying to contribute more to English Wikibooks. My main contributions will focus on the Cookbook, especially on Indonesian recipes. Do you have a community group where we can discuss and share ideas together? I am looking forward to join. Thank you! [[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 08:47, 16 January 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] Sorry I missed this, and welcome! Are you asking about a Cookbook-specific area for discussion? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:39, 20 January 2025 (UTC) ::Yes. Do you know place for this? ::Thank you ::[[User:Raflinoer32|Raflinoer32]] ([[User talk:Raflinoer32|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Raflinoer32|contribs]]) 09:41, 21 January 2025 (UTC) :::Honestly, there's not a centralized Cookbook-specific discussion space, especially since there aren't currently a ton of active contributors. Some people ask questions at [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. I'm currently the most consistently active and involved Cookbook editor, so feel free to ask me questions! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:46, 22 January 2025 (UTC) == Congratulations! == [[File:Admin T-shirt.svg|thumb|You get this now.]] You are now a permanent administrator. Welcome to the team (I am entitled to say this because I technically got the extension a few hours before you did)!{{FBDB}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 10:33, 29 January 2025 (UTC) :Thanks :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:29, 29 January 2025 (UTC) == Is there a way to contact a Steward on WikiBooks? == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Is there a way to contact a Steward on WB? I tried to find who the active Stewards are here at [[Special:ActiveUsers?username=&groups%5B%5D=steward&wpFormIdentifier=specialactiveusers]] but nothing shows up. The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the [[Wikimania-wiki]], but I just visited the [[wikimania 2014 wiki]] and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the [[Wikimania 2014 main-page talk]] but disovered that the Stewards have protected it. Is there a way wikibookians can communicate with Stewards at WB? Thanks in advance for answering this non-urgent question, and apologies for all the red-links which I can bluify if needed. Cheers [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 16:37, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] You can ask this on somewhere like [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]]. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 17:01, 7 February 2025 (UTC) <s>:@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] seconding what Leaderboard said—we no longer have any active stewards at enWB.</s> Had a brain fade there and mixed up stewards with bureaucrats. Yes, meta is the place for this. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::@Kittycataclysm,@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], or anyone else: ::Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb. I myself am indef-blocked at META so could not participate at [[metawiki:Steward requests/Miscellaneous]] even if I waned to. ::Since [[Wikimania]] is a topic of interest to all members of the [[wikimedia movement]] why can't wikibookians talk to thier elected representatives here? [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:56, 7 February 2025 (UTC) :::@[[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] I can check with the blocking admin to see if they'd be willing to unblock you, if you'd like. The reason things like these are done at Meta is that Meta is a cross-project coordination platform - stewards ''cannot'' be expected to watch every project after all. Now you could message any steward here on Wikibooks if you really wanted to, but that is not normally a good idea. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 02:26, 8 February 2025 (UTC) ::::Wikimania is the annual conference celebrating all the free knowledge projects hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation (WMF). It is a wikimedia initiative which is meant to help all of our projects (including wikibooks), gain more readership, educate more wiki-editors, foster better communications, and much more. The wmf has been hosting a Wikimania-wiki dedicated to each Wikimania annual event since 2004. These wikis contain a wealth of information, but can benefit from wiki-improvements, starting from spelling and grammar errors that detract from their to appeal to the general membership. It would be nice if Stewards paid more attention to it. ::::@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], I truly appreciate your offer, but I posted this here not in order to get someone to advocate for one unblocking at META. As I said earlier: ::::* "Some wikibookians prefer for various reasons to post only at wb" ::::* "The reason I am asking is that I believe that all individual Wikimania-wikis should have a backward link to the Wikimania-wiki, but I just visited the wikimania 2014 wiki and could not find this backward link. I tried to ask about this on the Wikimania 2014 main-page talk but disovered that the Stewards have protected it" ::::I would much rather see more wikimedia members question blocking in general at META. One cannot run such large movement of people from different backgrounds and nationalities simply by silencing minorities IMIO. [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 20:12, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Crystal ball]] == That page appears to be a mixture of isolated paragraphs from [[w:Crystal ball|Crystal ball]], hence my tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 03:04, 9 February 2025 (UTC) :Yep, that seems correct! I also queried it simply because it does not seem suitable for inclusion at all. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:09, 9 February 2025 (UTC) == Question about an edit suggestion == Hi Kittycataclysm, Thanks for the great work you do as an admin! I wanted to clarify a suggestion you made on a recently published page I’m working on. You recommended splitting it into smaller sections—would you suggest creating separate pages for these sections, or would a higher-level header for some topics be sufficient? Any specific recommendations you have would be greatly appreciated! Here’s the link to the page I’m referring to: [[Funding and Finance of Transportation Projects in the United States of America]] Thank you! [[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]] ([[User talk:Svrmustafa|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Svrmustafa|contribs]]) 18:19, 18 February 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Svrmustafa|Svrmustafa]], and thanks for asking! Splitting refers to creating new pages, each with a smaller amount of content. The main page should then contain a table of contents, and each page can contain a navigation template for easier navigation. I'll create the table of contents based on the current work and move some content to one of those pages as an example for you; then, you can do the rest. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:26, 19 February 2025 (UTC) ::Following up on this—I noticed that you use the term "paper". However, technically Wikibooks hosts books not papers, so you should probably change this wording. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:38, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Talkback == {{Talkback|Cookbook talk:Chilli Crab|Recipe Questions}} [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 09:54, 19 February 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] I also made [[Cookbook:Prata|this]] [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:15, 19 February 2025 (UTC) == Hello == Can you look at my latest recipe? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 00:10, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :I saw it! It needs a few corrections, which I'll note. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:23, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] How do you write recipe summary, correct headers [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 06:04, 28 February 2025 (UTC) :::Please see [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template]]. What's the origin of the recipe? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:08, 28 February 2025 (UTC) ::::ok [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 02:33, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook == Hi there, Kittycataclysm. I wandered over here from Wikipedia, and I'm quite enamoured with this cookbook. I noticed you seem to be the one maintaining it, and I thought I'd reach out. Can I really just start cranking out recipes from public domain cookbooks and my family recipes? It's that simple? I was also wondering about the featured recipes section. There's not very many in there, and I imagine there's not very many folks around to do reviews compared to GAR on Wikipedia. How do you handle content review? Thanks. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:51, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] and welcome! For some context, the Cookbook has been around since the very beginning of Wikibooks, but it had gotten into a bit of disarray over the course of about two decades by the time I found it. I started the long process of overhauling, standardizing, and expanding it just over four years ago—I finished standardizing the recipe formatting and quality a while back and am currently working my way through the ingredient pages before moving on to equipment, techniques, and cuisines. You can absolutely add any public domain recipes as well as your own recipes—they just need to conform to the [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template|recipe template]] and [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy overall]]. It's even better if you've made the recipe and can contribute a nice picture and specific guidance/instructions/notes! Please feel free to ask me any questions. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:27, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::Oh, and regarding the featured recipes section, I actually haven't gotten around to looking into that yet—there's been a lot to do! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:28, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::That's great, thanks a lot for your response. This is just delightful. Maybe content review is something that we could collaborate on. There's a lot of recipes in here and it would be nice to know which ones are the best. Question for you, [[:Category:Brown sauces]] is really bothering me. How can I move that to Brown sauce recipes? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:29, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::Good catch on that category! It seems like it was created two decades ago and never got corrected—feel free to recategorize those recipes. Thank you also for introducing the hideprefix parameter to the category trees—I didn't realize that was an option, and it reduces the visual clutter! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:38, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::My pleasure! As I continue to look at the categories, this is actually worse than I thought. We have both [[:Category:Sauce recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes for condiments]] and I suspect that's just the beginning. I want to go through and categorize everything properly, but the bones aren't even there... How long do I have to be here before it'll let me create and move around categories? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:40, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Regarding the categories, the category overhauling is in progress, since I address the category when I overhaul the associated page. The variation in titling is actually somewhat deliberate—I started changing it from "____ recipes" in certain cases to solve a particular categorization problem. Sometimes, there is an item that is used in recipes as an ingredient but for which there are also recipes. For example, [[:Category:Recipes for bread]] versus [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]. The different naming scheme is necessary to properly delineate the categories, and I'm working on implementing it a bit more consistently as I go. While you're still getting started, it would be great if you could check with me when something looks odd or out of place—that way I can take a look and weigh in on whether that's normal or not and maybe provide some context. Just off the top of my head, I think you will have to wait for autoreview status to make move changes. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:56, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::I see what you're saying, I've been trying to wrap my head around that. Maybe it would be beneficial to try to put together some sort of a Cookbook MOS regarding category structure? It's kind of all over the place right now. Using your bread example, would it perhaps make more sense to have [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and [[:Category:Recipes using bread]]? There would be no ambiguity with just those two categories, but when you add the extra [[:Category:Recipes for bread]], that's when things start getting a little whacky. What do you think? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:05, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::Either that or get rid of [[:Category:Bread recipes]] and keep the other two. But one of these categories gotta go, I reckon. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:07, 1 March 2025 (UTC) ::::::::I see you already had the same thought as me. I think all categories should include "for" or "using". Take for example, [[:Category:Recipes for pancakes]] as opposed to [[:Category:Pancake recipes]]. Well obviously there's no recipes using pancakes. But for something like [[:Category:Recipes for gravy]], there may also be a need for [[:Category:Recipes using gravy]]. The lack of consistency in this regard means the only way to achieve consistency across the categories is by changing them over to that format. Sorry for clogging up your talk page! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 03:18, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :::::::::Same heads-up as below—migrating this over to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]] —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:10, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :Also, on [[Cookbook:Table of Contents]], could you please add a wikilink for [[Cookbook:Breakfast]], and maybe add cooknav to the top for seamless navigation between all the top level articles? Can't edit that article yet. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 02:47, 1 March 2025 (UTC) == More Table of Content Edits == Hello again. I've been going through everything and this is my list of suggestions for edits to the table of contents. Unfortunately there's not much else I can do for now, because without autoconfirmed my ability to change anything is very limited. I was going to ask for someone to check off the confirmed box for me at RfP but I can't post there either, so I guess I'll be back in four days. * Fix Bread wikilink * Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing * [[Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Low-Carb]] points to redirect, needs capitalized * [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] to [[Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine]] for parity * Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting * Create [[:Category:Lunch recipes]], wikilink to ToC * Wikilink [[Cookbook:Dessert]] under Meals * Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category * Create [[Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine]] so I can add the recipes from [[:Category:East Asian recipes]] to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC * Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction" * Appendix and Equipment sections switch places Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:46, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :I took the liberty of doing it myself in my userspace. You can just copy it over from [[User:MediaKyle/sandbox]]. Figured I'd save you the trouble of trying to figure out what I'm talking about. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 14:15, 1 March 2025 (UTC) :Circling back to this! It seems like your suggestions are getting at a couple different things. I'll try to go through them point-by-point below: :* {{xt|Fix Bread wikilink}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Remove "Creaming" from techniques, redirected to Mixing}} see below comments on TOC. :* {{xt|Cookbook:History of Food and Cooking points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for now because I don't fully understand the urgency and I want to triage/prioritize things for you, but please feel free to make this change yourself once you can! :* {{xt|Cookbook:Low-Carb points to redirect, needs capitalized}} {{not done}} for same reason as above. :* {{xt|Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean to Cookbook:Mediterranean Cuisine for parity}} {{not done}} for now just because we do have a lot of cuisine pages that follow the form "Cuisine of ____". It could be good to standardize, and I had been planning to do that once I got around to the cuisines. :* {{xt|Remove the S from the cuisine wikilinks on ToC, currently redirecting}} {{not done}} for same reason as other redirects :* {{xt|Create Category:Lunch recipes, wikilink to ToC}} Not quite sure what you mean here, and I didn't see what it corresponded to in your linked sandbox page :* {{xt|Wikilink Cookbook:Dessert under Meals}} {{done}} :* {{xt|Get rid of "Brunch"; will just be confusing alongside a breakfast and lunch category}} I'm not sure about this—brunch is in many places considered a separate entity, and I don't necessarily think it would cause confusion. But, overall it's hard to determine whether it should have its own page and TOC link because I haven't actually gotten around to evaluating the meal pages and what role they should play. See also the TOC notes below. :* {{xt|Create Cookbook:East Asian Cuisine so I can add the recipes from Category:East Asian recipes to it; currently is a redlink on the ToC}} {{done}} for now; however, I'm not sure yet whether it will ultimately make sense to keep that as a content page. I think content pages should be reasonably focused, and it may not be the best to have a cuisine page that is so broad. This is something I planned to consider once I made my way around the overhauling the cuisines. :* {{xt|Change "Introductory Matter" header to just "Introduction"}} The reason I made it "Introductory Matter" instead of "Introduction" is because there's already a chapter itself titled "Introduction"—it felt odd to have the entire section titled that as well. Happy to discuss other header options (e.g. "Front Matter", which is a generally accepted book term) :* {{xt|Appendix and Equipment sections switch places}} see below comments on TOC. :* '''Comments on the TOC:''' So, I think a fundamental issue with the current TOC is that it somewhat arbitrarily picks and chooses individual pages to link. It also sometimes direct-links to categories and sometimes to content pages, which I don't think we should do. Because the cookbook is so expansive, it's been established that manual indices intending to capture detail in large areas don't really make sense and quickly get bulky and out-of-date. This is why categorytree is such a useful tool! After thinking on it for a while and making some small tweaks, I think I'd ultimately like to overhaul the TOC and come to a solution that keeps a few broad headers/links to the small handful of the primary content pages while perhaps stashing away more detailed and self-updating lists in a collapsible way to reduce clutter but allow for customizable user navigation. Much to think about, and I'll probably workshop some things on the side to see how they feel. :Let me know if I've misunderstood anything! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 03:24, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for the notes! Here's my thoughts: ::* On the Cuisine titling, it actually seems like [[Cookbook:Cuisine of the Mediterranean]] and [[Cookbook:East Asian cuisines]] are the only ones that don't follow the naming scheme, i.e. "[[Cookbook:African Cuisine]]", and I think that shorter titles are preferable where it makes sense. ::* On your note about East Asian Cuisine, I actually had the same thought after going through the cuisine pages. Having three separate pages for different kinds of Asian cuisine does seem a little silly, doesn't it? Do you think it might be better to combine all of them under one "Asian Cuisine", but put the different locales under separate headers? ::* On Brunch - I honestly think there's way too much ambiguity around what exactly constitutes as "brunch" to keep that in. I feel as though the term brunch more applies to the time you're eating, rather than the kind of food. I think it would be easier to keep meals that include commonly accepted breakfast foods in the Breakfast category, and things that don't fit neatly into that, into the Lunch category. This would prevent any dilemmas in the future where we can't decide whether something is breakfast or brunch. ::* You're right that it looks a little awkward to have the header as Introduction when there's a page called introduction. I still think that to say "Introductory Matter", or "Front Matter" as you mentioned, is a little long-winded and reflects a more academic tone than needed for a cookbook. Upon further reflection, I think maybe rather than worrying about the header at this point, we should perhaps think about trying to compile all of those short introductory type pages into one comprehensive introductory page. Then we likely won't even need a header for it on the ToC. ::* The ToC is definitely a bit cluttered, and it bothers me too that there's a real lack of consistency across whether the wikilinks lead to a page or a category. I'm not sure how I would feel about cutting away too much of the navigation from it, though, because just about every page on there does have a reason to be there, it's just that they're not presented very nicely. Some of it can certainly get nested or combined though. I'll play around with it over the next few days in my sandbox as well and let you know if I come up with anything. ::* As an aside, the first thing on my to-do list once my autoconfirmed comes through is to start subcategorizing all of the recipes so that they're all nicely sorted in the category trees. When you have a chance, I'd love to hear your thoughts on what we should use as the standard naming for categories. Once we determine this, I think we can also take the liberty of updating the cookbook MoS to reflect it. ::Cheers, [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:33, 3 March 2025 (UTC) :::Note: After writing this, I realized what you were getting at about slashing away some of the subpages. Maybe we can come up with a system where all of those subpages are under their main subpage rather than on the ToC. For example, all the Cuisines are under [[Cookbook:Cuisines]], all techniques under [[Cookbook:Cooking Techniques]], to keep the subpages off the main ToC. Also, I wonder if maybe we should try to make a centralized discussion for this somewhere, in case anyone else wants to join in at some point? [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:45, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::Heads-up: to make it easier to keep track of these and since I think they deserve their own discussions, I'm going to gradually migrate them over individually to [[Cookbook talk:Table of Contents]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:52, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :::::Good idea. Can you remove the semi-protection from that talk page? I see no reason why it should be protected. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:23, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == Cookbook ToC == Hi [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. I was just wondering why you didn't respond to my above message, and started a separate sandbox for the ToC instead? It seems as though you don't really want to collaborate. It would be nice if we could work on this together. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 22:43, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] thanks for the ping! I'm sorry you feel like I don't want to collaborate—the opposite is true, and please understand that this is good-faith editing. The reason I haven't responded to the above points is mostly since you've been modifying a bunch of content and adding suggestions lately, and I've been working my way through these while continuing with my routine contributions and real life as well—things happen a little more slowly here than on other projects, and I'm the one person dedicated to the cookbook right now. The reason I created that sandbox was because I saw [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#Modernize the shelves|your comment]] at the reading room and wanted to play around and think about your suggestion without touching the actual TOC. You're right that it's not the best, and it's been something I've been thinking about for a bit now. Please understand also that it can be overwhelming when a new editor unfamiliar with the Cookbook begins making a high volume of edits and suggestions without having much experience with it or its history—this isn't to say that you don't have good ideas or things worth contributing. In fact, you have already made a few helpful changes, as I've mentioned. I just want to do this properly and take the time to evaluate your suggestions together with the current efforts that are underway, and that can take a bit. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:03, 2 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks for getting back to me. While I may be new to Wikibooks, I'm certainly not new to MediaWiki, and I've been working with small wiki projects for a number of years. Perhaps it's been a misunderstanding to some degree, but I've found my reception here to be unusually unwelcoming. The way to do this properly, as you said, would be to have discussions and form consensus. Yesterday, when you reached out to me about adding hideroot to the pages, I gave you my rationale and was more than happy to have a discussion about it, but you did not reply. I noticed a similar situation happened with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User_talk:Ottawahitech#Category_sorting Ottawahitech], regarding category sorting. I'm aware that you're the main person looking after the cookbook right now, which is why I reached out to you right from the get go. ::I understand why you would want to create your own sandbox to play around with options for the ToC, but I'm sure you can understand why it would draw my attention that you would do this without implementing any of the wikilink fixes I mentioned, or making an attempt to discuss it further. This came across to me as not wanting my help. ::I invite you to check out my page on Wikipedia. I've made contributions across quite a wide area of topics there, as well as the other Wikimedia projects, and this is the first time I've encountered any sort of resistance to my contributions. I think Wikibooks has enormous potential, and I'm very excited to contribute to helping it grow. On most projects, this would be something to be encouraged. I don't feel like "I'm sorry that you feel that way" was really an appropriate response. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 23:59, 2 March 2025 (UTC) :::I think you're right that this has been a mix of misunderstanding and miscommunication, and I think I can understand how things came across as unwelcoming! For whatever it's worth, I absolutely plan on circling back to the various discussions at hand (I have all the relevant pages open to return to), but it seems like the order I did things made it seem like I was ignoring you (if I'm understanding correctly). I am pretty busy, so sometimes items on my to-do list do get lost/shunted or it takes me a bit to get around to something—please don't hesitate to give me a ping if it seems like I'm taking a while to get back to something. Looking forward to more collaboration! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:49, 3 March 2025 (UTC) ::::I'm glad you can understand where I'm coming from. To clarify, my intent is not to try to rush you, or to try to push you to make changes that you don't agree with. It's really easy to misinterpret things over the Internet, and I think a short message can go a long way. I apologize if I've caused you any undue stress by coming into the cookbook and unleashing a flurry of alterations, but do rest assured that I'm not married to any of my changes, I'm always open for discussion, and I want to see the cookbook improve just like you do. The great thing about wikis is that no change is permanent. I think we'll have it in tip-top shape in no time! [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 01:19, 3 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Polish Doughnuts (Paczki)]] == Do you see any reason not to just add this to Featured Recipes? At least we know this one works, and it seems like this is now one of the few recipes to have a picture that actually aligns with the recipe used. I was thinking later on we'll come up with a content review system where a couple editors will actually try the recipes nominated for FR, but in the absence of that I'd just add it to the list. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 12:25, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :I'm fine with adding it to the featured recipes. You're right that we'll want to come up with a good system for this going forward, though it's lower down on my personal priority list at moment. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Cookbook:Cream Cheese American Buttercream]] == Hi! I am a wikiHow user and I am planning to adapt this recipe to wikiHow. Since you contributed to this recipe, I wanted to know if I can get permission to reuse your contributions to this recipe. Thanks. [[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] ([[User talk:Xeverything11|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xeverything11|contribs]]) 21:41, 4 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Xeverything11|Xeverything11]] that's fine with me as long as proper attribution and linking back to the original recipe page here are included at the top. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:28, 4 March 2025 (UTC) == [[A Companion to Our Literary Journey]] == Hi! I feel that we have started to outline the scope in a clearer and more precise way and that’s the work we are going to do with the students this and for the next years, adding more sections and content. Do you think that would be enough? [[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]] ([[User talk:Ferdi2005|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ferdi2005|contribs]]) 22:43, 6 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Ferdi2005|Ferdi2005]]! Yes, this seems to be reasonably outlined. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:51, 7 March 2025 (UTC) == Exercising care with copyright == When deleting a page as a copyright violation, it is important that you '''do not quote any content from the deleted page'''. If you do, then your log entry is itself a copyright violation. I have redacted a recent deletion that you performed because of this. If you want to make sure that none of your past deletions have been problematic for this reason, you can [[quarry:query/90444|run this SQL query]] to get a list of every deletion that could be eligible for redaction. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 18:32, 21 March 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] and thank you for the message. In the most recent instance that I think you're referencing, I do not see any material in the edit summary that posed a significant risk—I don't believe the few listed words would be a copyright concern. However, I do understand your concern! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:31, 21 March 2025 (UTC) == Splitting Pages == Hi I have recently made the book on the [[History of the Nawabs of Bengal]] and you gave a notice on how you believe it should be split into smaller bits. As I am still new to wikibooks I don't know how to do this. Can you please assist me on renaming the page so I can split the page into multiple pages? @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 19:47, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]]: You did it. I've removed the tag. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 22:44, 29 March 2025 (UTC) :Like @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] said, you're all set! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 29 March 2025 (UTC) ::Thanks! @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] [[User:Greatswrd|Greatswrd]] ([[User talk:Greatswrd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greatswrd|contribs]]) 10:24, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == Minecraft book == Is it good creating pages like this, [[Minecraft#Husk]]? [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 12:43, 9 May 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] what do you mean? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:18, 10 May 2025 (UTC) ::are we allowed to create pages like that? like for every mob [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 10:02, 11 May 2025 (UTC) :::To be honest, I don't think the structure and formatting of the book is very good. Several of the mob pages, for example, have very little information and aren't particularly helpful on their own. If I were working on it, I would restructure the book. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 14:09, 11 May 2025 (UTC) ::::I am planning to do that. [[User:Cactusisme|Cactusisme]] ([[User talk:Cactusisme|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cactusisme|contribs]]) 04:19, 12 May 2025 (UTC) == Request to Review Adjusted User Page (XoriantTeam) == Hello [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I hope you're well. I noticed that my user page ([[User:XoriantTeam]]) was recently deleted for appearing promotional or inappropriate for Wikibooks. Thank you for keeping the community standards in check. I’ve since revised the content with closer attention to neutrality and compliance with Wikibooks guidelines. My intent is to participate constructively, especially in areas related to digital engineering and educational content creation. If possible, I’d appreciate your help reviewing the revised version. I'm happy to share it or upload it as a file if there’s a preferred method. Please let me know how best to proceed. I welcome any suggestions and will gladly make further adjustments. Best regards, XoriantTeam [[User:XoriantTeam|XoriantTeam]] ([[User talk:XoriantTeam|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/XoriantTeam|contribs]]) 11:02, 15 May 2025 (UTC) :Hi there—you can publish an updated user page, but I'd caution you against talking about your company. Keep it limited to your involvement with Wikibooks. You may contribute productively here, but further promotional materials are grounds for an indefinite block. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:30, 15 May 2025 (UTC) == Planning to use AWB to update categories on the cookbook == Hello. I noticed in recent changes that you were moving some categories using HotCat (e.g. moving Category:Chile recipes to Category:Recipes using chile), which can be time-consuming. Therefore, I plan to help you with moving the cookbook categories by adding myself to enabledusers and enabledbots in [[Wikibooks:AutoWikiBrowser/CheckPageJSON]]. Would this be fine if I assist you and to add myself to the check page? I am familiar with using AWB after testing on a non-Wikimedia project. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:42, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—thank you for the tip! I just installed JWB, so this should make my mass cat changes much faster. Thanks again! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:11, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for the information. Also, is it okay if I change (for example) [[:Category:Vinegar recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes using vinegar]] (I can redirect the former category to the latter), given that we should move {{tq|Category:[ingredient] recipes}} to {{tq|Category:Recipes using [ingredient]}} for consistency? [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:57, 8 June 2025 (UTC) :::Sure thing—go ahead! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:53, 8 June 2025 (UTC) == Tool for even faster category changes == See [[:c:Help:Gadget-Cat-a-lot#As_your_user_gadget]]. I just [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User:Koavf/common.js&action=history installed it] and used it dozens of times in a click. Let me know if you need any help. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:36, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :@[[User:Koavf|Koavf]] Thanks! I'm having a little trouble activating it, but I'll keep trying. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:54, 19 June 2025 (UTC) ::A lot of times, a purge will do the trick. See [[:mw:Purge]]. Usually just <kbd>Ctrl+Shift+R</kbd> once or twice. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:55, 19 June 2025 (UTC) :::Took several purges, but we're set now! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:16, 19 June 2025 (UTC) == Advice on when I should run for adminship == Hi, I hope you are doing well. I am asking for some advice on when I should run for enwikibooks adminship, given the following below: Currently, I am doing some optimizations for dark mode on this project, and some of the message box/MediaWiki interface/template pages might be outdated, fully protected, or can use a little help using mw-parser-output. These unfortunately might hinder the process of updating these pages/templates for Vector 2022's dark mode.<br> Additionally, I have a solid expertise with edit filters, as I have requested some administrators to update deprecated filter variables, switching filters from warn and disallow to disallow only, and I can also monitor the filter log for potential false positives (from local or global filters). A fellow English Wikibooks administrator also said to me that they are willing to support me in a few months when I run for adminship, as I am generally trusted. I hold two advanced global permissions, and I hold an edit filter helper permission on the English Wikipedia, to be sure. Thank you for your consideration. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:02, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—good question! I agree that you are a trusted user, and I think it would be reasonable for you to run for adminship, especially given our need to fix up technical aspects of the project. If you don't plan to commit to Wikibooks long-term (i.e. you have some projects you'd like to take a few months to complete and then be done), you can always request temporary adminship. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:30, 23 June 2025 (UTC) :: Thank you for your feedback, but I also plan to monitor for vandalism/spam, and to commit to reduce the administrative assistance reading room backlog, should I be elected for adminship (and I forgot to mention those). Anyway, regarding your feedback, I might run by August or even July, given that I've lately started contributing more often to Wikibooks. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:29, 23 June 2025 (UTC) ::: [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], I am pinging you one more time to see if you have read my response above yours. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:34, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]! I'm not sure what you mean—was there an additional question you had? Everything you've outlined seems quite reasonable. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:26, 26 June 2025 (UTC) ::::: Apologies for the confusion, I don't have any questions to ask. I was clarifying that I can help with implementing edit requests and to block obvious vandals and spammers, aside from the skills I mentioned earlier. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:32, 26 June 2025 (UTC) == how is it you feel able to interfere in my sandbox? == you deleted a page in my sandbox that was my way of providing my response to a request from an OpenSCAD dev team leader for a couple of text blurbs for use on a web page of the OpenSCAD site. now that you have deleted my page i have to recreate the texts from a screenshot to be able to offer the suggestions, which i will This kind of high handed treatment is what keeps me from being a wiki-anything contributor .. If it is Wiki policy to interfere in the documentation of an open source project because it is hosted on Wikibooks then i will take up the task of moving our online docs to a site where you cannot interfere. -- [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 21:56, 29 June 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]]—thanks for bringing this to my attention. I now understand that this was intended to be in your user namespace—I've undeleted it and moved it to the correct namespace for you. Let me know if anything else comes up! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:05, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::ah .. err .. umm .. well that is a gentle answer to my ire. Thanks for being so gracious [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:29, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::and .. isn't my sandbox in my namespace by default? [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 20:30, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :::No worries—it looks like you didn't add the prefix "User:" before writing out the full page titles, so the pages you created were technically in the project's Main space with the official published materials. Going forward, you can just double-check that the page title starts with "'''User:'''VulcanWikiEdit/sandbox", and that should keep everything in the right place! Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:36, 30 June 2025 (UTC) ::::BTW .. i love the play on cat lover name [[User:VulcanWikiEdit|VulcanWikiEdit]] ([[User talk:VulcanWikiEdit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/VulcanWikiEdit|contribs]]) 15:35, 1 July 2025 (UTC) :::::Thank you! That's very kind. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:46, 1 July 2025 (UTC) == Regarding the user Codename Tameirao == Could this be Matthew again (the Unicode LTA)? I believe it might be him based on his usage of edit summaries, and his usual edits to [[Unicode/Versions]]. I just blocked his recent account, and then I protected and stabilized that Unicode book. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 23:51, 12 August 2025 (UTC) :I suspect you're right! That seems like a reasonable course of action. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:56, 13 August 2025 (UTC) :: I recently encountered another possible LTA, see [[Special:Contributions/~2025-55706-6]] (as well as [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]]). I can email you more details if you want. <span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 16:30, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::I think this is the same LTA, yes! I've protected [[Unicode/Roadmap Blocks]], but I think it would be a good idea if we could automate this monitoring somewhat using the edit filter. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:07, 9 September 2025 (UTC) :::: I don't think that was Matthew, as he typically uses edit summaries. The deleted page was not protected, as it was protected before you deleted it; I salted it from creation for one year. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 20:22, 9 September 2025 (UTC) ::::: You might want to look at [[Special:Contributions/Freddy Fazbearing Others]]. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:18, 26 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::Thank you! I went ahead and blocked them. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:54, 28 October 2025 (UTC) == IP block exempt == Hi Kitty, I currently have IP block exemption on enwiki, Commons and Wikidata as I use VPNs connected to my internet security software. Can you please grant me the right on wikibooks. I have a strong password and use two factor authentication. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 10:51, 22 August 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TarnishedPath|TarnishedPath]]! This doesn't sound unreasonable to me, but I think it would be good if you requested at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]] so we can have a discussion—I have not granted this right before. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:50, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::Kitty, thanks for pointing me in the right direction. ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:25, 23 August 2025 (UTC) ::See [[Wikibooks:Requests_for_permissions#TarnishedPath_(discuss_·_contribs_·_count_·_logs_·_block_log_·_rfp_·_rights)_(IP_Block_Exemption)]] ''[[User:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#ff0000;">Tar</b><b style="color:#ff7070;">nis</b><b style="color:#ffa0a0;">hed</b><b style="color:#420000;">Path</b>]]''^{[[User talk:TarnishedPath|<b style="color:#bd4004;">talk</b>]]} 03:35, 23 August 2025 (UTC) == You've got mail! == {{You've got mail|sig=<span style="font-family:Verdana">[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">'''''Codename Noreste'''''</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#A1000E">talk</span>]])</span> 00:20, 6 September 2025 (UTC)}} :Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:06, 6 September 2025 (UTC) == Are you able to import? == I made a few requests over at https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Requests_for_import . [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 22:32, 4 October 2025 (UTC) : [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]], I'll go ahead and start the imports. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:29, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::Thank you for your help [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 16:51, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::: My apologies for not doing this sooner, because some database error appears when I am trying to mass import. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:39, 5 October 2025 (UTC) ::::I also tried to make this import earlier and ran into issues with the software. I was hoping it was a temporary bug, but it seems to be persisting. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:01, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::This seems like I should get involved. {{working}}... [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:11, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::: I believe there are five pages that have massive page histories they fail to import here. [[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:13, 6 October 2025 (UTC) :::::::I backed up the XMLs of them locally but im unsure how much that'd do. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 15:18, 6 October 2025 (UTC) ::::::::Just became an importer. The reason is prob understandable but I cannot upload the XML file to here locally. [[User:2005-Fan|2005-Fan]] ([[User talk:2005-Fan|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/2005-Fan|contribs]]) 17:23, 10 October 2025 (UTC) == About the category parameter in the recipe summary template == When it uses a "recipe by type" category, should it use a "[type/food] recipes" name or "Recipes for [type/food]"? I recently operated JWB to change from [[:Category:Dessert recipes]] to [[:Category:Recipes for dessert]] in multiple Cookbook recipes, and from what I've said before, I've changed to ''Recipes for dessert'' in the category parameter of Cookbook recipes. Hope you don't mind that this was over more than 250 changes (not counting the recent category changes after moving some recipe categories). Thanks. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:07, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]—those JWB changes you made seem fine to me! I'm not quite sure what you're asking in your first sentence, though. Assuming I understand correctly: in general, I think the default format should be whatever the actual category name is. BUT if there is a redirect, it ultimately shouldn't matter too much. And, because I'm not convinced of the utility of that infobox parameter in the first place (thinking of removing it), I'm not hugely concerned about it for the time being. Does this help? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:21, 27 October 2025 (UTC) :: Probably, but I will say the following below (for my first sentence) to clarify: :: On the <code>|category =</code> parameter, when placing a recipe category name, should it either be {{tq|Sandwich recipes}} or {{tq|Recipes for sandwiches}}? I hope this clears the confusion. '''[[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]]''' ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:39, 27 October 2025 (UTC) == Please no more Unicode LTA == Please don't block me again. I promise I will edit Unicode stuff and add correct information. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2025-30839-28|&#126;2025-30839-28]] ([[User talk:&#126;2025-30839-28|talk]]) 20:54, 1 November 2025 (UTC) :<small>I am a bit out of the loop, so correct me if I'm wrong - I'm assuming here</small> I think the point is that they want you to ''not'' edit the Unicode stuff? Also hi kitty, it's been a ... very long time.. ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:13, 5 November 2025 (UTC) ::Ok so apparently not as long as I thought, but it feels like I've been away for at least a year lol ^{&#8212; [[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#c71300">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[User talk:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:#ce3f00">'''ROAR''' at me!</span>]]} 01:23, 5 November 2025 (UTC) :::Nice to see you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:41, 5 November 2025 (UTC) == Administrator and reviewer user right combinations are not needed anymore == Given that administrators can review edits in addition to reviewers, I would suggest for you (and other administrators) to kindly remove the reviewer permission from (own) accounts. What I'm saying is that if one holds administrator and reviewer permissions together, they can remove the reviewer permission from their own account and retain their administrator permission. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 16:06, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :Gotcha—is there a reason it's bad for one user to have both these rights? If so, I can remove my reviewer right. Otherwise, it seems fairly harmless? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:26, 11 November 2025 (UTC) :: The thing is, administrators have the <code>review</code> user right, as well as some permissions in the reviewer user group in the administrator toolset. That means that having the reviewer user group together with the admin user group is redundant. Hope this explains it. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 19:59, 11 November 2025 (UTC) ::: @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] <s>I'll do this tomorrow morning, as well as to remove autoreviewed user permissions from users who are reviewers.</s> ({{doing}}) [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:24, 12 November 2025 (UTC) : I have removed the autoreviewed user permission from users who are reviewers. As for administrators, I will do so later today. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:40, 13 November 2025 (UTC) == Nesting in Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities == Hi Kittycataclysm, I am editor of wikipedia since 2004. We have the habit if we have a concern using the talk page to clarify the case. I am not sure to delete meaningful content without previous notification and doing major redirection without agreeing the main contributor(s) is an adequate admin act and sign of good manner of host (see [[W:Wikipedia:Etiquette|Wikipedia:Etiquette]].) Yes, It will be not an average book but above the regular. This is the exact case: ''"this may be appropriate, such as with large textbooks that contain subsections with a lot of content."'' ''for to establish good structural and stylistic practices'' I have a data management certification. If you asking it will have 4 nest level on strict purpose. If you saw the introduction of the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] is/will be a global collection making effective collaboration over borders and continents. One structured + categorized(!) page for each community willing to show up. The Postal addresses has also same or larger deepness, this is unavoidable (Country/Postal Code/Location/Street/House/floor/door). Here will looks like: '''Eco-comm/Continent/Regio code/Community name''' The goal of this system to open bridge + experience highway for the communities using the same permaculture technics what collected parallelly in [[Open Book of Permaculture]]. That is also part of this knowledge base please dont do simplification steps on that without discussion. I am kindly asking to revert your edits in this book. After that I will put a notification template about "This book is under construction with major changes. Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History. Common clarifications/ guides are on the primary talk page." Thanks: [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 02:22, 12 November 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]], and thank you both for your contributions and for reaching out! Yes, I did make the following changes to [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]: :* I moved the pages from the [[Eco-comm]] namespace to the [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]] namespace, since the table of contents and pages for a given book should be under that book's namespace. :* I removed the links to Wikipedia that were on [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]], since outlinking has been discouraged at en.Wikibooks as a matter of practice. Compilations of links may not fall into WB scope as an instructional text, and [[Wikibooks:Requests for deletion/Piano Solo Music: An Encyclopedia|there is precedent for deleting them]]. But, I do see that the tool I used didn't just remove links to enWP, so I will restore the prior revision and ping the tool developer. :* I flagged it as needing denesting—you're right that nested entries can sometimes be appropriate. In this case, I was primarily flagging for a denest because the table of contents needs to be moved onto the main page, and it shouldn't have hidden navigation within the nested portions. :Could you clarify which of these edits you do not agree with so I can make sure they are individually addressed? As an aside, it could be helpful to create a [[Help:Local manuals of style|local manual of style]] for the book in order to clearly outline the expectations. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:59, 12 November 2025 (UTC) ::My main concern not about moving and flagging but '''deleting''' [[Eco-comm]] against [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy]] and not mentioning in the clarification even after my notification. Should I note all administrators [[Wikibooks:Please do not bite the newcomers]] - or will they do speedy deleting one by one until I make them individually addressed? :::The <u> local manual of style</u> development is ongoing together with the sample pages. ::'''MAIN PAGE''' ::The '''Main page''' and '''Namespace''' is the [[Eco-comm]]. The '''Full Title''' or '''Cover''' is [[Open Book of Ecovillages and Eco Communities]]. Because of the high level of nesting the below extra-long-full-text-title to be avoided the Cover page is a redirection with preface/intro etc. ::'''NESTING ''' :::Featured book with 3 level nesting: [[Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change/Theory]] :::5 level nesting example: [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] ::'''Categories''' The [[:Category:Eco-comm]] will let the users make practical sub-categories e.g. [[:Category:Eco-comm/Project/numundo]] [[:Category:Eco-comm/]] ::: ::[[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 03:44, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you for elaborating! I'm unfortunately not sure what you mean about deleting [[Eco-comm]]—are you referring to the fact that I moved it without leaving a redirect? Regarding the nesting, I do honestly think those other books you linked should have their navigation denested since I find their format difficult to parse, and they have some navigation issues. Looping in some other active admins (@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] (@[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]) so they can get eyes on this and voice anything they think is important. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 04:12, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::It makes no sense to have some crazy abbreviation as a "main page" or "namespace" (whatever that means in this context) for a book in order to allow it to be deep nested. Nobody needs to type the whole name of the nesting because that's what navigation templates do, and it is a simple matter to override the page title. I also take issue with the statement, above, "Before contributing, please discuss and align your work with at least one of the main contributors listed in the Page History." Anybody can edit, and nobody gets to own and control any work. Taken together, this complaint looks like a case of attempting to assert ownership and to operate against the normal practices of Wikibooks. As such, I am completely aligned with the changes made. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:49, 18 November 2025 (UTC) :::::That. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 14:59, 18 November 2025 (UTC) ::::Thanks @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]]@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] for the contribution, btw the [[Development Cooperation Handbook/Designing and Executing Projects/Communication Management/Communication Planning/Develop a Conflict Management Strategy]] also looks crazy long, is'nt it? Lets continue in the [[Wikibooks:Reading_room/General]] keeping this page for personal messages. [[User:Rodrigo|Rodrigo]] ([[User talk:Rodrigo|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Rodrigo|contribs]]) 23:07, 20 November 2025 (UTC) == Deletions of Wikibook subpages == Hello @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], regarding the [[Thesis Writing Guide]] subpage deletions, should I just recreate them when I keep working on them or was there an automatic deletion that we could undo? This document will grow, but really slowly. Best, Tim [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 11:37, 16 December 2025 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]]! Since there was so little content on the deleted pages, my recommendation would just be for you to gradually recreate the chapters as you go. Does that make sense? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:54, 17 December 2025 (UTC) ::Makes sense, not my ideal solution, but also not far from it :) The end result will be the same, the in-between will just feel a little bit weird from time to time. ::Thank you for taking time to curate and quality-control Wikibooks - wishing wonderful holidays and a happy new year! [[User:TimBorgNetzWerk|TimBorgNetzWerk]] ([[User talk:TimBorgNetzWerk|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TimBorgNetzWerk|contribs]]) 20:43, 17 December 2025 (UTC) :::Thank you, and happy holidays to you as well :) —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:13, 17 December 2025 (UTC) == help with "Media Literacy and You" == {{re|Kittycataclysm}} What do I need to do to get a quality review of ''[[Media Literacy and You]]'', or whatever is needed to remove <nowiki>{{Qr-em|not clear how this is to be structured as a book}}</nowiki>? I ask, because you added that flag just over 2 hours after I created it. I later found that I had accidentally created it as an anonymous user. I've since started using my standard Wikiname, and I tried to respond to the requests both by creating a discussion on the "Discussion" page associated with that book and by upgrading the content. The upgrades included adding the "Introduction" chapter by revising an article on Wikiversity that convinced me to start this Wikibook. I have other articles that I plan to rewrite to create 9 of the remaining 11 chapters in the current table of contents, as indicated in this table of contents. ??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:23, 8 February 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]]! I removed the query flag, since this is clearly not a test page. I do have concerns about the suitability of this book for Wikibooks, since it seems to be more in line with essays and original research/analysis (which are [[Wikibooks:WIW|out of scope here]]). Wikiversity seems like a very suitable place for them—is there a specific reason you want to move them here? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:24, 8 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::This book is intended to accelerate the diffusion of [[w:Media literacy|media literacy]] by making it easier for humans to (a) access training materials and (b) connect with research on the most important issues that concern them and (c) discuss those issues with others who may believe differently in a nonthreatening context that encourages dialogue and a shared search for what can honestly be said about any particular issue. This is an extension of "The wisdom of polarized crowds" discussed in [[Wikipedia:Reliability of Wikipedia]]. ::I don't know about you, but I'm frightened by the collapse of nuclear arms control agreements since the year 2000, by global warming, by the threats of the Trump administration to invade Canada and Greenland, etc. If this book project is successful, it will make a material contribution to reversing these trends -- unless this kind of dialogue is [[v:Responding to a nuclear attack|interrupted by a nuclear war]]. === Who is DavidMCEddy === ::I'm a [[w:Vietnam veteran|Vietnam-era veteran]] with a PhD in statistics and a publication record for which [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Spencer-Graves-3 ReserchGate has found over 1,200 academic publications that have cited my work.] Since [https://xtools.wmcloud.org/ec/en.wikipedia.org/DavidMCEddy 2010 I have logged] * 6,000+ edits in each of Wikipedia and Wikiversity, * 1,000+ in Wikimedia Commons, * 30,000+ in Wikidata, and * almost 1,000 in other Wikimedia Foundation projects like Wikiquote and edits to the Spanish, French and German Wikipedias. This includes dozens of research reports posted to Wikiversity under [[v:Category:Freedom and abundance]] and 44 posts under [[v:Category:Media reform to improve democracy]] that provide a platform for documenting and discussing 44 episodes of a fortnightly "Media & Democracy" series of 29:00 mm:ss podcasts syndicated for the [https://pacificanetwork.org/stations-2/ Pacifica Radio Network] featuring the opinions of leading experts on the increase in political polarization and violence and what those experts think should be done about this. I've just posted another chapter to [[Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. I hope you will agree that this book can make a positive contribution to Wikibooks and to [[w:Jimmy Wales|Jimbo Wales]]' [[w:Wikipedia:Prime objective|Prime Directive]] to create "a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge." Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 01:19, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Thank you and I understand this, but I am asking why you think this material is more suitable at Wikibooks rather than at Wikiversity. From what I can see, Wikiversity seems like the more appropriate home for it given our [[Wikibooks:WIW|scope]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:59, 9 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} ::"Media Literacy and You" is textbook to support both self study and classes on media literacy. ::I have been posting content to Wikiversity since 2014 and have not encountered support there for books. A search just now turned up a hint of a book on Wikiversity, but I could not easily find anything on how to do it, etc. ::I think this "Media Literacy and You" project would lose the vast majority of its potential if it were not on Wikibooks. ::??? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 02:22, 9 February 2026 (UTC) {{outdent}} {{re|Kittycataclysm}} Will you please help me with the protocols of creating a book on Wikiversity? 1. I have found documentation that claims that Wikiversity supports such. However, the documentation seems incomplete, potentially out of date, etc. For example, I could not see how to follow the instructions for [[Wikiversity:Help:Books#Step 1: Enable the "Book creator" tool]]. So I posted a question to [[Wikiversity:Help talk:Books]]. 2. What do you suggest I do next? :I can create an article on Wikiversity titled, "Media Literacy and You", and port everything I've posted to Wikibooks there, then replace the pages on Wikibooks with redirects to [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You]], [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/Introduction]], and [[Wikiversity:Media Literacy and You/The impact of the media on political economy since the time of the Pharaohs]]. :If you think that's the best way to build this book project, great. It would actually be easier for me, because there would be less translation between what I already have on Wikiversity and a version for Wikibooks. (Also, Wikiversity supports <nowiki>{{cite Q|...}}</nowiki>, which I have used extensively for years.) :Thanks for your help. [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 13:26, 9 February 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] Unfortunately, I am not familiar with the exact workings of Wikiversity, so I can't be much help there. My personal recommendation is that you ask there for help on how best to structure your materials to match the WV requirements. If you'd like some additional opinions/insight, please feel free to also check in at the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General|reading room]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:22, 10 February 2026 (UTC) ::{{re|Kittycataclysm}} I believe I have finished migrating all of ''Media Literacy and You'' to Wikiversity and replacing the parts of it on Wikibooks with redirects. Comments? Thanks, [[User:DavidMCEddy|DavidMCEddy]] ([[User talk:DavidMCEddy|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidMCEddy|contribs]]) 17:32, 10 February 2026 (UTC) == Thank you! == Heya, thanks for reviewing my stuff! Just to note, the first lesson page was done and so that'll need moving. If you want to discuss anything with me, I am easily reachable on Discord @ xiluosi233. I can explain philosophy, approach, and so on from my teaching experience if you want anything regarding that. [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:48, 17 February 2026 (UTC) :It appears [[An Introduction to the Han Script]] was moved wrong - should it not be [[General Literary Chinese from Scratch/An Introduction to the Han Script]]? [[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] ([[User talk:Shira the Mogul|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shira the Mogul|contribs]]) 19:52, 17 February 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Shira the Mogul|Shira the Mogul]] good catch! I accidentally removed more of the title than intended. I've fixed this now. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:18, 18 February 2026 (UTC) == A test request == Just to see whether a recent Luna update turned out as intended, could you briefly revert your [[User:Kittycataclysm/lunaoptions.json|Luna preferences page]] to the first revision? Since you don't appear to have any custom preferences in the first place, I don't think there should be any conflicts. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 01:49, 30 March 2026 (UTC) :Done! But, it seems to have perhaps auto-updated again immediately afterwards. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:39, 10 April 2026 (UTC) == Linking == Hi,<br> For my edification, why is a link from [[Cookbook:nettle|nettle]] to [[w:Urtica_dioica|Urtica dioica]] not appropriate? The Wikipedia article has more information & seems relevant.<br> Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 01:53, 24 April 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] good question! Wikibooks discourages outlinking, since books should be self-contained units. Instead of linking to [[w:Urtica dioica]], the correct approach would be to flesh out the actual chapter here at Wikibooks. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:34, 24 April 2026 (UTC) ::Should all material in the Wikipedia article about Urtica dioica relevant to cooking be duplicated into the nettle article in the cookbook? Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 02:30, 2 May 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] you could do that, although you should only include information that is sourced. However, I recommend that you wait, because I am coincidentally working on the page right now and fleshing it out significantly. I should publish today. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:40, 2 May 2026 (UTC) ::::The nettle page is better now. Thanks. ::::I still wonder, given that the link to ''The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, ...'' is permitted, why not a link to the botanically oriented page in Wikipedia. What if someone reads the Cookbook article and is interested in the toxin for example? Seems that non-Wikimedia references are more privileged than Wikimedia references. ::::Also, by chance, just noticed the [[w:Nettle_soup|Nettle soup]] article in Wikipedia. Better in the Cookbook? ::::Thx, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 19:10, 5 May 2026 (UTC) :::::Another good question. The reason those books are linked is because they are reputable and topical sources for the subject matter (nettles as used in cooking from an instructional perspective), and the links are part of the citations—this makes it different from a simple outlink to a Wikipedia page. Wikipedia pages should also not be cited themselves as sources. Regarding nettle soup, I don't think it makes sense to have that as a standalone page here in the cookbook due to its encyclopedic tone, and I don't see any recipes there. Does this make sense? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:21, 6 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::Somewhat. Certainly a recipe wouldn't be incongruous in a cookbook. Still seems unhelpful that relevant information in Wikipedia is inaccessible from a Wikibook. In effect there's a "Berlin Wall" between two Wikimedia projects. Would a "See also" section be permissible? ::::::Thanks, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 14:00, 7 May 2026 (UTC) == You may be an eligible candidate for the U4C election == <div lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr"> Greetings, The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee (U4C)]] seeks candidates for the 2026 election. The U4C is the global committee responsible for overseeing enforcement of the [[foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal Code of Conduct|Universal Code of Conduct]]. Elections are held annually, if elected a committee member serves for two years. This year the U4C requires candidates to hold administrator rights on at least one wiki, which is why you are being contacted as you appear to hold this right. There are other requirements, such as candidates must be at least 18 years old and may not be employed by the Wikimedia Foundation or other related chapters and affiliates. You can find more information in the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026#Call_for_Candidates|call for candidates on Meta-wiki]]. Additionally, the committee's working language is English; some ability to communicate in English is required. The election opens on 18 May, if you are eligible and interested you have until 10 May to submit your candidacy. There will week between for candidates to answer questions from the community. Voting takes place privately in [[m:Special:MyLanguage/SecurePoll|SecurePoll]], successful candidates must receive at least 60% support. More information is available on [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|the 2026 Elections page]], including timelines and other candidacy information. If you read over the material and consider yourself qualified, please consider submitting your name to run for the committee. If you think someone else in your community might be interested and qualified, please encourage them to run. In partnership with the U4C -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User_talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 18:32, 28 April 2026 (UTC) </div> <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/test&oldid=30471751 --> == Undeletion request == Hello, I am writing to request an undeletion of the page Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad. You stated you are a frequent visitor of the Lentis page and are thus familiar with it. This page was part of a class assignment and was in progress at the time of deletion. The work deleted is what we will be graded on for our class, so we would appreciate the restoration. [[User:Yqj3km|Yqj3km]] ([[User talk:Yqj3km|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yqj3km|contribs]]) 19:36, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Yqj3km|Yqj3km]] see my response below regarding undeletion. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Undeletion request == About the page on Lentis called Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad: I, too, request undeletion, please. If the authors made any msitakes, the fault is 100 percent mine, for failing to guide them correctly. Like all chapters in this book, this team's chapter is a class assignment. I will be interested also in the reason for deletion so that I can guide authors better. I want to help my students be constructive contributors. Many thanks! [[User:Norton|Norton]] ([[User talk:Norton|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Norton|contribs]]) 20:03, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Norton|Norton]] and thanks for the ping! I deleted it because it was not titled/filed correctly, so I didn't realize it was part of [[Lentis]]. I have undeleted it and moved it to [[Lentis/Saumya Pandya Thakkar, Shakuntala Pandya and the Pedestrians of Ahmedabad]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:14, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::Many, many thanks, @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]! I am very grateful as always for everything you do for Wikibooks! ::[[User:Norton|Norton]] ([[User talk:Norton|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Norton|contribs]]) 22:27, 4 May 2026 (UTC) == Log in issues == Hi, messaging you as you seem to be the most active admin at the moment. I can't log in (as posted at <bdi>[[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance]] and also on my WP page at</bdi> [[w:User_talk:Xania]]). Seems to be an issue with extra security for admins? I am asked to use my authenticator app (which I can't as I have never set it up for Wikibooks) or a recovery code (which I don't have). Any idea what I should do in this situation? Xania [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28255-89|&#126;2026-28255-89]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28255-89|talk]]) 18:21, 10 May 2026 (UTC) :Apologies for missing this yesterday! It seems like we have a few people working on it over in the reading room, and I'll keep track there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:37, 11 May 2026 (UTC) == Splitting pages == FYI, I untagged [[Art Print Production Methods]] as for splitting: the page is rather small with its 20 KB and does not need splitting, in my view. Ideally, there would be an operationalized, fairly detailed policy on the matter, but I do not know of one. Single-page books are in [[:Category:One-page books]]. --[[User:Dan Polansky|Dan Polansky]] ([[User talk:Dan Polansky|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dan Polansky|contribs]]) 04:45, 20 May 2026 (UTC) == <s>Slander</s> == <S>Your tag is slanderous and very easily proven wrong.</s>[https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654455] Given you likely didn't bother to look at the edit history, I would remind you that your given reason that you think it was AI is because you see the chapter is "numbered". That however was 100% my own personal decision after I reviewed my work and thought to myself that I later wrote in the introduction that there is a first to fourth chapter. However I thought to myself that the readers would not be easily made aware of what is meant by first to fourth as I didn't number them - so is why I dedicated an entire edit to make it less ambiguous [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654328]. I should not have to be falsely penalized because I wanted to be more considerate and ensure better clarity. I do however request AI to help me figure out coding like this - [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654329] as I don't know how to link. But I intentionally take great efforts to not rely on AI to write that book and find your wrongful presumptions troubling. [[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 06:00, 15 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] thank you for clarifying! I flagged it for review because it matched a common pattern we see associated with LLM use here. If that is not the case, then nothing needs to happen in that respect; however, you will likely want to fix the lists so that they are correctly formatted in the Wikitext and not hard-written—let me know if you have any questions about that. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:14, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::Yeah, I don't instantly understand what you mean by "correctly formatted" list. At first, I assumed you were referring to chapter 4 - (''Further reading'')? But I think I know what you mean. I made this edit here [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Five_Rules_for_Meaningful_Living&diff=prev&oldid=4654738] to align with how I see wikibooks typically do lists. Did I fix it? If not, feel free to clarify.[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 18:35, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::I thought about how I responded earlier. Even tho I still disagree, I probably shouldn't have used such a tone. I imagine admins like yourself do a lot of work overseeing wiki and the project owes a lot to you guys. So I take back my harsh words, and I hope we're good.[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] ([[User talk:JaredMcKenzie|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JaredMcKenzie|contribs]]) 03:38, 17 July 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:JaredMcKenzie|JaredMcKenzie]] I appreciate that—thank you! And thank you for [[Special:Diff/4654738|making those changes to the lists]], which was indeed what I was referring to. Happy editing! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:31, 17 July 2026 (UTC) == The Geoguide == I literally wrote all of this myself I used no AI if you want to you can highlight the areas that seem way too formal and ill fix them [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 04:22, 18 July 2026 (UTC) :Thank you! I have removed the flag. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:41, 20 July 2026 (UTC) == Vandalism == your recent changes may not be constructive. {{Warning}} [[User:Duodeca 12|Duodeca 12]] ([[User talk:Duodeca 12|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Duodeca 12|contribs]]) 20:39, 2 August 2026 (UTC) == Your recent revert == Could you explain [[Special:Diff/4670314]]? This seems to be you ''restoring'' vandalism, which was originally introduced by [[Special:Diff/4669920]]. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 20:06, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :Good catch! Somehow I didn't have the most recent version of a page loaded, and it seems like Luna reverts the most recent edit of a page and not the specific edit you're viewing. The edit in question should be fixed now. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:11, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Sorry {{PAGENAME}} for butting in here, I hope you don't mind. ::Just wanted to mention that I have had a few similar experiences when editing (not having the most recent version of a page loaded). Once this caused me friction with an admin who was convinced I was willfully undoing their edit. This happened years ago on another wikimedia project. ::Ottawahitech [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 01:18, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == Confirmed user == <s>If this is one, could I perhaps be a confirmed user? The software has not granted me autoconfirmed, despite me having the requirements.</s> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:50, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :This is not needed anymore, thank you! [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:58, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == Message == Mom, I want to start by saying I am truly sorry for buying this behind your back and for begging you so much to wear it. I know it wasn’t right to go around you like that, and I promise this is the final time I will ever ask you about it. I know you’ve rejected it before, but I want to ask you to consider rebuying it and trying it on. Sometimes in life, even when someone gives us something we don’t love right away, accepting the gesture with gratitude is what matters most. It's about accepting things because of the love behind them, putting aside the feeling that it's not right, and finding a way to appreciate the thought instead of pretending it's garbage. Even when we don't completely like a gift, we can still accept it and wear it out of love. It reminds me of the time I bought an Ouija board under a WSSRA’s back. When they found out on the day it was supposed to arrive, they cancelled it at first. But they ultimately decided to bring it the next day anyway, just to show they accepted my gift. I didn't even end up playing with it all that much in the end, but the fact that he accepted it meant the world to me. I want you to feel entirely comfortable and safe, and I hope we can just focus on creating joyful memories together. If you're willing to wear it again and try it on, the costume details can be found here: <nowiki>https://www.amazon.com/JcHrmers-Halloween-Costume-Include-Feather/dp/B0H4TW2JTB/ref=sr_1_1?crid=3ISSEP0SNAYF9&dib=eyJ2IjoiMSJ9.D_HPqczOK5orx2YVl1cl_GPVlZ7croscLKyo4iccXzE.t9TNwLmVp1Cd45_WTNvTKXAMQva-p9ENV0n_8oAqHYs&dib_tag=se&keywords=JcHrmers+6+Pcs+Halloween+Macaw+Costume+Include+Fringe+Belly+Dance+Outfit+with+Halter+Top%2CSkirt%2C+Bird+Hat%2CFaux+Feather+Wings+and+Wrist+Cuffs+for+Women+Party+Dress+Up&nsdOptOutParam=true&qid=1789058320&sprefix=jchrmers+6+pcs+halloween+macaw+costume+include+fringe+belly+dance+outfit+with+halter+top%2Cskirt%2C+bird+hat%2Cfaux+feather+wings+and+wrist+cuffs+for+women+party+dress+up%2Caps%2C235&sr=8-1</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51006-30|~2026-51006-30]] ([[User talk:~2026-51006-30|talk]]) 01:56, 23 September 2026 (UTC) od5yuwlk739h850vcu7cqhvuqkaoml9 0 449080 4671848 4295478 2026-09-23T04:02:11Z ~2026-51237-94 3626644 4671848 wikitext text/x-wiki The PocketStar is an open-source, ultra-miniature handheld video game console and micro-computing platform. Measuring smaller than a standard matchbox, the device represents the extreme frontier of the "micro-handheld" movement, combining retro-style gaming with modern micro-controller engineering. Designed for developers, retro enthusiasts, and hardware hobbyists, the PocketStar functions both as a pocket-sized emulation machine and an open-source development kit. ------------------------------ ## 1. Origins and Concept The PocketStar emerged from the maker community's fascination with extreme miniaturization. While the late 2010s saw a boom in standard-sized retro emulation handhelds, a subset of engineers focused on pushing the absolute physical limits of playable hardware. The core philosophy behind the PocketStar was to create a device that could comfortably sit on a keychain, yet possess a fully functional directional pad, tactile action buttons, a color display, and enough processing power to run independent software. ------------------------------ ## 2. Architectural Generations## First Generation: The Micro-Controller Framework (2018) The initial iterations of the PocketStar were engineered around a low-power, accessible architecture tailored for the Arduino homebrew community. * Processor: Powered by an Atmel SAMD21 (ARM Cortex-M0+) 32-bit micro-controller operating at 48 MHz. * Memory Constraints: Equipped with 256 KB of flash memory and 32 KB of SRAM, requiring developers to write highly optimized, bare-metal code. * Display: A 0.95-inch color OLED screen with a native resolution of 96x64 pixels. The high contrast of OLED technology was crucial for keeping text and pixel art readable at such a microscopic scale. * Storage & Audio: Data was loaded via a MicroSD card slot. Early models lacked a dedicated speaker component, relying on a built-in vibration motor to deliver haptic feedback in place of audio cues. ## Second Generation: The RISC-V and Wireless Upgrade (2022–Present) As micro-controller technology evolved, the platform underwent a massive internal overhaul to transition from a simple novelty into a highly capable connected ecosystem. * Processor: Upgraded to an Espressif ESP32-C3 RISC-V single-core processor running at 160 MHz. This chip provided a massive leap in raw computational performance and introduced native mathematical efficiencies required for rendering complex geometries. * Wireless Connectivity: The integration of Wi-Fi and Bluetooth LE fundamentally changed the platform. It allowed the tiny console to connect to local networks for over-the-air (OTA) software updates, global high-score leaderboards, and local wireless multiplayer gaming. * Multimedia & Input: A miniature piezo speaker was integrated into the chassis to provide native 8-bit sound effects and chiptune music. Additionally, an onboard accelerometer was introduced, allowing developers to create games using tilt and motion controls. ------------------------------ ## 3. Software and Emulation Ecosystem## The Development Environment The PocketStar operates as a fully open-source platform. Because it is built on widely adopted micro-controller architectures, developers do not need proprietary tools to create software for it. The system is natively compatible with: * Arduino IDE: Allowing beginners to write games using accessible C/C++ libraries. * PlatformIO / ESP-IDF: Providing advanced developers with low-level access to the hardware for optimal performance. ## Gaming and Emulation Due to the architectural leap of the second-generation RISC-V processor, the PocketStar handles software in two distinct ways: +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | POCKETSTAR SOFTWARE | +-------------------------------+---------------------------------+ | 1. NATIVE HOMEBREW | 2. RETRO EMULATION | +-------------------------------+---------------------------------+ | * Custom 3D Raycasters (Doom) | * Nintendo Game Boy (GBC/GB) | | * Optimized 96x64 Pixel Art | * Sega Master System | | * Motion-Controlled Arcade | * Game Gear | +-------------------------------+---------------------------------+ * Native Homebrew: Programs written specifically for the PocketStar's screen layout. Developers have successfully optimized customized 3D raycasting engines (similar to early Doom or Wolfenstein) to run smoothly at high frame rates on the device. * Retro Emulation: The system possesses enough clock speed to accurately translate instructions for classic 8-bit consoles. It can scale down and run games originally designed for the Nintendo Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Sega Master System, utilizing customized screen-scaling algorithms to fit the 0.95-inch display. ------------------------------ ## 4. Impact and Legacy The PocketStar occupies a unique niche in the history of video game hardware. It bridges the gap between hardware engineering tools (like development boards) and consumer electronics. By maintaining an open-source ethos, it has served as an educational stepping stone for programming students and hardware hackers, proving that compelling interactive experiences do not require massive screens or multi-core gigahertz processors. tl4ts6m47f0dc36o9jjgcmyp7ce366d 4671907 4671848 2026-09-23T07:34:29Z TechVindicator 3626296 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4671848|4671848]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51237-94|~2026-51237-94]] ([[User talk:~2026-51237-94|discuss]]) // restoring original version, most of the information with sources was replaced with the previous edit 4671907 wikitext text/x-wiki ==History== ==Technology== ===Compute=== The system makes use of an ESP32-C3 processor clocked at 160 megahertz.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Liszewski |first1=Andrew |title=The PocketStar Puts Retro Gaming Emulation in a Lego Minifig Sized Handheld |url=https://gizmodo.com/pocketstar-retro-emulation-handheld-console-game-boy-1849516588 |access-date=12 September 2022 |work=Gizmodo |date=9 September 2022 |language=en-us}}</ref> The system includes 400 kilobytes of SRAM.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Werner |first1=Silvio |title=Pocketstar: Kompakter Gaming-Handheld unterstützt Multiplayer und ist Open Source |url=https://www.notebookcheck.com/Pocketstar-Kompakter-Gaming-Handheld-unterstuetzt-Multiplayer-und-ist-Open-Source.647417.0.html |access-date=12 September 2022 |work=Notebookcheck |date=September 10, 2022 |language=de}}</ref> ===Connectivity=== The system supported Bluetooth 5.0 LE.<ref>{{cite news |title=プレイ困難なレベルに極小サイズの携帯型ゲーム機登場【PocketStar】 |url=https://daily-gadget.net/2022/09/11/post-48693/ |access-date=12 September 2022 |work=デイリーガジェット |date=11 September 2022 |language=ja}}</ref> ===Hardware=== The system supported force feedback via a vibration motor. ==References== {{Reflist|2}} {{Status|25%}} {{Bookcat}} __NOTOC__ tm6insc9uytk2r9dh8160054imvdah0 0 450718 4671818 4452787 2026-09-22T22:53:06Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671818 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lombard/Morphology}} __TOC__ {{Lombard-NOL}} ==Adverb and adverbial locution of manner== {| class="wikitable" |- ! Lombard adverb !! Translation into English |- | '''ben''' || (a) well; (b) OK<ref name=adj1><small>These are adjectives in English, but some lombard constructions in the type ''"andà" + adverb'' (the verb used is "andà", "to go") are transformed into English with ''"to be" + adjective''</small></ref>; (c) good<ref name=adj1/> |- | '''benon''' || very well |- | '''mal''' || (a) bad; (b) badly |- | '''mej''' || (a) better |- | '''pesg''' || (a) worse |- | '''inscì''' || (a) so; (b) thus; (c) such |} <references/> Under the influence of Italian language, a class of adverbs of manner has established itself, formed from the root of the adjective followed by the ending ''-ament'': *''giustament'' = rightly, justly In other cases, there are some periphrases: *''a la svelta'' = quickly However, there are also cases of adverbs typical only of Lombard: *''inevid'': reluctantly, unwillingly *''adasi'': slowly Adverb locutions are also widespread: *''a bellasi'': slowly *''in genoggion'': kneeling, on one's knees *''a tomborlon'': tumbling down *''de balosset'': cunningly *''de cativ'': badly *''adasi adasi'' = very slowly ==Adverbs and adverbial locutions of place== ===Adverbs of place=== {| class="wikitable" !Lombard adverb!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialet |- |'''adree''' (1) |(1) after (with approach motion); (2) in tow | | |- |'''adass''' (1) |below | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''dedree''' (1) <br> |behind (state in place) | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''debass''' (1) <br> |down, downstairs | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''apress''' (1) <br>'''aproeuv''' (2) <br> |close, near | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br> (2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} |- |'''arent''' (1) |close | | |- |'''vesin''' (1)<br> visin (2) |close | | |- |'''lontan''' (1) |far | | |- |'''dessoravia''' (1) | above (with enfasis for being abel to stay above or for occpying even the space above), afloat | | |- |'''denanz''' (1) |in front | | |- |'''impari''' (1) |(a) perfectly side by side and not a bit ahead or a bit behind<br>(b) in comparison (one next to the other also in a figurative sense in order to make a comparison) | | |- |'''inanz''' (1) |forward | | |- |'''contra''' (1) |against | | |- |'''intorna''' (1)<br>'''entoren''' (2) |around | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} |- |'''indree''' (1) |(a) back; (b) behind | | |- |(in) '''depertut''' (1)<br>'''dapartut''' (2) |everywhere | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}{{Wt/lmo/+BG}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-VA}} |- |'''(in)''' '''depermì''' <br> '''(in)''' '''depertì''' <br> '''(in)''' '''depertì''' <br> '''(in)''' '''deperlù'''/(in) '''deperlee''' <br> '''(in)''' '''depernun''' <br> '''(in)''' '''depervialter''' <br> '''(in)''' '''depelor''' / '''(in)''' '''depelor'''<br> |alone (1st person singular)<br> alone (2nd person singular)<br> alone (3rd person singular masculine/feminine)<br> alone (1st person plural)<br> alone (2nd person plural)<br> alone (3rd person plural masculine/feminine)<br> | | |- |'''lì''' (1)<br>'''là''' (2) |there, there | | |- |'''lilinscì''' (1) | there (in reference to the activity carried out or to be carried out there), in that place | | |- |'''chì''' (1)<br>'''scià''' (2) |here | | |- |'''chichinscì''' (1) |here (in reference to the activity carried out or to be carried out here), in this place | | |- |'''chì-lò''' (1)<br>'''chì-loga''' (2) |here (in reference to the activity carried out or to be carried out here), in this place | |(1-2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}(archaic) |- |'''tut-intorna''' (1) |all around | | |} ====Interrogative adverbs of place==== Used for the construction of the [[Lombard/Construction of the sentence#Interrogations about the place|interrogative sentences about the site/location/place]]. {| class="wikitable" !Adverb!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialects |- |'''indove''' (1a)<ref name=ini>if placed at the beginning of the sentence</ref><br>'''indova''' (2a)<ref name=ini/><br>'''indovè''' (1b-2b)<ref name=end>if placed at the end of the sentence</ref> |Where | | |- |'''de indove''' (1a)<ref name=ini/><br>'''de indova''' (2a)<ref name=ini/><br>'''de indovè''' (1b-2b)<ref name=end/> |Where .... from | | |} :<big>Note</big> <references/> ===Adverbial locutions of place=== {| class="wikitable" !Locuzione avverbiale!!Traduzione in italiano!!Esempi!!Dialet |- |'''a galla''' (1) |afloat | |- |'''a uss a uss''' (1) |neighbours<ref>in English it is translated with this noun following the verb to be</ref> | |- |'''chì adree''' (1) |nearby | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''depos a l'uss''' (1) |close to home | |- |'''(in)''' '''de tute i part''' (1) |everywhere | | |- |'''(in)''' '''de qualsessia part''' (1) |anywhere, in any place | | |- |'''de dree''' (1) |behind (state in place) | | |- |'''de facia''' (1) |opposite (state in place) | | |- |'''de foeura''' (1) |outside | | |- |'''de dent''' (1) |inside | | |- |'''de sora''' (1) | (1) above; (2) upstairs | | |- |'''de sota''' (1) |below, under | | |- |'''de bass''' (1) |downstairs | | |- |'''de là''' (1) | beyond??? | | |- |'''in fond''' (1) |(1) at the end; at the bottom, down | | |- |'''indove''' (1) | where (as a pronoun)<br> to construct [[Lombardo/Relative sentences |relative sentences ]] | | |- |'''in mez''' (1) |in the middle | | |- |'''in pari''' (1) |(a) perfectly side by side and not a bit ahead or a bit behind<br>(b) in comparison (one next to the other also in a figurative sense in order to make a comparison) | | |- |'''a voltra''' (1) |out, to the surface<br> (becoming visible while it wasn't before) |vegnì '''a voltra''' |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in groppa''' (1) |on one's back | | |- |(in) '''d'una quai part''' (1) |somewhere | | |- |'''in tut i canton''' (1) |everywhere | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''lì adree''' (1) |in the neighborhood | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} :<big>Note</big> <references/> ====Interrogative adverbial locutions of place==== Used for the construction of [[Lombardo/Construction of the sentence#Interrogative about the place|interrogative sentences]] and dubitative sentences {| class="wikitable" !Locution!! English translation!! Examples!! Dialect |-- |'''in de che part''' (1) |which way | | |} ===Adverbial particle "ghe"=== ►►► see ►►► '''[[Lombardo/Adverbial particles|Adverbial particles]]''' ==Adverbs and adverbial locutions of time== ===Adverbs of time=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb!!Translation<br>into English!!Examples!!Dialect!!Corresponding<br>conjuctive locution!!Translation into English |- |'''ancamò''' (1)<br>'''anmò''' (2)<br>'''amò''' (3) |(a) again<br>(b) still<br>(c) yet | | | - |- |'''adess''' (1) |(a) now<br>(b) right now | | | - |- |'''dessadess''' (1)<br>'''adsedess''' (2)<br>'''delsadess''' (3) |just now | | | |- |'''despess''' (1) |often | | | - |- |'''doman''' |tomorrow | | | |- |'''dopo''' (1)<br>despeou (2) |later | | |dopo che |after |- |'''finalment''' (1) |finally | | | - |- |'''finadess''' (1) | (a) so far<br>(b) up to now<br>(c) until now | | | - |- |'''sgiamò''' (1) |already | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}{{Wt/lmo/+BG}} | - |- |'''incoeu''' (1)<br>'''ancoeu''' (2) |today | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} | |- |'''instora''' (1) |at this moment | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}(arcaico) | - |- |'''intratanta''' (1) |meanwhile, in the meantime | | | - |- |'''intanta''' (1) |meanwhile | | |intanta che |while |- |'''jer''' |yesterday | | | |- |'''mai ''' (1) |(a) never<br>(b) ever | | | - |- |'''meneman''' (1)<br>'''maneman''' (2) |gradually | | | maneman che |as quickly as, hand in hand that |- |'''nananmò''' (1)<br>'''gnamò''' (2)<br>'''nancamò''' (3)<br>'''nanmò''' (4)<br>'''nonanmò''' (5) |not...yet | | | - |- |'''oramai''' (1)<br>'''ormai''' (2) |by now | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} | - |- |'''poeu''' (1)<br>'''po''' (2) |then | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} | - |- |'''prima''' (1) |before | | |prima che |before |- |'''pù''' (1) '''pioeù''' (2) |(a) not anymore<br>(b) no longer | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} | | - |- |'''inanz''' (1) |before | | |inanz che |before |- |'''semper''' (1)<br>'''sempro''' (2) |always | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-Lagh}} |semper che |assuming (that) |- |'''sovenz''' (1) |frequently<br>often | | | |- |'''subit''' <br> |immediately, right away | | | |- |} ===Adverbial locution of time=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverbial locution!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialect!!Corresponding<br>conjuctive locution!!Translation<br>into English |- |'''a 'st'ora''' (1) |at this point | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''adree a la man''' (1) |each time as they occur | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''a momenti''' (1) |any minute, shortly | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''al dì d'incoeu''' (1) |nowadays | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''a la fin''' (1) |at the end, finally, in the end, eventually, ultimately | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''a la fin di fin''' (1) |after all, ultimately | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''a la svelta''' (1) |quickly | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''bell bellin''' (1) |little by little | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''di volte''' (1) |sometimes | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de chì inanz''' (1) |(a) from now on<br>(b) from here on out | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de dì in dì''' (1) |day by day | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de lì adree''' (1) |shortly thereafter, quickly thereafter | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de lì e lì''' (1) |at any moment, at any time | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''d'ora inanz''' (1) |(a) from now on<br>(b) from here on out | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''dent per dent''' (1) |from time to time | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de maneman''' (1) |gradually, a little at a time | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de rar''' (1) |rarely, seldom | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de spess''' (1) |often, frequently | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de solit''' (1) |usually | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de strasora''' (1) |after hours | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de tant in tant''' (1) |from time to time | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de 'sti dì''' (1) |these days | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''d'un moment con l'alter''' (1) |at any moment, any minute now | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''fin'a l'ultim''' (1)<br>'''fina in ultim''' (2) |to the bitter end | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}(2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''foeura d'ora''' (1) |after hours | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in d'un bof''' (1) |in a breath | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in men de quell''' (1) |in no time | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in''' (sui) '''ultim''' (1) |at the end | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in sul moment''' (1) |on the spot, at the time | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in seguit''' (1) |(a) after; (b) afterward | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''per adess''' (1) |for now | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''per intanta''' (1) |for the moment | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''per semper''' (1) |forever | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''prima de tut''' (1) |first of all | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''per un poo de volte''' (1) |for a few times, several times | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''poch a poch''' (1) |little by little, gradually | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |(una) '''quai volta''' (1) |sometimes | | |- |'''quand se sia''' (1) |when it happens | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''tra poch''' (1) |shortly | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''via via''' (1) |progressively | | | via via che |as |} ===Adverbial locutions of time=== Usage for [[Lombardo/Sentences construction#Interrogative sentences about the time|interrogative sentences]] {| class="wikitable" !Adverb!! Translation<br>into English!! Examples!! Dialects |-- |'''Quandè che''' (1) |When | | |} ==Adverbs e adverbial locution of quantity== ===Adverbs of quantity=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverbs in lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialects |- |'''apena''' (1) |just | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''altertant''' (1) |just as, equally | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''almanch''' (1)<br>almen (2)<br>per el manch (3) |at least | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(3) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''assee''' (1) |quite, enough | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''assosenn''' (1)<br>'''sossenn''' (2) |very | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}(archaic)<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''circa''' (1) |about, around | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''circumcirca''' (1) |roughly, approximately | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''domà''' (1) |just | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''fess''' (1)<br>'''fiss''' (2) |very | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/+}} |- |'''fina-mai''' (1) |extremely | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''molto''' (1) |very | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''pressapoch''' (1) |roughly, mor or less | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''quasi''' (1)<br>'''squas''' (2) |almost | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''pussee''' (1)<br>'''pioeù''' (2) |most | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} |- |'''trop''' (1) |too | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''piuttosto''' (1) |pretty | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ===Locuzioni avverbiali di quantità=== {| class="wikitable" !Locuzione in lombardo!!Traduzione<br>in italiano!!Esempi!!Dialetto |- |'''pussee o men''' (1) |more or less | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''del poch al tant''' (1) |slightly more or less | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''lì adree a''' (1) |about, approximately | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ==Adverbs and adverbial locutions of addition== ===Adverbs of addition=== These words, within the sentence, depending on how they are used, can also play the role of [[Lombardo/Conjunctions|copulative conjunctions]] {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!translation into English!!Ezemples!!Dialect |- |'''inoltra''' (1) |also | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''dessorapù''' (1) |in addiction | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''anca''' (1) |also, moreover | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ===Adverbial locution of addiction=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverbial locution<br>in Lombard!!translation into English!!Ezemples!!Dialect |- |'''in pu''' (1) |furthermore | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''per de pu''' (1) |furthermore | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''de sora maross''' (1) |in addiction, as an extra | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in pagament''' (1) |moreover, furthermore | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ==Adverbs of evaluation== ===Affirmative adverbs and adverbial locutions=== ====Affirmative adverbs==== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialect |- |'''si''' <ref>when used in affirmative answers can replace a whole sentence</ref>(1) |yes | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''of''' <ref>when used in affirmative answers can replace a whole sentence</ref>(1) |(a) Pheuw<br> (b) Yeah | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''sigura''' (1) |definitively | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ====Adverbs of evaluation==== {| class="wikitable" !Adverbial locution<br>in Lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialect |- |'''de sicur''' (1) |definitively | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} Other expressions: ''sigura de sì''= yes of course :<big>Note</big> <references/> ===Negating adverbs=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialects |- |'''nò'''(1a)<br>'''nò''' <ref>when used in affirmative answers can replace a whole sentence</ref><ref>spelling rule is still not unique, it can also be written without accent</ref>(1b) <nowiki>*</nowiki> |(a) not<br>(b) no |(1a) Mi ghe credi '''nò'''<br>(I do'''n't''' believe it.) |(1a) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}{{Wt/lmo/-Br}}{{Wt/lmo/-PV}}{{Wt/lmo/-LO}}<br>(1b) {{Wt/lmo/tut}} |- |'''no''' (0) <nowiki>*</nowiki> |not |(0) Mi '''no''' credi pù a nagot<br>I do'''n't''' believe in anything anymore. |(0) |- |'''minga''' (1)<br> '''menga''' (2)<br> '''mia''' (3)<br> '''mea''' (4)<br> '''miga''' (5)<br> '''migna''' (6) <nowiki>*</nowiki> |not |(1) Mi ghe credi '''minga'''<br>(I do'''n't''' believe it.) |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-Lagh}}(3) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<ref>countryside around Milan</ref>{{Wt/lmo/+BG}}{{Wt/lmo/-PV}}<br>(4){{Wt/lmo/-VA}}<br>(5){{Wt/lmo/-Vtel}}<br>(6){{Wt/lmo/-CO}} |- |'''nanca''' (1)<br> '''nanch''' (2)<br>'''gnanca''' (3)<br> '''neanca''' (4)<br>'''gnanch''' (5) |(a) not even<br>(b) not either | |(1-2-3-5){{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(4){{Wt/lmo/-Lagh}} |- |} Also [[Lombard/Adverbs and adverbial locutions#Adverbs of time|'''''nananmò''''']] - and its dialectal variants - (not yet) and [[Lombard/Adverbs#Adverbs of time|''mai'']] (never) are negating adverbs. <nowiki>*</nowiki> the use of negative adverbs is explained '''[[Lombard/Construction of the sentence#Negative sentence|here]]'' and ''[[Lombardo/Negation|here]]'''. :<big>Note</big> <references/> ==Adverbs of doubt== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!Translation<br>into English!!Examples!!Dialects |- |'''forsi''' (1)<br>'''forse''' (1) |maybe | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/+BG}} |- |'''magara''' (1) |maybe | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''probabilment''' (1) |probably | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''facilment''' (1) |probably | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''quasi''' (1)<br>'''squas''' (2) |(a) almost<br>(b) nearly | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}}<br>(2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} <references/> ==Interrogative adverbs== ►see►►► '''[[Lombard/Sentence construction#Direct interrogative sentences|Direct interrogative sentences]]''' ==Exclamatory adverbs== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialect |- |'''se''' (1) |how |Se l'è bell!<br>(How beautiful (it is)!) |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''come''' (1) |how |Come l'è bell!<br>(How beautiful (it is)!) |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ==Adverb and adverbial locutions for conclusions== ===Adverb for conclusion=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialect |- |'''dopo-tut''' (1) |after all | |{{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} ===Adverbial locutions for conclusion=== {| class="wikitable" !Adverb<br>in Lombard!!Translation into English!!Examples!!Dialect |- |'''a bon cunt''' (1) |however, after all | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''a la fin de la fera''' (1) |at the end of the day | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''a la fin fin''' (1) |ultimately, in the end | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in fin de l'ascia''' (1)<br>'''in coo de l'ascia''' (2) |at the end of the day | |(1-2) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in fin di cunt''' (1) |at the end of the day | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''in tute i manere''' (1)<br>'''de tute i manere''' (2) |anyway | | |- |'''in ogni modo''' (1) |anyway | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |- |'''comunque''' (1) |however, anyway | |(1) {{Wt/lmo/-MI}} |} {{BookCat}} ixks8f16fnfgg9xbk0yx5yzlouvv67s 0 451233 4671804 4409109 2026-09-22T19:09:17Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4671804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Lombard/Morphology}} == == {{Lombard-NOL}} ==Comparative== ===Western lombard=== {| class="wikitable" !Type of comparative!!Rule!!Examples |- |'''Greater than comparative''' <br>(adjective, comparison between nouns - or pronouns) |1) '''pussee''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> +''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|de/che]]''<br> 2) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''pussee''' + ''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|de/che]]'' |1) El March l'è '''pussee''' <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> ''de''l Lessi<br>(Mark is more beautiful than Alexios)<br> 2) El March l'è <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> '''pussee''' ''de''l Lessi<br> (Mark is more beautiful than Alexios) |- |'''Greater than comparative''' <br> (adjective, comparison between nouns - or pronouns) |1) '''men''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + ''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|de/che]]''...<br> 2) <span style="color:green;">'''agetiv'''</span> + '''men''' + ''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|de/che]]''...<br> 3) '''''[[Lombard/Negation|minga/nò]] + (inscì)''''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''''come''''' |1) El March l'è '''men''' <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> ''de''l Lessi<br>(Mark is less beautiful than Alexios)<br> 2) El March l'è <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> '''men''' ''[[de]]''l Lessi<br>(Mark is less beautiful than Alexios)<br> 3) El March l'è '''''minga inscì''''' <span style="color:green;">'''bel'''</span> '''''come''''' 'l Lessi<br> (Mark is less beautiful than Alexios) |- |'''Comparative of equality''' <br> (adjective, comparison of nouns - or pronouns) |1) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''''come'''''...<br> 2) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''''compagn de/istess de'''''...<br> 3) '''''tanto''''' <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + ''quanto''...<br> 4) <span style="color:green;"> '''adjective'''</span> + '''''tanto''''' ''quanto''...<br> 5) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective (pl.)'''</span> + '''''compagn'''''<br> |1) El March l'è <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> '''''come''''' 'l Lessi<br>(Mark is as beautiful as Alexios)<br> 2) El March l'è <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> '''''compagn de'''''l Lessi<br>(Mark is as beautiful as Alexios)<br> 3) El March l'è '''''tanto''''' <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> ''quanto'' el Lessi<br>(Mark is as beautiful as Alexios)<br> 4) El March l'è <span style="color:green;">'''bel'''</span> '''''tanto''''' ''quanto'' el Lessi<br>( Mark is as beautiful as Alexios)<br> 5) El March e 'l Lessi inn <span style="color:green;">'''bei'''</span> '''''compagn'''''<br>(Mark and Alezios are equally beautiful) |- |'''Greater than comparative'''<br> (adjective, comparison between adjectives) |1) '''pussee''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective1'''</span> + ''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|che]]'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''aggetivo2'''</span><br> 2) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective1'''</span> + '''pussee''' ''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|che]]'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''adjective2'''</span><br> 3) '''pussee''' ''che'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''adjective2'''</span>, <span style="color:green;">'''adjective1'''</span><br> |1) El March l'è '''pussee''' <span style="color:green;">'''bel'''</span> ''che'' <span style="color:purple;">'''inteligent'''</span><br>(Mark is more beautiful than intelligent)<br> 2) El March l'è <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> '''pussee''' ''che'' <span style="color:purple;">'''inteligent'''</span><br>(Mark is more beautiful than intelligent)<br> 3) El March l'è '''pussee''' ''che'' <span style="color:purple;">'''inteligent'''</span>, <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span><br>(Mark more than intelligent, is beautiful)<br> |- |'''Minority comparison'''<br> (adjectives, comparison between adjectives) |1) '''men''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective1'''</span> + ''che'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''adjective2'''</span><br> |1) El March l'è '''men''' <span style="color:green;">'''bell'''</span> ''che'' <span style="color:purple;">'''inteligent'''</span><br>(Mark is less beautiful than intelligent) |- |'''Greater than comparative '''<br> (verb, any comparison) |1) <span style="color:green;">'''term 1'''</span> + verb + '''pussee''' (+ ''che'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''term 2'''</span>)<br> |1) <span style="color:green;">'''Incoeu'''</span> hoo mangiad '''pussee''' (''che'' <span style="color:purple;">'''jer'''</span>)<br>(Today I ate more than yesterday) |- |'''Comparative of minority'''<br> (verb, any comparison) |1) <span style="color:green;">'''term 1'''</span> + verbo + '''de men''' (+ ''che'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''term 2'''</span>)<br> |1) <span style="color:green;">'''Incoeu'''</span> hoo mangiad '''de men''' (''che'' <span style="color:purple;">'''jer'''</span>)<br>(Today I ate less than yesterday) |- |''' Progressive greater than comparative''' <br> (progressive comparison between the adjective itself) |1) '''semper/an’mò pussee''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> |1) El March l'è 'dree a diventà '''semper pussee''' <span style="color:green;">'''bel'''</span><br>(Mark is getting more and more beautiful) |- |'''Progressive comparative of minority'''<br> (progressive comparison between the adjective itself) |1) '''semper men''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> |1) El March l'è 'dree a diventà '''semper men''' <span style="color:green;">'''bel'''</span><br>(Mark is getting less and less beautiful) |- |'''Progressive greater than comparative'''<br> (progressive comparison between sentences) |1) ''compù'' + <span style="color:green;">'''sentence1'''</span> + ''compù'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''sentence 2'''</span><br> 2) ''pussee che'' + <span style="color:green;">'''sentence1'''</span> + ''con pussee che'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''sentence 2'''</span><br> |1) ''Compù'' <span style="color:green;">'''te studiareet'''</span> ''compù'' <span style="color:purple;">'''te imparareet'''</span><br>(The more you study, the more you will learn) 1a) ''Compù'' <span style="color:green;">'''te diventet grand'''</span> ''compù'' <span style="color:purple;">'''te diventet bell'''</span><br>(The more you grow, the more beautiful you become)<br> 2) ''Pussee ch<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' <span style="color:green;">'''a mangi'''</span> ''con pussee ch<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' <span style="color:purple;">'''a vegni grass'''</span><br>(The more I eat, the fatter I get) |- |'''Progressive minority comparison'''<br> (progressive comparison between sentences) |1) ''manch'' + <span style="color:green;">'''fras1'''</span> + ''manch'' + <span style="color:purple;">'''fras 2'''</span><br> |1) ''Manch'' <span style="color:green;">'''te studiareet'''</span> ''manch'' <span style="color:purple;">'''te imparareet'''<br>(The less you study the less you will learn)</span> |} ====Nota==== The constructions indicate have been exemplified with the [[Lombard/The dialects of Lombard|Milanese dialect]]; depending on the dialect there may be slight variations in the words. ====References==== * Francesco Cherubini, Vocabolario milanese-italiano, 1839, Vol. 1 pag. 416 * Claudio Beretta, A lezione di grammatica milanese, Circolo Filologico Milanese, pag.55 ===Eatern lombard=== {{...}} Western Lombard: ''pussee'' --> Eastern Lombard: '''pioeu''' Western Lombard: ''men'' --> Eastern Lombard: '''meno''' ===Alpine Lombard=== {{...}} ==Superlative== ===Western Lombard=== {| class="wikitable" !Type of superlative!!Rule!!Example |- |'''Absolute superlative''' |1) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''[[Lombard/Suffixes|-issim/-issem]]''' 2) '''assosenn/sossenn/molto''' <span style="color:green;"> + '''adjective'''</span> <br> 3) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span><br> 4) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''comè'''<br> 5) '''stra-''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span><br> 6) '''arci-''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span><br> 7) '''ultra-''' + <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span><br> 8) <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> + '''[[Lombard/Suffixes|-ent/-ento]]'''<br> 9) <span style="color:green;">'''agetiv'''</span> + '''[[Lombard/Prepositions and prepositional locutions|de]] mat'''<br> |1) grand --> <span style="color:green;">'''grand'''</span>'''issim'''<br>(big → very big)<br> 2) grand --> '''assosenn/sossenn/molto''' <span style="color:green;">'''grand'''</span> <br>(big → very big)<br> 3) grand --> <span style="color:green;">'''grand'''</span> <span style="color:green;">'''grand'''</span><br>(big → very big)<br> 4) grand --> <span style="color:green;">'''grand'''</span> '''comè'''<br>(big → big indeed)<br> 5) caregh --> '''stra'''<span style="color:green;">'''caregh'''</span><br>(loaded → overloaded)<br> 6) stuf --> '''arci'''<span style="color:green;">'''stuf'''</span><br>(sick → (oversick) /sick and tired)<br> 7) potent --> '''ultra'''<span style="color:green;">'''potent'''</span><br>(powerful → ulrtrapowerful)<br> 8) ciar --> <span style="color:green;">'''ciar'''</span> <span style="color:green;">'''ciar'''</span>'''ent'''<ref> for one-syllable masculine or two-syllable feminine adjectives with "oeu" on the first syllable, in forming the superlative there is the apophony “"oeu" to "o"”, for example n'''oeu'''va → n'''o'''venta, n'''oeu'''v → n'''o'''vent</ref><br>(clear → very clear)<br> 9) bon --> <span style="color:green;">'''bon'''</span> '''de mat'''<br>(good → insanely good)<br> |- |'''Relative superlative of majority''' |''[[Lombard/Articles|el/la]] pussee'' <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> ''with regard to the possibility, to be able to succeed''→<br> →''[[Lombard/Articles|el/la]] pussee'' <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> possibil |bell → ''[[Lombard/Articles|el/la]] pussee'' <span style="color:green;">'''bell/bella'''</span> <br>(the most beautiful <small>(feminine/masculine)</small>)<br> coerent → ''[[Lombard/Articles|el/la]] pussee'' <span style="color:green;">'''coerent/coerenta'''</span> possibil<br>(as consistent as possible <small>(feminine/masculine)</small>) |- |'''Relative superlative of minority''' |''[[Lombard/Article|el/la]] men'' <span style="color:green;">'''adjective'''</span> ''in a similar way with regard to the possibility '' |bell/bella --> ''[[Lombard/Article|el/la]] men'' <span style="color:green;">'''bel/bella'''</span><br>(the least beautiful <small>(feminine/masculine)</small>) |} <references/> ===Eastern lombard=== {{...}} ===Alpine lombard=== {{...}} gtgy6pws4irkyfrf9y2g5x1dazp3x9e 3 452012 4671763 4623315 2026-09-22T12:02:59Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Reporting User:AAASecurityGuard */ new section 4671763 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} {{User reviewer}} {{User Wikiversity admin}} {{User Wikipedia rollbacker}} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User Commons}} {{User Wikidata}} {{User Wikiquote}} {{User contrib|10,000}} {{clear}} ==Archives== * [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-undo&target=MathXplore Reverts] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-rollback&target=MathXplore rollback]) * [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Log?type=move&user=MathXplore&page=&wpdate=&tagfilter=&subtype=&wpFormIdentifier=logeventslist Move log] *[[/2023]] *[[/2024]] *[[/2025]] == User messages.. == Could you have a another look at how these are formatted? Quite a lot of the misnesting Lint errors, appear to be from messages left on user talk pages? (Specifically a Strong tag that's has a line feed within it). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 19:33, 15 March 2026 (UTC) : The messages left on user talk pages are [[Template:Test]], [[Template:Test2]], but I'm not familiar enough with the misnesting Lint errors. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:21, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:~2026-16316-77&diff=prev&oldid=4622944 is what I refer to as example. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:27, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|Codename Noreste|JJPMaster}} Can you fix this Lint error? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:30, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : I know what to fix, what I don't know is which template substitution is responsible. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:34, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::This should be {{fixed}}. The template is [[User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :::[[File:Symbol watching blue lashes.svg|20px]] '''Courtesy ping'''{{#if:ShakespeareFan00|<nowiki>:</nowiki> {{U|ShakespeareFan00}}|}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::::I did also go back and retroactively fix these using my bot: [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AContributions%2FJJPMaster_%28bot%29&target=JJPMaster+%28bot%29&offset=20260316135259001&limit=322 322 edits]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:55, 16 March 2026 (UTC) == Reporting [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] == Hello MathXplore, Just a heads up that I had already reported AAASecurityGuard to the Administrators' noticeboard, therefore there are duplicates. Just a reminder that if a person has already reported a person, you don't need to make another report. Thank you. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:02, 22 September 2026 (UTC) fkc5wkccaym5cj7a9xmsaaim9f6wi46 4671764 4671763 2026-09-22T12:06:09Z MathXplore 3097823 /* Reporting User:AAASecurityGuard */ reply: Sorry, didn't notice the other report. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4671764 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} {{User reviewer}} {{User Wikiversity admin}} {{User Wikipedia rollbacker}} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User Commons}} {{User Wikidata}} {{User Wikiquote}} {{User contrib|10,000}} {{clear}} ==Archives== * [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-undo&target=MathXplore Reverts] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-rollback&target=MathXplore rollback]) * [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Log?type=move&user=MathXplore&page=&wpdate=&tagfilter=&subtype=&wpFormIdentifier=logeventslist Move log] *[[/2023]] *[[/2024]] *[[/2025]] == User messages.. == Could you have a another look at how these are formatted? Quite a lot of the misnesting Lint errors, appear to be from messages left on user talk pages? (Specifically a Strong tag that's has a line feed within it). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 19:33, 15 March 2026 (UTC) : The messages left on user talk pages are [[Template:Test]], [[Template:Test2]], but I'm not familiar enough with the misnesting Lint errors. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:21, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:~2026-16316-77&diff=prev&oldid=4622944 is what I refer to as example. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:27, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|Codename Noreste|JJPMaster}} Can you fix this Lint error? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:30, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : I know what to fix, what I don't know is which template substitution is responsible. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:34, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::This should be {{fixed}}. The template is [[User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :::[[File:Symbol watching blue lashes.svg|20px]] '''Courtesy ping'''{{#if:ShakespeareFan00|<nowiki>:</nowiki> {{U|ShakespeareFan00}}|}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::::I did also go back and retroactively fix these using my bot: [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AContributions%2FJJPMaster_%28bot%29&target=JJPMaster+%28bot%29&offset=20260316135259001&limit=322 322 edits]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:55, 16 March 2026 (UTC) == Reporting [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] == Hello MathXplore, Just a heads up that I had already reported AAASecurityGuard to the Administrators' noticeboard, therefore there are duplicates. Just a reminder that if a person has already reported a person, you don't need to make another report. Thank you. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:02, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : Sorry, didn't notice the other report. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:06, 22 September 2026 (UTC) f2x8n15scdq5se1fz3h75jxnnfxzea3 4671767 4671764 2026-09-22T12:06:43Z MathXplore 3097823 /* User messages.. */ move to [[User talk:MathXplore/2026#User messages..]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4671767 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} {{User reviewer}} {{User Wikiversity admin}} {{User Wikipedia rollbacker}} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User Commons}} {{User Wikidata}} {{User Wikiquote}} {{User contrib|10,000}} {{clear}} ==Archives== * [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-undo&target=MathXplore Reverts] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-rollback&target=MathXplore rollback]) * [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Log?type=move&user=MathXplore&page=&wpdate=&tagfilter=&subtype=&wpFormIdentifier=logeventslist Move log] *[[/2023]] *[[/2024]] *[[/2025]] == Reporting [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] == Hello MathXplore, Just a heads up that I had already reported AAASecurityGuard to the Administrators' noticeboard, therefore there are duplicates. Just a reminder that if a person has already reported a person, you don't need to make another report. Thank you. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:02, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : Sorry, didn't notice the other report. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:06, 22 September 2026 (UTC) fxhxssmocx61e21m8krhbxb20ky2bui 4671768 4671767 2026-09-22T12:07:08Z MathXplore 3097823 /* Archives */ 4671768 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} {{User reviewer}} {{User Wikiversity admin}} {{User Wikipedia rollbacker}} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User Commons}} {{User Wikidata}} {{User Wikiquote}} {{User contrib|10,000}} {{clear}} ==Archives== * [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-undo&target=MathXplore Reverts] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-rollback&target=MathXplore rollback]) * [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Log?type=move&user=MathXplore&page=&wpdate=&tagfilter=&subtype=&wpFormIdentifier=logeventslist Move log] *[[/2023]] *[[/2024]] *[[/2025]] *[[/2026]] == Reporting [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] == Hello MathXplore, Just a heads up that I had already reported AAASecurityGuard to the Administrators' noticeboard, therefore there are duplicates. Just a reminder that if a person has already reported a person, you don't need to make another report. Thank you. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:02, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : Sorry, didn't notice the other report. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:06, 22 September 2026 (UTC) 0pshhqi7v7n0rzb869j7xh5blr4fsbu 0 452056 4671782 4415179 2026-09-22T13:15:04Z Kambai Akau 3311788 4671782 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Conjunction== Word that join two or more phrases, clauses or sentences together.e.g "ma̱ng" (and/with), "mbeang" (with/together with/alongside), a̱wot (and/but/then), ma (but), da̱ (but), etc. Examples: # Fang ma̱ng myiam. (''Read and learn.'') # Ba̱ nat khap hu mbeang mman mba na. (''They went for the farm cultivation alongside their children.'') # N ku nat lyuo, a̱wot n si̱ shyia̱ mba bah. (''I went yesterday, but I didn't meet them.'') ''[[Tyap/Prepositions|<<Back to previous Lesson]]'' ''[[Tyap/Interjections|On to the next Lesson>>]]'' {{BookCat}} au3p7yxh2w3tv2foat9r8cfda5838k8 4 464822 4671845 4670761 2026-09-23T03:58:01Z ~2026-51214-93 3626641 Reset sandbox 4671845 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Sandbox heading}} <!-- Hello! Feel free to try your formatting and editing skills below this line. As this page is for editing experiments, this page will automatically be cleaned every 12 hours. --> {Wikibooks help}} {{TOC left|limit=2}} Wikibooks is an [[w:open content|open content]] collection of non-fiction books (especially textbooks). You are contributing to a free, publicly usable database of information. If that is not enough reason to contribute, we have several more below. 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Anyone can make money from selling textbooks available at Wikibooks as long as the terms of the [[Wikibooks:Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License|Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License 3.0]] and the [[Wikibooks:GNU Free Documentation License|GNU Free Documentation License]] are followed. ; '''Control''' : If you want to retain control of your work evolution, distribution and use, do not contribute. Wikibooks is about collaboration, not ownership. == Starting a book == {{shortcut|WB:NEW}} <section begin=Starting /> Books, chapters and pages can be created, rewritten, altered, renamed, and improved by anyone. Chapters can be changed in order, added, and deleted. Books should conform to the definition of [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks?|What Wikibooks is about]]. Please check [[Wikibooks Stacks/Departments]] to see if your work could be part of an existing book, before starting a new one. 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Generally, it's a good idea to look up some [[Wikibooks:Featured books|featured books]] like [[Using Wikibooks]] and [[How To Assemble A Desktop PC]]. * Review the book [[WB:NP|naming conventions]]. * Choose a book title carefully. Names are important, undoing mistakes can take time, so it's always a good idea to do it right the first time. * Once you have a few strong ideas about a new book, write a few paragraphs and lay out an outline for it. * Decide on a writing style and how to format contents. See [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] for ideas. === Defining an outline and scope === Wikibooks are all about working with others. To help others contribute to a new book, it helps very much to define and publish the concept, layout, and scope of the book right from the beginning. This serves as some kind of contract and can avoid long discussions of what should or shouldn't be in the book and how the book should look. Please be aware that there is really no such thing as "''your''" book on a wiki like this—it is up to early contributors to demonstrate the writing and leadership for other contributors to accept them as the "lead authors" for a book. Some books have no lead authors, and develop organically over time. Some questions you want to answer in defining the book: * '''What type of book will it be'''? Reference, textbook, self-study course, tutorial, experimentation instructions, travel report, etc. * '''Who is the target audience?''' How old are its constituents? What is their background? How advanced are their reading skills? Are they children or adults, students, hobbyists, or professionals, researchers or scientists? An advanced level for a hobbyist is quite different from that of a researcher. * '''What is the scope of the book'''? How much you want to cover -- in terms of topic, history and/or audience level -- helps determine where you start, and where you end. 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Of course, people can see it on [[WB:RC|Recent Changes]], but its visibility on that list is not permanent, so you need to properly categorize it. Put the {{tl|shelves}} template on the main page to put the book into an appropriate category. If you are not sure what shelf to put your book on, you can browse [[Wikibooks Stacks/Departments]], or ask at [[WB:PROJECTS|the projects reading room]]. Place {{tlx|status|0%}} on the main page to indicate the book's new status and adjust in increments of 25% as the book develops. Add your book in the correct category (if applicable) in alphabetical order with {{tl|alphabetical}}. Readers will find your book in no time! === Create printable books === If you want people to read your book as continuous text, in a PDF file etc., it is worthwhile maintaining a "[[Help:Collections|collection]]" and/or "[[Help:Print versions|print version]]" from the start. === Note changing stages of development === You can mark which chapters are finished using [[Help:Development stages|development stage marks]]. You should similarly show how much of your book is ready next to its entry on the pages for its parent bookshelves. === Suggested chapters and appendices === ; Forewords and Postscripts: You can create "Foreword" or "Introduction" or "Postscript" chapter explaining the scope of the book and how to read it. ; List of authors and manual of style: It's likely that other people may edit your book. There should be a page listing most important contributors to the book. It can be named "Authors". It is also good practice to create a [[Help:Local manuals of style|local manual of style]] for the book—explaining how it should be written, which [[Help:Templates|templates]] are used, etc. <section end=Starting /> {{Wikibooks editor navigation}} [[ja:Wikibooks:新しいページの作り方]] [[tr:Yardım:Nasıl kitap yazılır?]] [[uk:Довідка:Як створити вікікнигу]] [[pt:Usando o Wikilivros/Iniciando um novo livro]] t9ztsa0wyn42fxr3v8aj37qrvwot5c3 0 466732 4671798 4488882 2026-09-22T14:11:08Z R. Henrik Nilsson 3395618 alway > always 4671798 wikitext text/x-wiki == What is Algorithmic Bias == Algorithmic bias is when a computer system consistently makes systematic and repeatable errors that create unfair outcomes or discriminate against a person or subject based on various factors. Often, the factors used to discriminate against a specific person are factors like race, gender, and socioeconomic standing. There are several places where bias can emerge, including the design of the algorithm, the use of the algorithm differing from the intended use, or the data used in the training of the algorithm. This bias can have a profound effect on the subjects it is being used on and will perpetuate societal inequalities. == History == Algorithmic bias saw its first instance when Joseph Wizenbaum wrote about algorithmic bias in his 1976 book ''Computer Power and Human Resource''. It was Wizenbaum who first suggested that the bias could manifest through the data given to the artificial intelligence as well as the way in which the program was written<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Weizenbaum |first=Joseph |title=Computer power and human reason: from judgment to calculation |date=1976 |publisher=Freeman |isbn=978-0-7167-0464-5 |location=San Francisco}}</ref>. Given that a program can only process and come to decisions about data using the set of written rules the program was given, there is a concern that the program will have the same biases and expectations as the writer. Wizenbaum also wrote that any data being fed into the program is another instance of “human decision-making processes” while the data is selected. Wizenbaum also talks about another instance of algorithmic bias showing itself: the blind trust of the writer in the program. Wizenbaum talks about a writer being unable to understand the decision-making of the program, which is the same as a tourist making his way through a hotel, going left and right based on the flip of a coin<ref name=":0" />. It does not matter if the solution ends up being correct; it is irreproducible and inconsistent. An example of algorithmic bias from this time was the applicant screening program used by St. George’s Hospital Medical School. If the applicant was female or had a “foreign-sounding” name, the program already docked points to the application, giving white males a much higher chance of admission. The program was written by Dr. Geoffrey Franglin, who wrote it to lessen discriminatory action and make the task of the initial application round easier<ref>{{Cite web |title=Untold History of AI: Algorithmic Bias Was Born in the 1980s - IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/untold-history-of-ai-the-birth-of-machine-bias |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=spectrum.ieee.org |language=en}}</ref>. Franglin thought that ceding the responsibility would make the process both easier and fairer. Franglin has coded the bias directly in the program, and the program was perpetuating the same racial bias that the human assessors had. In the modern day, algorithms are more expertly made and often will avoid most bias that the writer may accidentally introduce through rules or by data, but there are still instances where algorithmic bias will still show itself. It can show itself in often unpredictable ways that are hard to account for. Algorithms and algorithmic bias are often used less as a tool to achieve some end and more as an authoritative figure used to generate said end while posturing itself as the virtual means. Instead of using algorithms to study human behavior, it could be a way for human behavior to be defined<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lash |first=Scott |date=2007-05 |title=Power after Hegemony: Cultural Studies in Mutation? |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0263276407075956 |journal=Theory, Culture & Society |language=en |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=55–78 |doi=10.1177/0263276407075956 |issn=0263-2764}}</ref>. Considering this, working groups co-created the group Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency in Machine Learning (FAT)<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garcia |first=Megan |date=2016-12-01 |title=Racist in the Machine |url=https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-3813015 |journal=World Policy Journal |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=111–117 |doi=10.1215/07402775-3813015 |issn=0740-2775}}</ref>. Those within the group had the idea to patrol the outcomes of algorithms and to vote on if algorithms have a harmful effect and if they should be controlled or restricted. Many, however, think that FAT cannot serve effectively due to the fact that many of the members are funded by large corporations. == Existing Frameworks and Regulations == === Frameworks === When it comes to frameworks for artificial intelligence there is an ever growing amount to choose from.  They are all at least a little different from each other since they are designed for a specific purpose in mind, for example JAX is a framework that was “designed for complex numerical computations on high performance devices like GPUs and TPUs”<ref>{{Cite web |title=AI Frameworks |url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/developer/tools/frameworks/overview.html |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=Intel |language=en}}</ref> according to Intel. There are many other frameworks that are available for use for just about any project that could be thought of since there are more and more being made.  So far there isn’t much ethics taken into consideration within artificial intelligence frameworks currently since it is still such a new and evolving technology.  There are many potential areas for concern though.  For example imagine an AI chatbot that was being trained on a framework that didn’t take into consideration any ethics.  That chatbot could potentially, through interactions with people, say some things that it really shouldn’t be saying to people or expose information that it wasn’t supposed to spread.  That could lead a company into a lot of trouble between the incident happening and the potential reputation downfall that it could bring.   === Regulations === With regards to the regulation of artificial intelligence there has been a lot of legislation between many states that have been passed.  There is a lot of legislation regarding safeguarding data privacy, accountability, and transparency of ai.  For example according to Rachel Wright “Texas HB 2060 (2023) is one such example. This bill established an AI advisory council consisting of public and elected officials, academics and technology experts.  The council was tasked with studying and monitoring AI systems developed or deployed by states agencies as well as issuing policy recommendations regarding data privacy and preventing algorithmic discrimination.”<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-06 |title=Artificial Intelligence in the States: Emerging Legislation - The Council of State Governments |url=https://www.csg.org/2023/12/06/artificial-intelligence-in-the-states-emerging-legislation/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en-US}}</ref>  There is also a blueprint for a potential AI bill of rights that has been made by the Office of Science and Technology Policy which lays out the rights that people should have when AI is being in use or using ai.  The rights it goes over is protection from unsafe systems, protection from algorithmic discrimination, data privacy measures, the right to know when ai is being used, and the right to opt out of using ai if you don’t want to<ref>{{Cite web |title=Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights {{!}} OSTP |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/ostp/ai-bill-of-rights/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=The White House |language=en-US}}</ref>.   == Case Studies == === Case Study 1: Predictive Policing: Chicago Police Department and the Strategic Subjects List<ref>{{Cite web |title=Predictions Put Into Practice: a Quasi-experimental Evaluation of Chicago's Predictive Policing Pilot {{!}} National Institute of Justice |url=https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/predictions-put-practice-quasi-experimental-evaluation-chicagos-predictive |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=nij.ojp.gov |language=en}}</ref> === Predictive policing algorithms utilize data analysis and machine learning methods to predict the areas where crime is probable to happen and distribute law enforcement resources accordingly. Advocates believe that these systems can reduce crime and improve public safety, but critics fear they may be biased and infringe on civil liberties. A study by Rudin et al. in 2020 examined the utilization of predictive policing algorithms in Chicago. The research discovered that these algorithms focused mainly on Black and Hispanic areas, resulting in unequal monitoring and policing of minority communities. Furthermore, the algorithms depended on past crime data, which could mirror biases in policing methods and uphold systemic disparities. ==== Ethical Implications ==== The employment of predictive policing algorithms gives rise to ethical concerns regarding fairness, transparency, and accountability. Critics claim that these systems may worsen current inequalities in policing and erode trust between law enforcement and marginalized groups. ==== Public Debate and Reform Efforts ==== Groups advocating for civil rights, community organizations, and advocates are pushing for more transparency, community involvement, and accountability in the creation and use of predictive policing algorithms such as the SSL. Legislation has been implemented in certain areas to oversee the use of predictive policing algorithms, with a focus on transparency, accountability, and preventing bias and discrimination. The case of the Chicago Police Department's Strategic Subjects List (SSL) shows how predictive policing algorithms have intricate ethical and social consequences. Although these algorithms offer the potential to reduce crime and improve public safety, they also bring up important issues regarding transparency, accountability, fairness, and the risk of bias and discrimination. Dealing with these obstacles involves thoughtful reflection on the ethical principles and values that should steer the creation and utilization of predictive policing technologies to guarantee they advance justice, fairness, and the safeguarding of civil liberties. === Case Study 2: Amazon Hiring System === To assist in hiring top people, Amazon created a recruitment tool in 2014 that is driven by AI.  Throughout a ten-year period, resumes submitted to Amazon were used to train the AI model. Since males predominate in the computer field, the majority of these resumes were provided by men. The system thus learnt to devalue graduates of all-women's universities and punish resumes that contained the phrase "women's". Having been unable to completely troubleshoot the biased system, Amazon finally abandoned the project in the following years. The example demonstrated how, if not properly examined and rectified, AI algorithms may inherit and magnify social biases contained in training data. It acted as a warning about the moral perils of using AI recruiting tools without sufficient measures for mitigating prejudice and testing. The event brought to light the need of having a diverse staff in AI and doing thorough bias evaluations when developing AI. == Challenges == === Data Bias === Algorithms trained on data sets that are skewed, reflecting past biases or social disparities, will pick up on and reinforce those biases. ProPublica's 2018 report uncovered racial bias in COMPAS software used in the American criminal justice system. The algorithm was more likely to misclassify black defendants as high-risk compared to white defendants. This highlights a common issue - unbalanced data sets. If certain demographics are underrepresented in the training data, the algorithm may perform poorly for those groups.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mattu |first=Jeff Larson,Julia Angwin,Lauren Kirchner,Surya |title=How We Analyzed the COMPAS Recidivism Algorithm |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/how-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=ProPublica |language=en}}</ref> It is challenging to address this as bias is often woven into the fabric of our society. Accurately collected data can still reflect long standing inequalities. Historical bias are difficult to remove as its not addressed by fixing a data problem, as the problem lies with society itself. Bias can also be hard to spot at times. If a certain group is underrepresented in the dataset used for training, the algorithm will underperform for said group. Unfortunately, this will not always be obvious unless results are carefully audited. It is important to consider that it is not always easy to define fairness. What is a “fair outcome” can differ depending on context and the situation. Differing goals lead to different fixes, and there is not always a “right” answer. Many systems operate as “black boxes” meaning there is no transparency to their algorithms. This makes it difficult to trace how a model has come about its results. With no transparency, there is no way to figure out at which point bias enters. Addressing data bias is not purely technical. It is a process that requires hard decisions and constant vigilance. === Model Bias === '''Weighting and Feature Selection''' Algorithms may prioritize certain variables over others, unintentionally reflecting a societal bias that would cause a weighted outcome with bias. As shown in the COMPAS tool used in American Court systems assessed with higher scores black defendants compared to white defendants with similar criminal histories were assigned higher risk scores. This bias appears from historical risk data reflecting bias in the models choices. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Mattu |first=Jeff Larson,Julia Angwin,Lauren Kirchner,Surya |title=How We Analyzed the COMPAS Recidivism Algorithm |url=https://www.propublica.org/article/how-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=ProPublica |language=en}}</ref> '''Proxy Variables''' Designers might use indirect measures to influence on predications on instances with protected aspects such as, zip codes as proxies for race. A 2016 study found mortgage algorithms were charging minority borrowers with higher interest rates despite similar creditworthiness, as through algorithmic biases the system would use neighborhood demographics to influence their borrowing rates. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Counts |first=Laura |date=2018-11-13 |title=Minority homebuyers face widespread statistical lending discrimination, study finds {{!}} Berkely Haas |url=https://newsroom.haas.berkeley.edu/minority-homebuyers-face-widespread-statistical-lending-discrimination-study-finds/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=Haas News {{!}} Berkeley Haas |language=en}}</ref> ===== Algorithmic Design Choices ===== The way algorithms are designed can introduce bias. Choices about factors and weightage can lead to discriminatory outcomes. Even with unbiased data, models can still exhibit biases due to the algorithm's design or assumptions. In 2020, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) lodged a complaint against Facebook, accusing the company's advertising platform of enabling discrimination based on race, gender, and other protected characteristics. The platform's algorithm allowed advertisers to exclude user's by race, gender, or religion through "lookalike audience" targeting, which amplified historical exclusion biases. This situation highlights the legal and ethical consequences of biased algorithms in advertising and housing.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-03-19 |title=Facebook Settles Civil Rights Cases by Making Sweeping Changes to Its Online Ad Platform {{!}} ACLU |url=https://www.aclu.org/news/womens-rights/facebook-settles-civil-rights-cases-making-sweeping |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=American Civil Liberties Union |language=en-US}}</ref> === Feedback Loops === Algorithms that rely on user-generated data risk creating self-reinforcing cycles of bias. '''Reinforcement of Historical Inequalities''' Predictive policing tools, like those used in Bogotá, Columbia have been known to disproportionately flag Black-majority neighborhoods as high-crime areas. This bias has occurred through the reinforcement of feedback that reinforces a bias in the training data of over policing in these regions, leading to more patrols and arrests which further skews data reinforcing this metric. “in a district where few crimes were reported, the tool predicted around 20% of the actual hot spots—locations with a high rate of crime. On the other hand, in a district with a high number of reports, the tool predicted 20% more hot spots than there really were.” <ref>{{Cite web |title=Predictive policing is still racist—whatever data it uses |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/02/05/1017560/predictive-policing-racist-algorithmic-bias-data-crime-predpol/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=MIT Technology Review |language=en}}</ref> ==== Perpetuating Bias through Feedback Loops ==== Algorithms that depend on user data have the potential to magnify existing biases as time goes on. If an algorithm favors a specific group, it could produce outcomes that perpetuate that bias in user engagements. Algorithms that produce biased results can reinforce societal biases when incorporated into decision-making processes, establishing a cycle of perpetuation. YouTube's recommendation algorithm has been criticized for promoting extremist content. This bias arises from the algorithm's tendency to recommend content similar to what a user has previously watched, potentially leading users down paths of radicalization.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haroon |first=Muhammad |last2=Wojcieszak |first2=Magdalena |last3=Chhabra |first3=Anshuman |last4=Liu |first4=Xin |last5=Mohapatra |first5=Prasant |last6=Shafiq |first6=Zubair |date=2023-12-12 |title=Auditing YouTube’s recommendation system for ideologically congenial, extreme, and problematic recommendations |url=https://pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2213020120 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=50 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2213020120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=PMC10723127 |pmid=38051772}}</ref> '''Diagnosis Feedback Failures''' A 2024 study highlights new diagnostic algorithms being trained on biased datasets which underdiagnose diseases in minority groups perpetuating underrepresentation. For instance, in milder cases in marginalized populations there in future models there will be a further established disparity of underestimating health disparities in this group. These feedback loops often demonstrating how algorithmic outputs in the real-world can lead to the shaping of further real-world data. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cross |first=James L. |last2=Choma |first2=Michael A. |last3=Onofrey |first3=John A. |date=2024-11 |title=Bias in medical AI: Implications for clinical decision-making |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11542778/ |journal=PLOS digital health |volume=3 |issue=11 |pages=e0000651 |doi=10.1371/journal.pdig.0000651 |issn=2767-3170 |pmc=11542778 |pmid=39509461}}</ref> === Lack of Transparency === Many algorithms are complex "black boxes". Meaning answers are given without any explanations about how decisions are made or how the outcomes are produced. For example, when a physician consults an expert, the physician expects a clear explanation based on strong medical knowledge. Similarly, AI systems must be transparent in explaining and justifying their outcomes. <ref>{{Cite journal | last=London | first=A.J |date=2019 | title=Artificial Intelligence and Black-Bock Medical Decisions: Accuracy versus Explainability|journal=Hastings Center Report |volume=49| issue=1|pages=15-21| url= https://doi.org/10.1002/hast.973}}</ref> Since these systems are hard to understand, it’s difficult to question how they arrive at decisions, making it challenging to identify and address bias. In a legal case that involved the US Department of Homeland Security, a US citizen was selected for extra screening at the border due to an algorithm utilized by Customs and Border Protection (CBP). The plaintiff was granted the right by the court to contest the decision made by the algorithm because of its lack of transparency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Olsson |first=Alex |date=2024-02-09 |title=Racial bias in AI: unpacking the consequences in criminal justice systems |url=https://www.irissd.org/post/racial-bias-in-ai-unpacking-the-consequences-in-criminal-justice-systems |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=IRIS Sustainable Dev |language=en}}</ref> This highlights how many individuals don't fully understand how the algorithmic systems work and how it could impact them and potentially affect their lives. The lack of transparency creates a challenge to identify and fix bias and this creates problems in different areas such as healthcare, finance, and criminal justice. Aiming to make these systems better will also provide a way to hold companies or government agencies responsible for harmful algorithmic outcomes. === Fairness Metrics and Trade-offs === With the growing decision-making with the use of AI it has become difficult to achieve a balance between various concepts of fairness. An algorithmic system can produce accurate output but can still be seen as unfair to certain groups by prioritizing one fairness measure which could mean sacrificing another. Some solutions sound promising for minimizing bias but it can result in trade-offs. For example, in 2016, Google researchers discovered that an image recognition algorithm had a greater error rate for individuals with darker skin as opposed to those with lighter skin. When they tried to counteract this prejudice by fine-tuning the model to lower the overall error rates, they discovered that the error rates for people with lighter skin rose, showcasing the compromises needed to tackle algorithmic bias.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ferrara |first=Emilio |date=2023-12-26 |title=Fairness And Bias in Artificial Intelligence: A Brief Survey of Sources, Impacts, And Mitigation Strategies |url=http://arxiv.org/abs/2304.07683 |journal=Sci |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=3 |doi=10.3390/sci6010003 |issn=2413-4155}}</ref> In the attempt of reducing bias and increase fairness in AI systems, it could cause it to make them less accurate and reduce their performance. There isn’t a clear direction on how to identify if an AI system is fair and there aren’t agreements on what the “right” metrics should be. <ref> {{Cite conference |last1=Nathim| first1= K.W. |last2=Hameed|first2=N.A.|last3=Salih|first3=S.A.|last4=Taher|first4=N.A.|last5=Salman|first5=H.M.|last6=Chronomordenko|first6=D.|title=Ethical AI with Balancing Bias Mitigation and Fairness in Machine Learning Models|conference="Proceedings of the XXth Conference of Open Innovations Association FRUCT|date=2024|pages=797-807|url=https://doi.org/10.23919/FRUCT64283.2024.10749873}}</ref> Developers must understand the importance of fairness and how to fix these problems not only technically but also ethically. While this process might need regular updates and feedback it is important to continue improving the fairness of AI algorithms over time. == Legal Issues == === Discrimination Laws === Some companies have faced criticism for biases embedded within their algorithms, leading to formal investigations. In 2019, for example, Apple was publicly accused of gender bias after reports emerged that women using the Apple Card received significantly lower credit limits than men, despite having comparable credit scores.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Osoba |first=Osonde A. |date=March 25, 2019 |title=Did No One Audit the Apple Card Algorithm? |pages=2 |work=RAND |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/commentary/2019/11/did-no-one-audit-the-apple-card-algorithm.html}}</ref> Even when biases are evident in certain algorithms, conducting investigations can be challenging under current legal frameworks. Although laws prohibiting discrimination exist, traditional frameworks often struggle to address the complexities introduced by AI systems. One example is the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in the United States, which prohibits discrimination based on protected traits such as race, sex, and religion. However, applying such laws to algorithmic bias can be difficult. Many discrimination laws are built around the concept of intentionality—that is, proving that a person or entity deliberately intended to discriminate. For instance, the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (EPC) has been interpreted to prohibit only intentional discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web |last=hlr |date=2025-04-10 |title=Resetting Antidiscrimination Law in the Age of AI |url=https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-138/resetting-antidiscrimination-law-in-the-age-of-ai/ |access-date=2025-04-29 |website=Harvard Law Review |language=en-US}}</ref> Identifying intent is often challenging, and the development of AI systems, which may involve numerous individuals and processes, complicates this further. Some legal frameworks take a different approach by focusing on outcomes rather than intent. Under EU non-discrimination law, for example, differential treatment based on a protected characteristic is considered sufficient to establish discrimination, regardless of intent. However, this standard is rarely applied to AI systems. One reason is that developers generally avoid encoding explicit forms of discrimination to maintain system accuracy and avoid unpredictable behavior.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Xenidis |first=Raphaële |url=https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/65845 |title=EU non-discrimination law in the era of artificial intelligence : mapping the challenges of algorithmic discrimination |last2=Senden |first2=Linda |date=2020 |publisher=Kluwer Law International |isbn=978-94-035-1165-8 |language=en}}</ref> As a result, direct discrimination is often absent, making outcome-based claims harder to establish. Recognizing these challenges, policymakers and organizations have begun to consider reforms and new approaches. Existing laws, such as the U.S. Equal Credit Opportunity Act, already regulate fairness in lending decisions, including those made by AI algorithms. In addition, organizations like the Partnership on AI and IEEE have developed ethical guidelines that emphasize transparency, accountability, equality, and respect for human rights in AI development. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Min |first=Alfonso |date=2023-10-05 |title=Artifical Intelligence and Bias: Challenges, Implications, and Remedies |url=https://ijsr.internationaljournallabs.com/index.php/ijsr/article/view/1477 |journal=Journal of Social Research |language=en |volume=2 |issue=11 |pages=3808–3817 |doi=10.55324/josr.v2i11.1477 |issn=2828-335X}}</ref> Efforts to investigate AI bias could benefit from the involvement of technical and ethical experts who can evaluate systems for hidden forms of discrimination. While progress has been made, significant work remains before AI biases can be consistently identified and addressed within legal and regulatory systems. === Privacy and Data Protection === Personal data generation exceeds expectations in the digital era because businesses along with governments and third parties collect and process enormous quantities of information which threatens individual privacy rights and data security. Individuals discover their data under surveillance through web browsing habits and biometric data as well as GPS locations and financial records even when they remain unaware and unconvinced. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) from the European Union together with the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the United States validate new data protection laws to govern data collection and application and dissemination activities. Modern legal systems face challenges from the fast technological progress especially when additional freedoms of artificial intelligence (AI) and facial recognition have joined predictive analytics in the market. The GDPR established itself as one of the most stringent data protection legislations globally when it started in May 2018. The GDPR reaches all organizations including EU-based entities together with companies that provide goods or services to EU citizens regardless of their physical location. The GDPR grants EU residents fundamental rights to view their personal information and makes it possible to correct mistakes and demand the removal of data and protection against automated decision systems that profile users. California residents obtained new rights through the CCPA during its January 2020 launch because they gained knowledge about their personal data collection and sharing to third parties and the capability to reject such sales. Businesses need to present their data collection systems through accessible disclosure channels to customers. The CCPA makes an important progress in U.S. data privacy legislation while establishing an example for other states to develop their own privacy statutes. Both regulations promote transparency together with individual data control and total accountability which modern society demands from personal data protection legislation. Digital algorithms are emerging as an important matter before legal authorities worldwide. Machine learning models that affect human life decisions through business and governmental institutions require increasing clarity because people want to understand the underlying reasoning processes. People need to know when automated systems make decisions and should receive adequate explanations about how they arrive at those decisions. Healthcare institutions may need to pay attention to Article 22 of the GDPR which defines how automated individual decision-making should work since individuals have exclusive rights to ask for human intervention before significant decisions affect them. Organizations using AI algorithms face important consequences due to this data protection requirement particularly when these systems function as opaque algorithms which their developers find hard to decode.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clearview AI gets third €20 million fine for illegal data collection |url=https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/clearview-ai-gets-third-20-million-fine-for-illegal-data-collection/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=BleepingComputer |language=en-us}}</ref> === Regulatory Challenges === Defining the terms and scope boundary of an emerging technology is a herculean task. Legislators are struggling to understand the technology of Artificial Intelligence (AI), its applications, and impacts before they can even start defining regulations. * What is AI and what does it encompass? * How much should be within the scope boundary of any legislation without hindering innovation and business? * What are the impacts both positive and negative that need to be accounted for? * Which industries need to have protections against negative uses of AI? * Who should oversee the regulation and upstream and downstream impacts? * Who will bear the cost of the changes? * Is it legally correct to regulate certain applications? * Are all citizen rights protected or are some groups marginalized? These are only some of the questions to think about when drafting a legislation. Once a draft has been prepared, then legislation needs support from more legislators and sponsors to be entered into the system. The legislation itself needs to be legally sound and clear to be enforced and upheld in the court of law. The legislation should also gather enough support from legislators to pass it into law. The legislation needs to be a pressing issue in order to navigate a federal legislation system and quickly become law. Once a legislation is defined, legally sound and enforceable the affected parties must be given time to comply. * How long should that be? * Which industries are affected and how much time should they be given? * Who should be required to implement the changes most urgently? * Should the regulation be mandatory or voluntary? There are conflicting ideological ideas on both sides of the aisle regarding how to regulate AI bias and discrimination and leave space for innovation<ref name=":2">Mulligan, S. J. (2024). There are more than 120 AI bills in Congress right now. ''MIT Technology Review'', ''2024''(9). <nowiki>https://www.govtech.com/policy/more-than-120-ai-bills-currently-processing-in-congress</nowiki></ref> . Legislators have to balance the need of the US to maintain its place as leader in innovation while protecting its citizens from the implications of technology<ref name=":2" />. The challenge itself is in the definition of appropriate legislation taking into account the interests of all parties, as well agreeing on the legislation itself and its applicability by the democratic system. The European Union has recently passed the EU AI Act which attempts to capture this challenge by defining risk levels and course of action for each level effective in 2026 <ref>''High-level summary of the AI Act | EU Artificial Intelligence Act''. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3, 2025, from <nowiki>https://artificialintelligenceact.eu/high-level-summary/</nowiki></ref>. While the US federal government has yet to follow suit, the states are taking matters into their own hands by passing their own legislation on AI bias and discrimination. ==Ethical Considerations== ===Data Bias=== AI algorithms are trained on data supplied by their respective developer/s. But, the algorithm could unavoidably amplify or even exaggerate biases in the data. Careful choice and preparation of a varied, well-rounded, balanced dataset will help to avoid this. This guarantees that any underlying prejudices may be found and appropriately handled for more equitable artificial intelligence systems. Biased artificial intelligence can have severe effects including sustaining prejudice and harming underprivileged populations. Harmful effects of prejudiced artificial intelligence could make society lose faith in technology. Those engaged in the development of artificial intelligence algorithms as well as developers have a moral obligation to make sure they fit values of justice, responsibility, and fairness. Lack of transparency about data sources or biases violates ethical standards. Unchecked biases could prioritize efficiency/profit over the welfare of humans, which would lead to unintended harm. Developers bare a responsibility to prioritize diverse dataset curation, inclusive team perspectives, and continuous monitoring. It is also important for those developing AI algorithms to remain transparent through the process of creation and maintenance; In addition, these individuals should conduct regular audits to ensure accountability. By embedding ethical principles into AI, we can minimize harm and do our best to uphold justice and equality for the foreseeable future. ===Algorithmic Bias=== Algorithmic bias arises not only from skewed training data but also from design choices, through assumptions and optimized objectives given to the algorithm itself. These factors can cause a disadvantage on specific subgroups, which perpetuates inequalities. '''Design Choices''' Algorithms are shaped by their underlying architecture and design rules. '''Inductive Bias''' Models like decision trees which prioritize splits that maximize information gain, which might unintentionally separate groups based on sensitive subtypes such as: zip codes correlating with race. '''Model Complexity''' Simpler models are transparent however these simpler models might lack the nuisance required to identify certain datasets without oversimplifying these patterns while, more complex models can risk creating a predisposed layer of bias. '''Feedback Loops''' Deployed algorithms can reinforce biases overtime, for example a hiring tool favoring graduates from elite schools might exclude certain applicants from minority backgrounds which would further narrow diversity. ===Data Privacy=== Most artificial intelligence systems require substantial amounts of personal information to operate while this practice creates significant privacy issues. AI systems need extensive datasets to operate efficiently so their required input comes from collections that contain personal identification details along with financial records and medical histories and biometric data. Left unmonitored, the utilization of this information leads organizations to engage in privacy violation and data privacy breaches along with the loss of personal autonomy. Substantial data protection techniques need implementation to safeguard privacy rights of individuals. The protection of individuals requires one to remove personal information from datasets through techniques like anonymization to prevent data exposure. The achievement of complete anonymization remains difficult because researchers have shown that illatories can connect anonymized data with other information to identify individual participants. The protection of sensitive information demands encryption to be employed as a crucial preventive measure. Digital information remains impenetrable to unauthorized parties through encryption because it maintains its security status throughout transmission as well as its storage period. The fundamental protection safeguard comes from access control systems. Organizations require strict rules about personal data viewing and manipulating access which specify that only essential personnel with clearance levels can access the data. An organization should apply audit functions alongside monitoring systems to analyze data usage patterns and discover unusual use of personal information. Technical measures for ethical data handling must be supported through clear disclosure to users along with their free agreement regarding data processing. Every person must receive details regarding AI systems' methods for collecting and processing personal data and their programmatic uses. Users need to understand consent terms which should avoid complex or difficult-to-understand documentation within lengthy terms and conditions. Artificial Intelligence developers need to evaluate the genuine necessity of collected data for system functions before minimizing data to decrease potential risks. The development of ethical artificial intelligence according to its standards acknowledges the legal obligation of protecting privacy together with its position as a basic right of human beings. The enforcement of data privacy practices enables both trust between the public and technology systems and the achievement of AI benefits through free and secure territory. ===Promote Transparency=== Organizations can create autonomous oversight tools to keep an eye on the behavior of AI systems and use algorithmic auditing procedures to encourage accountability and transparency in AI. Algorithmic impact evaluations are one type of transparency tool that might improve credibility and accountability. ===Diverse Perspective=== There are several strategies that can help reduce biases in the development and use of AI systems. One important approach is to ensure that AI teams and systems are inclusive and reflect a diversity of viewpoints and life experiences. Diverse perspectives can assist in identifying and addressing potential biases and ethical concerns early in the development process.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Gichoya |first=Judy Wawira |last2=Thomas |first2=Kaesha |last3=Celi |first3=Leo Anthony |last4=Safdar |first4=Nabile |last5=Banerjee |first5=Imon |last6=Banja |first6=John D |last7=Seyyed-Kalantari |first7=Laleh |last8=Trivedi |first8=Hari |last9=Purkayastha |first9=Saptarshi |date=2023-10-01 |title=AI pitfalls and what not to do: mitigating bias in AI |url=https://academic.oup.com/bjr/article/96/1150/20230023/7498925 |journal=British Journal of Radiology |volume=96 |issue=1150 |pages=20230023 |doi=10.1259/bjr.20230023 |issn=0007-1285}}</ref> It is particularly important for professionals to prioritize the inclusion of underrepresented populations when collecting and selecting training data. These groups should not simply be grouped into broad or vague categories, as doing so can obscure meaningful differences and reinforce bias. Similarly, data sets that are drawn from a limited geographic scope can introduce biases and reduce the generalizability of AI systems across different populations.<ref name=":5" /> Providing transparent documentation and clearly describing the methodologies used in data collection and model development can also support critical analysis and help limit biases. In addition, AI systems should be tested rigorously for potential biases to ensure that issues are identified and addressed before deployment. Thorough testing also improves the reproducibility of AI models, which is a key factor in detecting and mitigating bias.<ref name=":5" /> In summary, reducing bias in AI systems requires the use of representative data sets, detailed documentation, rigorous testing and validation processes, and the incorporation of diverse perspectives throughout the development lifecycle. ===Human Oversight=== Even if AI algorithms are capable of automating decision-making procedures, human supervision and responsibility must always be maintained. Particularly in delicate or high-stakes circumstances, humans ought to examine and confirm the algorithm's conclusions. In the US, states like Colorado, Texas and Connecticut have already begun passing legislation to create human oversight methods to oversee AI bias and discrimination, based on risk categories and impact to the public<ref name=":3">Anderson, H., Comstock, E., & Hanson, E. (2025, March 31). ''AI Watch: Global regulatory tracker - United States''. White & Case LLP. <nowiki>https://www.whitecase.com/insight-our-thinking/ai-watch-global-regulatory-tracker-united-states</nowiki></ref>. For example, in the Colorado Consumer Protections for Artificial Intelligence Act of 2024 <ref name=":3" /> developers and deployers are made responsible to check for bias and discrimination in high-risk AI systems. In 2023, Texas and Connecticut adopted statutes establishing state-level working groups to assess AI systems for bias and discrimination <ref name=":3" />. As scrutiny on the use of AI is growing, explainable AI is entering the landscape. Increasingly industry professionals are turning to explainable AI to increase transparency into the AI system algorithms, with the intent to identify bias or discrimination early in the process <ref>Gade, K., Geyik, S. C., Kenthapadi, K., Mithal, V., & Taly, A. (2019). Explainable AI in Industry. ''Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining'', 3203–3204. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1145/3292500.3332281</nowiki></ref> <ref name=":4">Khan, L. M., Chopra, R., Kristen Clarke, & Charlotte A. Burrows. (2023, April 25). ''Joint Statement on Enforcement Efforts Against Discrimination and Bias in Automated Systems''. Federal Trade Commission. <nowiki>https://www.ftc.gov/legal-library/browse/cases-proceedings/public-statements/joint-statement-enforcement-efforts-against-discrimination-bias-automated-systems</nowiki></ref>. Before this, AI systems have been black-box and bias and discrimination was not easy to detect even by humans. When AI systems are trained on historical data, the bias and discrimination is further perpetuated. Thus requiring close oversight. If humans do not understand how to identify bias and discrimination then it cannot be programmed into a system either. Just like with ethics, it cannot be defined to a unified set of rules, and therefore could not be programmed in a computer system. In 2022, the Biden administration introduced the Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights which laid out five principles to protect the rights of the American public. The main principles were: (1) safe and effective systems, (2) protection against algorithmic discrimination, (3) data privacy, (4) transparency in usage, and (5) providing an opt-out option <ref>''Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights | OSTP''. (n.d.). The White House. Retrieved March 3, 2025, from <nowiki>https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/ostp/ai-bill-of-rights/</nowiki></ref> . This was followed up by the CFPB, Justice Department, Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and FTC issued a joint statement in 2023 stating these agencies will protect individuals against discrimination and bias in automated systems <ref name=":4" /> . Lastly, the Biden administration also had signed an executive order in 2023 titled ''Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence'', which empowered agencies to ensure AI is used safely, securely, equitably, and respects privacy, among other directives <ref>Penn State. (2023, October 31). ''Biden Administration Executive Order on AI''. Official Site of the Penn State AI Hub. <nowiki>https://ai.psu.edu/penn-state-professor-shyam-sundar-on-the-biden-administration-executive-order-on-ai/</nowiki></ref>. Under the Biden administration, the FTC cracked down against biased and fraudulent uses of AI such as biased Rite Aid theft monitoring system, fraudulent claims of robot lawyers, fake review generations and more <ref>Federal Trade Commission. (2024, September 25). ''FTC Announces Crackdown on Deceptive AI Claims and Schemes''. Federal Trade Commission. <nowiki>https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/09/ftc-announces-crackdown-deceptive-ai-claims-schemes</nowiki></ref> . ===Continuous Monitoring and Updating=== Biases may appear or change over time in AI systems since they work in dynamic contexts. To preserve fairness and reduce newly developing biases, the algorithm's performance must be regularly monitored and updated as appropriate. == Future Directions and Innovations == === Advanced Fairness Metrics and Tools === ==== Fairness Metrics ==== Establishing future metrics in the field of AI ethics, especially regarding algorithmic bias and accuracy, is important to ensure fair and accurate AI systems. Bias in AI comes from systematic errors that lead to negative results. This often results from assumptions made in development phases such as data collection, algorithm design, and model training. For example, a scoring algorithm trained on biased data can favor candidates from certain populations, preserving existing biases in AI systems. This ensures that AI models treat everyone fairly, regardless of factors such as age, gender, race, and socioeconomic status. Technology managers must define and use metrics to ensure the development of ethical AI systems. Although the US government does not have such legislation, the legal environment surrounding AI and equity is changing. Current laws, such as the Fair Credit Reporting Act and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, affect AI equity. Around the world, countries are moving forward with AI legislation, with the EU and Canada leading the way in promoting transparency, accountability, and fairness in AI systems.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Councils |first=Forbes |title=AI & Fairness Metrics: Understanding & Eliminating Bias |url=https://councils.forbes.com/blog/ai-and-fairness-metrics |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=councils.forbes.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== Fairness Tools ==== Tools like IBM’s AI Fairness 360<ref>{{Citation |title=Trusted-AI/AIF360 |date=2024-04-21 |url=https://github.com/Trusted-AI/AIF360 |access-date=2024-04-22 |publisher=Trusted-AI}}</ref> provide a framework for detecting and mitigating bias in machine learning models, providing the foundation for real-time monitoring solutions. The toolset was designed as a part of IBM’s broader effort to bring processes to the delivery of AI and provide a comprehensive set of algorithms, metrics and datasets focused on accuracy. AIF360 includes over 70 fairness metrics and more than 10 bias mitigation algorithms. AI Fairness 360 can be used in variety of industries and fields such as finance, human resources, healthcare, and criminal justice, where AI decision-making systems can have a significant impact on people’s lives. By installing this set of tools, organizations can ensure that their AI systems are more efficient and accurate, reducing the risk of negative biases that lead to discrimination. === Stakeholder Collaboration and Public Engagement === Stakeholder collaboration and public participation are important steps in addressing procedural bias and equity in AI ethics. These efforts demonstrate the importance of collaboration and the power of public action to ensure that AI systems are developed and deployed ethically and fairly. ==== Interdisciplinary Collaborations ==== Collaborative efforts across multiple disciplines are critical to developing accurate and sustainable AI systems. Stakeholders from various fields, such as technology, social science, ethics, and law, are involved in these collaborations. The objective is to develop AI in a comprehensive manner that incorporates ethical considerations at every stage. This approach of learning aids in comprehending the complex nature of the AI hypothesis and developing a comprehensive mitigation strategy.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Algorithmic bias detection and mitigation: Best practices and policies to reduce consumer harms |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/algorithmic-bias-detection-and-mitigation-best-practices-and-policies-to-reduce-consumer-harms/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Stakeholder Participation in AI: Beyond “Add Diverse Stakeholders and Stir” |url=https://ar5iv.labs.arxiv.org/html/2111.01122 |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=ar5iv |language=en}}</ref> ==== Public Participation in AI Ethics ==== Public participation is essential in managing AI technology. This includes community engagement through communications, open forums, and participatory design processes. This work will ensure that the development of AI technologies is consistent with public value and social norms. AI systems will be better understood and accountable. Public engagement can be promoted using methods such as advisory voting, which brings together diverse groups of people to discuss and provide input on AI policy.<ref name=":1" /> === Educational Initiatives and Awareness === To effectively address algorithmic bias and fairness through educational initiatives and public awareness campaigns, several approaches have been explored and implemented across various organizations and educational bodies. ==== Educational Initiative ==== The knowledge and attitudes of technologists and policymakers can be shaped by training curricula that focus on the ethics and legitimacy of AI. For example, projects such as the AI ​​+ Ethics curriculum developed by the MIT Media Lab<ref>{{Cite web |title=Project Overview ‹ AI Audit: AI Ethics Literacy |url=https://www.media.mit.edu/projects/ai-ethics/overview/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=MIT Media Lab}}</ref> for high school students aim to raise awareness of AI technology and its impact on society, including the issue of algorithmic bias. ==== Public Awareness Campaigns ==== Organizations like AI for Humanity are using popular culture to raise awareness among some people about the implications of AI for social justice and to focus on the impact of these technologies on black communities. This includes legislative efforts to ensure transparency and accountability in AI applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gupta |first=Damini |last2=Krishnan |first2=T. S. |date=2020-11-17 |title=Algorithmic Bias: Why Bother? |url=https://cmr.berkeley.edu/2020/11/algorithmic-bias/ |journal=California Management Review Insights |language=en}}</ref> ==== Collaborative Research and Public Discussions ==== Sites like AI and the Carnegie<ref>{{Cite web |title=Artificial Intelligence & Equality Initiative {{!}} AI Ethics {{!}} Carnegie Council |url=https://www.carnegiecouncil.org/initiatives-issues/artificial-intelligence-and-equality |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=www.carnegiecouncil.org |language=en-US}}</ref> Commission's Equality Initiative bring academics together to discuss and address biases in AI, such as gender bias, inequality persists at algorithmic cost. These debates not only raise awareness but encourage research that informs policy and practice. == References == {{BookCat}} snpdvo2l0ehzfwtm80a3tqske7hgfwh 0 467023 4671905 4394033 2026-09-23T07:28:27Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Third-party Editors */ 4671905 wikitext text/x-wiki The Scratch editor is available both online and through standalone applications. Deciding which editor to use largely depends on what you plan to do with Scratch and the requirements of your hardware setup. Links and requirements of the official editors can be found on the page [[Scratch/Lessons/Downloading]] == The Online Editor == Scratch's online editor has several advantages over the offline editor. It can run in a web browser, so installing additional software isn't required and it takes up no space on your hard drive. This also makes it excellent in situations where you can't install software, such as on public computers. If you've made an account on Scratch's website, your project will be saved to their servers. However, it also has some downsides. It cannot be used without an active internet connection, and it can only be used for the latest version of Scratch. == The Offline Editor == The offline editor allows for developing projects without an internet connection. As a standalone application, it requires between 360 and 75 megabytes depending on your operating system. It also lacks a few features from the online editor, namely the backpack, cloud variables, and some accessibility options. However, the offline editor is one of the only ways to use older versions of scratch such as Scratch 2.0 and Scratch 1.4. These older versions also offer a method to directly upload a project to your Scratch account, but the Scratch 3.0 editor currently lacks this feature, so projects have to be uploaded to the website. == Third-party Editors == While this Wikibook is focused on only the official Scratch editors, several unofficial editors also exist. An example of this type of editor is TurboWarp. These editors can expand Scratch's functionality to add highly requested features such as 3D or improve on the editing experience through additional features. They may also improve the performance of projects by compiling them to Javascript. However, these editors aren't without their disadvantages. Like the Scratch 3.0 offline editor, no third-party editor can directly upload to Scratch. Additionally, if you use features of these editors that aren't present in Scratch, you won't be able to upload your project. Lastly, editors that compile to Javascript can not have edits made while the project is running. As well, the benefits to performance from compiling are usually only noticeable in highly advanced projects, which means that most devices don't need them to comfortably run the vast majority of projects. {{BookCat}} kkzqkwesehzr2k7htzaozcjwmqqm3hj 2 472973 4671816 4671686 2026-09-22T21:46:01Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 4671816 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{book title|Wikimedia Cookbook|A growing, world-wide, collection of recipes, techniques, and more!}} <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap;"> <!--THE LINE DIRECTLY BELOW RANDOMLY CHOOSES THE FEATURED RECIPE--> <div class="center" style="padding: 1em; flex: 1 20em;>{{:Main Page/Recipe}}</div> <!--THE LINE DIRECTLY BELOW RANDOMLY CHOOSES THE FEATURED INGREDIENT--> <div class="center" style="padding: 1em; flex: 1 20em;>{{Featured ingredient chooser}}</div> </div> {| style="width:100%; border:2px solid #8db361; border-spacing:0px; text-align:center; background:rgba(0, 128, 255, 0.03); color: var(--color-base);" class="plainlinks" |- | style="background:rgba(65, 120, 0, 0.6); color: var(--color-base); border-bottom:1px solid #8db361; padding:2%" | [[File:Recipe-575434.svg|50px]] {{Cookbook search}} |- | === Introductory Matter === {{Flatlist|# [[Cookbook:Introduction|Introduction]] # [[Cookbook:Aesthetics|Aesthetics]] # [[Cookbook:Ethics|Ethics]] # [[Cookbook:History of food and cooking|History of Food and Cooking]] # [[Cookbook:Food Safety and Sanitation|Food Safety]] # [[Cookbook:Nutrition|Nutrition]] # [[Cookbook:Building blocks|Building Blocks]] # [[Cookbook:Fundamental Principles|Fundamental Principles]]}} |- | === [[Cookbook:Cooking Techniques|Techniques]] === <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always" ; hideroot="on" align="left">Cooking techniques</categorytree></div> |- | === [[Cookbook:Equipment|Equipment]] === <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always" ; hideroot="on" align="left">Cookbook equipment</categorytree></div> |- | ===[[Cookbook:Ingredients|Ingredients]]=== <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always"; hideroot="on"; align="left">Ingredients</categorytree></div> |- | ===[[Cookbook:Recipes|Recipes]]=== {{flatlist}} * [[Cookbook:How to read a recipe|How to Read a Recipe]] * [[Special:RandomInCategory/Category:Recipes|Random recipe]]{{endflatlist}} <small>Select [►] to view subcategories</small> <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always" ; hideroot="on" align="left">Recipes</categorytree></div> |- | === [[Cookbook:Menus|Menus]] === <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always"; hideroot="on"; align="left">Menus</categorytree></div> |- | ===[[Cookbook:Special Diets|Special Diets]]=== <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always"; hideroot="on"; align="left">Diets</categorytree></div> |- | === [[Cookbook:Cuisines|Cuisines]] === <div style="column-count:3"><categorytree hideprefix="always"; hideroot="on"; align="left">Cuisines</categorytree></div> |- |<div style="display: inline-block; width: 100%;"> ===Appendix=== {{flatlist}} * [[Cookbook:Equivalencies|Equivalency Chart]] * [[Cookbook:International food terms|International Food Terms]] * [[Cookbook:Seasonality|Seasonality]] * [[Cookbook:Substitutions|Substitutions]] * [[Cookbook:Units of measurement|Units of Measurement]]{{endflatlist}} </div> |- | === Help out! === {{flatlist}} * [[:Category:Cookbook pages needing work|Cookbook pages needing work]] * [[Cookbook:Contributors|Contributors]] * [[Cookbook:Feature requests|Feature Requests]] * [[Cookbook:Grunt Work|Grunt Work]] * [[Cookbook:Requested Recipes|Requested Recipes]] {{endflatlist}} '''Get help contributing''' {{flatlist}} * [[Cookbook:FAQ|FAQ]] * [[Cookbook:Policy|Policy]] * [[Cookbook:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]] * [[Cookbook:Policy/Recipe template|Recipe Template]] * [[Cookbook:Policy/Ingredient template|Ingredient Template]]{{endflatlist}} |} q4kcadf7jrueb0o0u7u7yuvx01v6t8m 0 483550 4671774 4670486 2026-09-22T12:33:15Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4671774 wikitext text/x-wiki <blockquote> ''"One '''quick way''' to check on '''name conflicts''' is to keep the html Maxima help manual up in a separate window, and have the Index panel available to type in a name you want to use.'' ''The '''painful way''' to check on name conflicts is to wait for Maxima to give you a strange error message as to why what you are trying to do won’t work. If you get strange results, try changing the names of your variables and or functions. An important fact is that Maxima is case sensitive, so you can avoid name conflicts by capitalizing the names of your user defined Maxima functions. Your Solve will not conflict with Maxima’s solve.''"<ref>[https://web.csulb.edu/~woollett/mbe1intro.pdf Maxima by Example: Ch. 1, Introduction to Maxima by Edwin L. Woollett]</ref> – Edwin L. Woollett <references responsive="1"></references> </blockquote> == The Maxima Namespace == The topic of the namespace system used by Maxima is in a sense more relevant to programming expressions. However, since the nature of the Maxima namespace system is also relevant to Maxima ''identifiers'' as used in this book, and also as used routinely in the composition of Maxima expressions in general, and particularly mathematical expressions, some of the technical detail is provided here for the purpose of describing the role of identifiers. It is worth repeating here that in this book, for reasons of simplicity, the use of the term '''''identifier''''' is meant to encapsulate names used for various purposes as described below. The Maxima CAS namespace system is best characterized as '''case-sensitive''' for user-defined identifiers but '''case-insensitive''' (normalized to lowercase) for built-in operators (functions) and constants, with a '''flat global namespace''' for identifiers: * '''Case Sensitivity''': Maxima provides a '''case-sensitive''' namespace system where identifiers, functions, and operators are distinct entities based on their spelling. Maxima distinguishes between upper and lower case for user-defined identifiers and functions; for example, <code>foo</code>, <code>Foo</code>, and <code>FOO</code> are treated as distinct identifiers. * '''Built-in Normalization''': All built-in operators (e.g., <code>sin</code>, <code>cos</code>) and constants (e.g., <code>%e</code>, <code>%pi</code>) have '''lowercase''' names only.  Typing <code>SIN(x)</code> or <code>Sin(x)</code> causes Maxima to assume the user is referring to a user-defined function rather than the built-in sine function. * '''Namespace Structure''': The system uses a '''single global namespace''' where identifiers and functions persist until the session ends or are explicitly removed (e.g., via the <code>kill</code><code>()</code> command).  There is no modular scoping for standard identifiers. However, Maxima maintains specific exceptions for predefined mathematical operators (functions) and constants: * '''Built-in''' '''(predefined) operators (functions)''' (e.g., <code>sin</code>, <code>cos</code>, <code>log</code>) are mapped to '''uppercase''' versions internally (e.g., <code>SIN</code>, <code>COS</code>), allowing users to call them with either case, though lowercase is recommended for clarity. * '''Built-in constants''' (e.g., <code>%e</code>, <code>%pi</code>, <code>%i</code>, <code>%gamma</code>) are strictly '''lowercase''' and must be entered exactly as such. * '''System''' '''names''' related to session history (input or output '''''labels''''') also use the <code>%</code> prefix and are case-sensitive. Users are advised to use '''lowercase''' for user-defined names and functions to ensure readability and avoid conflicts with the internal uppercase mapping of standard mathematical operators. The namespace system in Maxima is fundamentally built upon its underlying Lisp implementation, creating a unique environment where case sensitivity, symbol translation rules, and special prefixes dictate how values for identifiers and functions are stored and accessed. The namespace utilizes '''dynamic scoping''' rather than lexical scoping for most operations, which impacts variable visibility and modification: '''Dynamic Scope''': Identifiers defined outside a function are global in scope and can be inadvertently modified by functions if the identifiers are the same, unless explicitly made local. For instance, a loop identifier <code>i</code> in a global context might be overwritten by a function using <code>i</code> if not properly scoped. A reference to a defined Maxima function accesses the values of identifiers based on the environment of the function that exists at the point of reference. If an identifier local to the function exists, the value of that identifier is used. Otherwise, Maxima will attempt to find the value of the referenced identifier outside of the the local scope of the function in the global namespace. This means that identifiers are by default global in scope, and that users must account for this contingency when defining and referencing functions. Refer to the Maxima documentation for the descriptions of the <code>'''block''' '''( )'''</code> and <code>'''local''' '''( )'''</code> operators for information related to the scope of identifiers. '''Global Persistence''': By default, all user identifiers reside in a '''single global namespace'''. They persist until the session ends or are explicitly removed. '''Identifier Removal Mechanisms''': * <code>kill(symbol)</code>: Completely removes the value, function definition, array, and properties of an identifier. * <code>remvalue(symbol)</code>: Removes only the assigned value of the identifier, leaving function definitions or array properties intact. * <code>kill(all)</code>: Clears all user-defined identifiers from the namespace. The operator <code>reset</code> is used to reset internal Maxima built-in global "flags" or option identifiers to their defaults. == Identifiers == '''Symbols''', '''variables''', and '''identifiers''' do not technically refer to the same thing in Maxima, though they are closely related and often overlap in the way to which they are referred in typical use. Here is the breakdown of how Maxima distinguishes between them: '''Identifiers (names)''' ''Identifiers'' are syntactic names. They are the characters ''users choose'' as names, or have been chosen as built-in. Identifiers typically name '''variables''', '''functions''', '''labels''', '''operators'''. '''Symbols (objects in memory)''' The underlying programming language of Maxima is Lisp. A ''symbol'' is a fundamental data type in Lisp. When Maxima parses an expression and encounters an identifier, Maxima refers to or creates a corresponding symbol object "under the hood" in Lisp. These symbol objects can hold a value, a function definition, and various properties (like whether it is declared integer, constant, etc.) all at the same time. <u>Example</u>: The identifier named <code>x</code> refers to the symbol object <code>x</code> which may have a value of itself, or an expression that is a different value, and also declared properties. '''Variables (symbols with role that references values or properties)''' ''Variables'' are symbols being used to store or represent an expression value that ''can'' ''be'' changed. When a symbol is encountered that has an expression value that can be changed ( a variable in the programming sense of the term), but the expression value is simply the name of the symbol itself, then it can be considered a variable in the ''mathematical sense of the word''. When a symbol is encountered that has an expression value that can be changed ( a variable in the programming sense of the term), but the expression value is some expression other than the name of the symbol itself, then it should not be considered a variable in the mathematical sense of the word. Rather the symbol in this case, although a variable because it is a symbol that ''can be'' changed, serves simply as a name for its value – an alias. <u>Example</u><u>s</u>: <code>x + 1</code> The value of the expression <code>x + 1</code> depends on the value of <code>x</code>. If <code>x</code> has a value of itself (<code>x</code> is <code>x</code>) then the identifier <code>x</code> names a symbol that can be changed – it is a variable – and therefore it is a variable in the programming sense of the term, and can be considered a variable in the mathematical sense of the term. <code>x : 5</code> <code>x + 1</code> is <code>6</code> If <code>x</code> has a value other than itself (<code>x</code> is <code>5</code>) then the identifier <code>x</code> names a symbol that can be changed – it is a variable – and therefore it is a variable in the programming sense of the term, but should not be considered a variable in the mathematical sense of the term. {| class="wikitable" |+Comparison !Concept !What it is !Maxima Examples !Analogous to |- |Identifier |characters read as Maxima input |<code>name</code> |''name'' of a person on a name tag "Hi! My ''name'' is John." |- |Symbol |underlying data object in memory |entity ''name'' which can have properties, values, or functions associated with it |an ''actual person'' wearing a name tag |- |Variable |role a symbol has for representing a value |/* <code>name</code> symbol has the value ''name'' */ <code>name;</code> /* <code>name</code> symbol has the value ''"John"'' */ <code>name : "John";</code> | - ''some'' ''variable'' person acting in some job role - a ''specific'' person acting in their job role |} ===== Why these distinctions matter in Maxima ===== Because Maxima is a computer algebra system (CAS), and not a general-purpose programming language, you can refer to ''symbols'' without assigning values to them. For example:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i1) x + x; (%o1) 2*x </syntaxhighlight>In this example, <code>x</code> is an identifier associated a symbol with no assigned value, and consequently may act as a mathematical variable. These distinctions also matter due to the fact that these terms are commonly used in the Maxima Manual and elsewhere. Sometimes understanding these distinctions matter, sometimes they don't matter, and sometimes they are used synonymously – for better or worse. In any case, in the context of typical usage, identifiers are used to compose Maxima expressions, and expressions, particularly mathematical expressions, are what matters most from the Maxima user point of view. ''Names'', ''symbols'', ''words'', ''variables'', ''constants'', ''literals'', ''labels'', ''flags'', ''options'', and ''identifiers'' are all technical terms the meaning of which may depend on the context in which these terms are used. In this book, for the sake of simplicity, at the expense of possibly being technically imprecise, the term '''''identifier''''' is used for names in the broadest practical sense as follows: # A ''name'' that has a value of itself – (a is a) is true, or # A ''name'' that has a value of an expression other than itself – (a is b) and (a is not a) is true. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i1) y; /* The value of y is y, y is a name for itself. */ (%o1) y (%i2) y : f(x); /* y is assigned an expression */ (y) f(x) (%i3) y; /* The value of y is f(x), y is a name for f(x). */ (%o3) f(x) </syntaxhighlight>This means that in this book, ''identifiers'' refer to ''names'' for: symbols, words, variables, constants, literals, labels, flags, options, and so forth, and that if distinctions are necessary, it should be provided by the context in which the term ''identifier'' is used. === Reserved Words === The Maxima Manual provides the following caveat regarding '''''reserved words''''':<blockquote>"There are a number of reserved words which should not be used as variable names. Their use would cause a possibly cryptic syntax error."</blockquote> integrate next from diff in at limit sum for and elseif then else do or if unless product while thru step Apart from these Maxima reserved words, there is relative freedom in the choice of identifiers. === <u>Identifier Composition Rules</u>: === Maxima identifiers follow specific lexical rules: * '''Allowed Characters''': Alphabetic characters (<code>A-Z</code>, <code>a-z</code>), digits (<code>0-9</code>), and the underscore (<code>_</code>). * '''Special Characters''': Any special character can be included if preceded by a backslash (<code>\</code>). For example, <code>a\+b</code> is a valid single identifier. * '''Starting with Digits''': An identifier can start with a digit if escaped (e.g., <code>\1st_var</code>). * '''Unicode Support''': Modern versions of Maxima (and specifically interfaces like ''wxMaxima'') support Unicode characters in identifiers, treating them as alphabetic characters without needing escape sequences, '''''provided the underlying Lisp and font support them'''''. * '''Characters Declared Alphabetic''': The <code>declare (''character'', alphabetic)</code> operator can be used to in order to use a ''character'' in composing an identifier that otherwise would not be considered as alphabetic. It seems to be the case that, unless otherwise noted, there are no naming conventions or a style guide for Maxima. So in general, it is up to the user to decide on the composition of identifiers. Note that identifiers may be used that are one or more characters that comprise the alphabetic characters, plus the digits 0 through 9, plus any other character preceded by the backslash ( <code>\</code> ) escape character including the space character. Note however, that the <code>\</code> must be entered for each reference to the identifier. A numeral may be the first character of an identifier if it is preceded by a backslash. Numerals which are the second or later characters need not be preceded by a backslash. The alphabetic characters are initially %, _, and the lower and upper case letters of the alphabet - that is, all characters for which the Lisp function <code>ALPHA-CHAR-P</code> returns <code>true</code>. Characters may be declared alphabetic by the <code>declare (''character'', alphabetic)</code> operator. If so declared, they need not be preceded by a backslash in an identifier. However, the use of the <code>declare (''character'', alphabetic)</code> operator may cause unintended and unwanted side effects depending on the character, so this operator for this purpose should be used with that in mind if at all. === <u>Atoms and Symbols</u> === As discussed,the term ''symbol'' and ''identifier'' are frequently used in the context of ''names''. The use of the term ''symbol'' can be attributed, as much else in Maxima, to its Lisp orientation. In Maxima, <code>atom()</code> and <code>symbolp()</code> serve different purposes regarding object classification, though their outputs often overlap for names. * <code>atom(v)</code> returns true if <code>v</code> is an atom and false otherwise.  In Maxima, atoms include numbers, strings, names (symbols), and <code>nil</code>. Expressions (which have an operator and arguments) are not atoms. For example, <code>atom(5)</code> is <code>true</code>, <code>atom(x)</code> is <code>true</code>, but <code>atom(x+1)</code> is <code>false</code> because it is an expression with the operator <code>+</code>. * <code>symbolp(v)</code> returns true only if <code>v</code> is a symbol (a name).  It returns false for numbers, strings, or any other atomic type that is not a name.  For example, <code>symbolp(x)</code> is <code>true</code>, but <code>symbolp(5)</code> is <code>false</code>. The key difference is that <code>atom()</code> is a broader predicate that includes symbols, numbers, and strings, while <code>symbolp()</code> is specific to symbolic names. ==== Examples: ==== <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* Atom checks */ (%i4) atom(7); /* true: 7 is an atomic number */ (%o4) true (%i5) atom(x); /* true: x is an atomic symbol */ (%o5) true (%i6) atom("hello there"); /* true: "hello there" is an atomic string */ (%o6) true (%i7) atom(x+1); /* false: x+1 is an expression */ (%o7) false (%i8) symbolp(7); /* false: 7 is not a symbol */ (%o8) false (%i9) symbolp(\7); /* true: 7 is now a symbol */ (%o9) true (%i10) symbolp(x); /* true: x is a symbol */ (%o10) true (%i11) symbolp(x+1); /* false: x+1 is a not a symbol */ (%o11) false (%i12) symbolp(x\+1); /* true: x\+1 is a symbol */ (%o12) true (%i13) symbolp("hello there"); /* false: "hello there" is not a symbol */ (%o13) false (%i14) symbolp(hello\ there); /* true: hello\ there is now a symbol */ (%o14) true </syntaxhighlight> ==== Summary Table: ==== {| class="wikitable" |Operator |Returns <code>true</code> for... |Returns <code>false</code> for... |- |<code>atom()</code> |Numbers, Identifiers, Strings, <code>nil</code> |Expressions (e.g., <code>x+1</code>, <code>sin(x)</code>) |- |<code>symbolp()</code> |Symbols (names of symbols) |Numbers, Strings, Expressions, <code>nil</code> |} Atoms are further categorized into integers, floats, strings, or identifiers. Use <code>atom()</code> to distinguish between atomic data and composite expressions, and <code>symbolp()</code> to specifically identify symbolic names. In attempting to be technically precise in the use of these various terms, it is often the case that the user becomes immersed in a confusing sea of technical jargon. On the other hand, in attempting to be clear and simple, there is the risk that some subjective or objective technical standards fail to be met. In this book, for the sake of clarity and simplicity, the term '''''identifier''''' is used for names and symbols in the broadest practical sense. ==== Unicode Support: ==== As was mentioned previously, versions of Maxima, and specifically the ''wxMaxima'' GUI, support Unicode characters in identifiers, treating them as alphabetic characters without the need to be escaped, provided the underlying Lisp implementation and font support them. This support extends the set of characters available for use in composing identifiers. This support can be useful in using Greek letters and other mathematical symbols. For example:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i5) Θ(s,r):= s/r; (%o5) Θ(s,r):=s/r (%i6) Θ(%pi/2,4); /* radians as a function of arc length and radius */ (%o6) %pi/8 </syntaxhighlight>Unicode can also be used in other ways in expressions:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i7) declare(ℝ, feature); /* make ℝ a feature */ (%o7) done /* define a function to test identifiers for feature ℝ */ (%i8) ℝ(x):= block( [q], if not symbolp(x) then q:sconcat(x," is not an indentifier") elseif featurep(x, ℝ) then q:concat(x, " ∈ ℝ") else q:concat(x, " ∉ ℝ"), return (q) )$ (%i9) declare(x,ℝ); /* make ℝ a feature of identifier x */ (%o9) done (%i10) ℝ(x); /* check x for feature ℝ */ (%o10) x ∈ ℝ (%i11) ℝ(w); /* check w for feature ℝ */ (%o11) w ∉ ℝ (%i12) ℝ(3); /* check 3 for feature ℝ */ (%o12) 3 is not an indentifier </syntaxhighlight>Users should be aware of some aspects of using Unicode in the context of Maxima. First, apart from the ''wxMaxima'' GUI, using Unicode characters is likely to be a "cut-and-paste" operation using a character map of some kind. ''wxMaxima'' has built-in Unicode support which makes using these characters simple. Second, there can be some anomalous behavior. For example:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i14) ℃; /* This Unicode character ℃ (2103) is an acceptable symbol */ (%o14) ℃ (%i15) symbolp(℃); /* Maxima likes ℃ */ (%o15) true /* This Unicode character ℉ (2109) is an acceptable symbol */ (%i16) symbolp(℉); (%o16) true /* This Unicode character ° (00B0) is an acceptable symbol */ (%i17) symbolp(°) (%o17) true /* Maxima does not like this ° (00B0) character with another one */ (%i18) symbolp(°R); incorrect syntax: R is not an infix operator symbolp(°R) ^ /* Maxima likes this ° (00B0) character if escaped */ (%i19) symbolp(\°R); (%o19) true </syntaxhighlight> ==== Features: ==== The foregoing example demonstrates that '''''features''''' can be associated with identifiers.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i10) features; (%o10) [integer,noninteger,even,odd,rational,irrational,real, imaginary,complex,analytic,increasing,decreasing,oddfun evenfun,posfun,constant,commutative,lassociative, rassociative,symmetric,antisymmetric,integervalued,ℝ]</syntaxhighlight>All of these features are built-in to Maxima except the last one – ℝ. ℝ is a user-defined feature. Maxima recognizes certain mathematical properties of functions and identifiers. These properties are called "''features''". The operator <code>declare(<var>x</var>,<var>foo</var>)</code> associates the feature <var><code>foo</code></var> with the function or identifier <var>x</var>. The operator <code>declare(<var>foo</var>, feature)</code> declares a new feature <var><code>foo</code></var>. For example, <code>declare(ℝ, feature)</code> declares <code>ℝ</code> as a user-defined feature. The predicate operator <code>featurep(<var>x</var>, ℝ</code> returns <code>true</code> if <var>x</var> has the ℝ feature, and <code>false</code> otherwise. ==== Properties: ==== In addition to features, '''''properties''''' can be attributed to identifiers using the <code>put <var>(atom, value, indicator)</var></code> operator or the <code>qput <var>(atom, value, indicator)</var></code> operator. The terminology used with these operators can be confusing. These operators attribute a ''property'' using the argument named <code>indicator</code> and assign a value to the indicator using the argument named <code>value</code> to that indicator. The difference between these two operators is that <code>put</code> evaluates arguments and <code>qput</code> does not. The Maxima documentation explains as follows:<blockquote> ; '''put''' <var>(atom, value, indicator)</var> Assigns <var>value</var> to the property (specified by <var>indicator</var>) of <var>atom</var>.  <var>indicator</var> may be the name of any property, not just a system-defined property. <code>rem</code> reverses the effect of <code>put</code>. <code>put</code> evaluates its arguments. <code>put</code> returns <var>value</var>. ; ; '''qput''' <var>(atom, value, indicator)</var> : Assigns <var>value</var> to the property (specified by <var>indicator</var>) of <var>atom</var>. This is the same as <code>put</code>, except that the arguments are quoted. </blockquote>What "quoted" means in this context is that the evaluation of the arguments is suppressed. The operator <code>get<var>(a</var><var>tom, indicator)</var></code> returns the property indicated by <code>indicator</code> associated with the identifier (<code>atom</code>) or returns <code>false</code> if <code>atom</code> doesn’t have the property <code>indicator</code>. The operator <code>get</code> evaluates its arguments. The fog of this word salad can be lifted by way of an example. The following from the Maxima Manual exemplifies the use of the <code>put</code> and <code>get</code> operators:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i11) put (%e, 'transcendental, 'type); (%o11) transcendental (%12) put (%pi, 'transcendental, 'type); (%o12) transcendental (%i13) put (%i, 'algebraic, 'type); (%o13) algebraic (%i14) typeof (expr) := block ([q], if numberp (expr) then return ('algebraic), if not atom (expr) then return (maplist ('typeof, expr)), q: get (expr, 'type), if q=false then errcatch (error(expr,"is not numeric.")) else q)$ (%i15) typeof (2*%e + x*%pi); x is not numeric. (%o15) [[transcendental,[]],[algebraic,transcendental]] (%i16) typeof (2*%e + %pi); (%o16) [transcendental,[algebraic,transcendental]]</syntaxhighlight>These expressions provide examples of the use of <code>put</code> and <code>get</code> operators. The indicator for the property used is quoted ( <code>'type</code> ) presumably to prevent its evaluation in order to prevent a possible clash with a Maxima system identifier with the same name. An identifier can have multiple attributed properties. The same property can be attributed to different identifiers with different values. This example also demonstrates the recursive use of the user-defined function <code>typeof</code>. ==== Maxima System Constants: ==== Maxima provides built-in identifiers used to reference some frequently used constants. Among these are <code>%e</code>, <code>%i</code>, <code>%gamma</code>, and <code>%phi</code>, as well as others. Refer to the Maxima documentation for the full list of built-in constants and the related technical details. ==== Maxima System Labels: ==== The following table summarizes the built-in identifier labels for input and output expressions: {| class="wikitable" |+Maxima Input and Output Labels !Label !Value ! ! |- |% |last output expression | | |- |%in |input expression as labeled | | |- |%on |output expression as labeled | | |} The value of <code>n</code> within these labels is generated automatically and sequentially by Maxima. The values of <code>n</code> are numerals for the natural numbers starting at <code>1</code>. These labels can serve as a sort of handy shorthand as identifiers for referencing expressions. However, users should be aware that reliance on these labels in certain cases can result in unexpected and unwanted side-effects, as well as a negative effect on the readability of saved expressions. The system labels <code>%z7</code> and <code>%z9</code> represent any arbitrary integer value. These labels also are automatically generated by Maxima, and typically appear in the output of equation-solving functions (such as <code>solve</code>) when the solution involves periodic or multi-valued mathematical expressions, such as complex logarithms or roots. They serve as integer parameters to indicate that the solution is valid for any integer value assigned to them. ==== Maxima System Flags: ==== There are built-in Maxima system identifiers that serve special purposes. These identifiers may be referred to as '''''option variables''''' or '''''flags'''''. Frequently, these flags have the value of <code>true</code> or <code>false</code> , with one or the other as the default value. These flags are relatively many in number, and too numerous to exemplify here. One flag that can serve as an example is <code>simp</code>:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i17) simp; /* The default value of simp is true */ (%o17) true (%i18) 3+4; /* simplification is active */ (%o18) 7 (%i19) 21/7; /* simplification is active */ (%o19) 3 (%i20) simp:false; /* the value of simp is assigned false */ (simp) false (%i21 3+4; /* simplification is not active */ (%o21) 3+4 (%i22) 21/7; /* simplification is not active */ (%o22) 21/7 </syntaxhighlight> It may be a counter-intuitive recognition that calculations like these simple examples are a matter of simplification and not evaluation, but that is the case even if more complex expressions are involved.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) x:3; /* identifier x is assigned the value of 3 */ (x) 3 (%i24) x; /* the value of x is 3 by evaluation */ (%o24) 3 (%i25) x+4; /* this expression is evaluated but not simplified */ (%o25) 3+4 </syntaxhighlight>Assigning the <code>simp</code> flag to <code>true</code> allows simplification to occur:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i26) simp:true; /* the simp flag is assigned true */ (simp) true (%i27) x+4; /* this expression is evaluated and now simplified */ (%o27) 7 </syntaxhighlight>{{BookCat}} t0j1qmemveowop86h11djgabgs94cdz 110 483964 4671828 4648451 2026-09-23T01:43:06Z TechVindicator 3626296 +rfd 4671828 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rfd}} <div style="width: 100%; text-align: center; font-size: xx-large;">'''Alphabet of Wikibooks'''</div> {{center|[[File:TransMilenio Estacion A Caracas.svg|200px]] [[File:TransMilenio Estacion B Autonorte.svg|200px]] [[File:TransMilenio Estacion C Suba.svg|200px]]}} <noinclude><div style="font-size: x-large; text-align: center; margin: 0px auto 0px auto;">— [[/A/]] [[/B/]] [[/C/]] [[/D/]] [[/E/]] [[/F/]] [[/G/]] [[/H/]] [[/I/]] [[/J/]] [[/K/]] [[/L/]] [[/M/]] [[/N/]] [[/O/]] [[/P/]] [[/Q/]] [[/R/]] [[/S/]] [[/T/]] [[/U/]] [[/V/]] [[/W/]] [[/X/]] [[/Y/]] [[/Z/]] —<br/></div> 3gvcwpoqbxayt7hfw62q561uqjejbm0 0 485038 4671830 4669547 2026-09-23T02:33:31Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 4671830 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Emperor Kōbun.jpg|thumb|200px|大友皇子]] Literary Chinese was exported across East Asia through a mix of hard and soft power, particularly from the Han 漢 and Tang 唐 dynasties. They would establish relations with burgeoning nations and use the language as a "scripta franca": A language to bridge between each other. Therefore, the languages these nations spoke was often not written until much, much later. The poem by Kiyohara no Sakamoto 清原真友 from Unit 0 could not have been made without that substrate. Today, we will be learning some key concepts from Prince Ōtomo 大友皇子, a daimyo 大王 of the Yamato Kingship of Japan, during the Asuka period 飛鳥時代. At this time, Japan was still called Wa 倭, which you will see used in pre-Tang Chinese texts when discussing relations with the rapidly-developing country. Today, we will be learning several words you will be seeing a lot, and about character variants. == Character variants == The standardisation of the Han script is a very, very recent phenomenon, only really happening with digitisation. Any time before that, you will see consistencies, but some characters may be written a bit differently. In this textbook, all variations from the Kangxi Standard, that is, what is seen in Kangxi Dictionary, will be explicitly noted for you. I will render Japanese texts in Shinjitai 新字體, the modern standard for the language. Oftentimes, the characters chosen for Shinjitai were historically used in Japan, and can thus give a glimpse into what the transmitted poem may have looked like. For the purposes of this text, you will see: {| class="wikitable" !Character!!Kangxi Standard!!Meaning!!Notes |- |併||並||Side-by-side; moreover; at the same time||&mdash; |- |万||萬||Ten thousand||Also seen in Simplified Chinese |- |国||國||Country, kingdom, nation||Also seen in Simplified Chinese |} ==Key literary concepts== Prince Ōtomo talks about several concepts that are extremely common in Literary Chinese, through parallelism. * Sun 日 and Moon 月 * Sky 天 and Earth 地 * Virtue 徳, defined here as an innate power manifested through moral brilliance. * The Three Powers 三才: Heaven 天, Earth 地, and Man 人. Literary Chinese culture loved to enumerate concepts, and you will see this a lot. * Justice 義, what is right; defined here as responsibilities owed to one's in-group. Virtue 徳 and justice 義 are two concepts central to Confucianism, and thus manifest extensively in Literary Chinese. He also uses one of the first synonyms you will learn: 皇 and 帝, which mean Emperor, or more accurately, thearch. East Asian kings believed that they were assigned their lordship by the grace of their deity, often referred to as Tian 天, the Zhou people's sky deity. You will notice it shares the same character for sky! == Text == [[File:Emperor Koubunn.jpg|thumb|200px]] === 侍宴·大友皇子 === <poem> 皇明光日月，帝徳載天地。 三才併泰昌，万国表臣義。 </poem> ===Gloss=== * 侍 - To attend (to) * 宴 - Calm; serve wine; banquet * 光 - Light * 載 - To load a carriage; to set down; in this case, the latter. * 泰 - Majestic, lordly, sublime, generous. Also another form of 太 "grand, great, maximum, super." * 昌 - Splendid, shining, brilliance; glory, glorious; flourishing; prosperous. * 表 - Exterior, to show outwardly; originally comes from clothing. The opposite would be 裏! * 臣 - A minister, commonly used in place of a first-person pronoun. ==Discussion== * Who do you think Prince Ōtomo was addressing? * Given who you think Prince Ōtomo was addressing, what do you think this poem was for? * Why do you think of Prince Ōtomo's tone? Why did he use it? ==Cangjie codes== * 漢: 水廿中人 (ETLO) * 唐: 戈中口 (ILR) * 清: 水手一月 (EQMB) * 原: 一竹日火 (MHAF) * 真: 十月一金 (JBMC) * 友: 大水 (KE) * 皇: 竹日一土 (HAMG) * 子: 弓木 (ND) * 王: 一土 (MG) * 飛: 弓人竹廿人 (NOHTO) * 鳥: 竹日卜火 (HAYF) * 時: 日土木戈 (AGDI) * 代: 人戈心 (OIP) * 倭: 人竹木女 (OHDV) * 新: 卜木竹一中 (YDHML) * 字: 十弓木 (JND) * 體: 月月廿田廿 (BBTWT) * 併: 人廿廿 (OTT) * 並: 廿廿金 (TTC) * 万: 一尸 (MS) * 萬: 廿田中月 (TWLB) * 国: 田一土戈 (WMGI) * 國: 田戈口一 (WIRM) * 天: 一大 (MK) * 地: 土心木 (GPD) * 徳: 難竹人十田 (XHOJW) * 三: 一一一 (MMM) * 才: 木竹 (DH) * 義: 廿土竹手戈 (TGHQI) * 帝: 卜月中月 (YBLB) * 侍: 人土木戈 (OGDI) * 宴: 十日女 (JAV) * 明: 日月 (AB) * 光: 火一山 (FMU) * 載: 十戈十田十 (JIJWJ) * 泰: 手大水 (QKE) * 昌: 日日 (AA) * 表: 手一女 (QMV) * 臣: 尸中尸中 (SLSL) * 太: 大戈 (KI) * 裏: 卜田土女 (YWGV) * 弘: 弓戈 (NI) * 文: 卜大 (YK) * 懐: 心卜田女 (PYWV) * 風: 竹弓竹中戈 (HNHLI) * 藻: 廿水口木 (TERD) * 本: 木一 (DM) * 汉: 水水 (EE) * 诗: 戈女土木戈 (IVGDI) * 选: 卜竹土山 (YHGU) * 江: 水一 (EM) * 西: 一金田 (MCW) * 教: 十木人大 (JDOK) * 育: 卜戈月 (YIB) * 出: 山山 (UU) * 版: 中中竹水 (LLHE) * 社: 戈火土 (IFG) ==Notes== * Prince Ōtomo is also known as Emperor Kobun 弘文天皇! If you're aware of Kanbun 漢文, the "bun" in the name may be familiar... ==References== * 《懐風藻》 * Piggott, Joan (1997). The Emergence of Japanese Kingship. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804728324. * Shi, K. (Ed.). (2024). 日本汉诗选 [Anthology of Japanese Sinitic Poetry] (1st ed, Vols 1–2). 江西教育出版社 [Jiangxi Education Press]. {{BookCat}} kncrbpxmhuyu0lhd1k2r31pht9uxxaa 0 485069 4671833 4670434 2026-09-23T02:59:16Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 4671833 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Technically, the decision between 吾/我 was largely whether or not the event was affecting you, but it is easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}} Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} njzdt9wy7q9vkorcp64lavs0466njv7 4671834 4671833 2026-09-23T03:02:44Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 clearer wording and citation 4671834 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Prior to the Han dynasty, '''the decision between using 吾/我 was largely about whether or not the event was affecting you'''. It is, however, easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. Think of it this way: If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}}<ref>童梦园、舎方昕(2025)上古汉语“吾”“我”的句法语义分工</ref> Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} ohcbzmodsxqkmxmcsbyav9xhuqtm8mo 4671835 4671834 2026-09-23T03:03:18Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 4671835 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Prior to the Han dynasty, '''the decision between using 吾/我 was largely about whether or not the event was affecting you'''. It is, however, easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. Think of it this way: If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}}<ref></ref> Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * 童梦园、舎方昕(2025)上古汉语“吾”“我”的句法语义分工 * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} hsp3ulxqtprhh0ocepo4b8ou7a2ytkm 4671836 4671835 2026-09-23T03:03:38Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 4671836 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Prior to the Han dynasty, '''the decision between using 吾/我 was largely about whether or not the event was affecting you'''. It is, however, easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. Think of it this way: If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}}<ref></ref> Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * 童梦园、舎方昕(2025)上古汉语“吾”“我”的句法语义分工. https://ccj.pku.edu.cn/Article/DownLoad?id=699397347119173&&type=ArticleFile * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} 2odf8dukk4w1qiwryj59iqttno2yisg 4671837 4671836 2026-09-23T03:04:29Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 /* References */ 4671837 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Prior to the Han dynasty, '''the decision between using 吾/我 was largely about whether or not the event was affecting you'''. It is, however, easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. Think of it this way: If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}}<ref></ref> Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * 童梦园、舎方昕(2025)上古汉语“吾”“我”的句法语义分工. https://ccj.pku.edu.cn/article/info?aid=699397347119173 * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} m06oo97szmn2s8ojk2try9ohour6cow 4671839 4671837 2026-09-23T03:04:50Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 /* References */ 4671839 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Prior to the Han dynasty, '''the decision between using 吾/我 was largely about whether or not the event was affecting you'''. It is, however, easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. Think of it this way: If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}}<ref></ref> Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * 童梦园,鲁方昕等.上古汉语“吾”“我”的句法语义分工[J].,2025(02):3-13. https://ccj.pku.edu.cn/article/info?aid=699397347119173 * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} 92b7lrcuexnx45u61uv8n6y3b832bce 4671840 4671839 2026-09-23T03:11:08Z Shira the Mogul 3560559 /* References */ 4671840 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a quick reference for Literary Chinese pronouns. ==Table== The following pronouns are grouped by their reconstructed Old Chinese groupings; they are always used together. {| class="wikitable" ! Person ! Period or group ! Subject/agent bias ! Object/patient bias ! Possessive bias |- ! rowspan="4" | 1st | ŋ-series | 吾 | 我{{efn|我 can be used as a general-purpose "we" in later Literary Chinese. Because Literary Chinese does not count number, it can be read as a singular or plural.}} | 吾 |- | j/l-series | 余{{efn|Pre-Qin rulers usually used 余 as a "royal we," which is particularly visible in Shang oracle bones. From the Qin dynasty onward, Emperors would use 朕.}} | 予{{efn|我, 予, and 爾 can be used in the subject position emphatically; this is often read as conveying strong emotion, but it is more about whether or not the event is affecting the individual mentioned.}} | 朕{{efn|During the Shang dynasty, 朕 was used as a general possessive; later, especially post-Qin dynasty, it became an Emperor-exclusive pronoun.}} |- | pre-Classical | 卬 | ? | 台{{efn|台 super-rarely appears in a subject/agent position.}} |- | Medieval | 儂 | — | — |- ! rowspan="2" | 2nd | Classical | 汝 | 爾 | 爾 |- | pre-Classical{{efn|Pre-Classical pronouns are very rarely seen and are typically reserved to quotations from the Book of Documents and Classic of Poetry. As these are very commonly quoted, though, it is worth remembering them.}} | 若／如／而 | 若／如 | — |- ! rowspan="3" | 3rd | Classical | omitted | 之 | 其 |- | pre-Classical | — | — | 厥 |- | Medieval | 伊、渠 | — | — |} ==Grammar== Earlier Literary Chinese prefers different pronouns according to their grammatical position. For example, whereas we use "I" in English, in Literary Chinese, 吾 is especially common as a subject or possessor, whilst 我 is common as an object. For example, in "Confucius said to Zi Lu," Confucius would be the Subject, and Zi Lu would be the Object. Therefore, to say "I kicked the ball," you would need the Subject-biased pronouns, whilst to say "The ball was kicked by me," you would need the Object-biased pronouns. Of the pronouns in the table, it is recommended to use 吾/我 or 余/予 and stick to them. The former is more common, though the latter still survives and can be seen even in Song and Ming dynasty work. Prior to the Han dynasty, '''the decision between using 吾/我 was largely about whether or not the event was affecting you'''. It is, however, easier to think of it as before or after a verb starting out. Think of it this way: If something affects you, that is when you 我!{{efn|In linguistics, we therefore call Classical Chinese an ergative-absolutive language.}}<ref></ref> Putting this into practice, using the common Classical pronouns: * 吾適周 — I went to Zhou. * 孔子見我 — Confucius saw me. * 汝為誰 — Who are you? * 汝何如 — How are you? * 田中氏有爾貓 — Tanaka has your cat. * 世宗作諺文，以之書韓語 — Sejong created Hangul and used it to write Korean. We use "bias" here as these rules were not rigid: The rule was being forgotten come the late Classical era (around the end of the Qin dynasty), but can still be seen being followed even during the times of the Ming dynasty, such as in Jibong's Discourses (芝峰類說) from Korea. Therefore, it is still reasonable to follow. 子 and 君 are also sometimes used as honorific second-person expressions, while 妾 and 臣 may function as humble first-person expressions. Strictly speaking, however, these remain nouns rather than personal pronouns. ==Notes== {{notelist}} ==References== * Tong 童, M. 梦园, & Lu 鲁, F. 方昕. (2025). 上古汉语“吾”“我”的句法语义分工 [The Syntactic and Semantic Roles of wu (吾) and wo (我) in Archaic Chinese]. 语言学论丛 [Luncong], (2), 3–13. https://ccj.pku.edu.cn/article/info?aid=699397347119173 * Aldridge, E. (2018). Inherent case in Archaic Chinese. Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America, 3, 3. https://doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v3i1.4284 * Barnes, A. C., Starr, D., & Ormerod, G. (2009). Du’s handbook of classical Chinese grammar: An introduction to classical Chinese grammar. Alcuin Academics. * Pulleyblank, E. G. (2000). Outline of classical Chinese grammar (Repr). UBC Press. * Takeshi, N. (1994). On the Differences of the Usages of First person Pronouns between the Chuci and other Texts in Classical Chinese. In 第一届国际先秦汉语语法研讨会论文集 (pp. 364–382). 岳麓书社出版. https://catalog.lib.kyushu-u.ac.jp/opac_download_md/18275/p364-382.pdf * Yang, B. (2016). 文言语法 [Literary Chinese Grammar] (1st ed). 中华书局 [Zhonghua Book Company]. {{BookCat}} 78ro05jhq7krkjtbgozem5e6et7m6yn 0 485134 4671942 4671346 2026-09-23T10:41:29Z Rcragun 41177 updated completion on Chapter 8 4671942 wikitext text/x-wiki == Table of Contents == {| class="wikitable" | align=right |- | {{print version}} |- | {{PDF version|Statistics for Sociologists}} |} * '''Statistics for Sociologists: An Introduction Using R and the General Social Survey''' * '''Part I: Foundations''' ** [[/Chapter 1: Why Statistics? Making Sense of Social Life with Data/]] {{stage short|100%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 2: Getting Started with R and RStudio/]] {{stage short|100%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 3: The General Social Survey - What It Is and How to Use It/]] {{stage short|100%|August 18, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 4: Types of Variables and Levels of Measurement/]] {{stage short|100%|August 19, 2026}} * '''Part II: Working with Data''' ** [[/Chapter 5: Loading, Exploring, and Cleaning GSS Data/]] {{stage short|100%|September 1, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 6: Recoding and Transforming Variables/]] {{stage short|100%|September 14, 2026}} * '''Part III: Descriptive Statistics''' ** [[/Chapter 7: Frequency Distributions and Visualizing Data/]] {{stage short|100%|September 20, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 8: Measures of Central Tendency/]] {{stage short|100%|September 23, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 9: Measures of Variability/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 10: The Normal Distribution and Areas Under the Curve/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 11: Sampling Distributions, Standard Error, and Statistical Power/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 12: Confidence Intervals/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} * '''Part IV: Inferential Statistics''' ** [[/Chapter 13: Hypothesis Testing, t-Tests, and Effect Sizes/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 14: Chi-Square Tests and Effet Sizes/|Chapter 14: Chi-Square Tests and Effect Sizes]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 15: ANOVA and Effect Sizes/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 16: Bivariate Regression, Correlation, and Effect Sizes/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 17: An Introduction to Bayesian Thinking/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ** [[/Chapter 18: Putting It All Together - Replicating Sociological Research/]] {{stage short|75%|August 6, 2026}} ==Instructor Resources== * [[/Noted Contributors/]] * [[/Course Adoptions/]] (if you adopt this text for your course, please make a note of it on this page) {{BookCat}} tpc3fzqe86d0hyrw6zwajwwlkdbiuhr 0 485149 4671937 4656638 2026-09-23T10:12:42Z Rcragun 41177 /* Median: The Middle Value */ 4671937 wikitext text/x-wiki = Chapter 8: Measures of Central Tendency = If someone asks you "what's typical here?" about a pile of numbers, you have three honest ways to answer, and — this is the part introductory statistics courses sometimes rush past — they are not interchangeable. Choosing the wrong one doesn't just give you a slightly different number. It can give you a number that actively misleads whoever's listening. This chapter is about mean, median, and mode: what each one actually tells you, and the specific circumstances under which each one is the right tool for the job. == Mode: The Most Common Value == The '''mode''' is simply the value that occurs most often. It's the only measure of central tendency that works on nominal data — you can find the modal religion, the modal marital status, the modal region, because "most common category" makes sense even when "order" and "distance between values" do not. Here's a genuinely funny R quirk worth knowing about before it wastes twenty minutes of your life: R has no built-in function called <code>mode()</code> that computes the statistical mode. There is a function called <code>mode()</code> in base R — it exists, it runs, it returns an answer — but it tells you the storage mode of an object (whether something is <code>"numeric"</code>, <code>"character"</code>, and so on), which has nothing whatsoever to do with the statistic you're looking for. Every introductory R user eventually runs <code>mode(x)</code> expecting a most-common-value and receives, with total and unhelpful confidence, the word <code>"numeric"</code> instead. This isn't a bug. It's just an unfortunate naming collision decades in the making, and the fix is to write your own small function: <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> get_mode <- function(x) { x <- x[!is.na(x)] ux <- unique(x) ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x, ux)))] } get_mode(gss$MARITAL) </syntaxhighlight> Four lines, and you've built the function the language declined to give you. Welcome to a surprisingly large fraction of applied statistical programming. == Median: The Middle Value == The '''median''' is the value that splits an ordered dataset exactly in half — as many cases above it as below. It requires at minimum ordinal data (you need to be able to put values in order), but is typically only applied to interval or ratio variables. It has one enormously useful property: it's '''resistant to outliers'''. A single extreme value barely moves the median, because the median only cares about position in the ordered list, not magnitude. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> median(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> == Mean: The Arithmetic Average == The '''mean''' is the sum of all values divided by the number of values — the measure most people default to when they hear "average": : <math>\bar{x} = \frac{\sum x_i}{n}</math> It requires interval or ratio data, and it works best when the distribution is roughly symmetric, because unlike the median, the mean is highly '''sensitive to outliers''': every value in the dataset pulls on it, extreme values included, and pulls harder the more extreme they are. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> That <code>na.rm = TRUE</code> should be reflexive by now, from Chapter 5 — leave it off, and one missing value anywhere in the vector silently converts your entire answer to <code>NA</code>. '''dplyr, computing several statistics for several variables at once:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> library(dplyr) gss %>% summarize( mean_educ = mean(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE), median_educ = median(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) ) </syntaxhighlight> == When to Use Which: The Chapter 4 Payoff == This is the moment the level-of-measurement typology from Chapter 4 stops being an abstract classification exercise and starts actually deciding what you're allowed to compute: * '''Nominal data''' → mode only. A mean or median on unordered categories is nonsense, per Chapter 4's opening joke about the "average religion." * '''Ordinal data''' → mode and median are both defensible; mean is common in sociological practice (recall Chapter 4's discussion of treating long ordinal scales as interval) but should be used with awareness that it's a simplification. * '''Interval/ratio data''' → all three are available, and the choice between mean and median usually comes down to shape: symmetric distributions, prefer the mean; skewed distributions, prefer the median, or report both. == The Case of Income: Why the Mean and Median Disagree == Here is the clearest illustration of why this choice matters, and it involves one very rich, entirely hypothetical neighbor. Imagine nine people in a room, each earning $40,000 a year. The mean and median both equal $40,000 — no disagreement, nothing interesting happening. Now Jeff Bezos walks into the room. The '''median''' barely moves, because Bezos is still just one ordered value at the top of the list. The '''mean''', by contrast, explodes — divide his net worth's influence across ten people and the "average" income in that room is now some meaningless nine-figure number that describes literally none of the ten actual incomes in it, Bezos's included. This isn't a contrived example designed to be memorable (although it is memorable). It's a structurally accurate description of what real income distributions look like, per Chapter 7's discussion of right-skew. This is precisely why economists and sociologists report median household income rather than mean household income when describing a "typical" household — the mean is dragged upward by a thin tail of very high earners, badly overstating what a typical family actually takes home. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> If the mean is noticeably higher than the median for a right-skewed variable like income, that gap ''is'' the story — it's a direct, numeric signature of inequality, not a technical inconvenience to smooth over. <!-- FIGURE: A histogram of real 2010 GSS income data with vertical lines marking the mean and median, visually showing the gap between them — a direct visual complement to the Bezos example. Author to generate from real data. --> == A Brief Note on Weighted Means == The GSS includes a sampling weight variable, typically named something like <code>WTSS</code>, which adjusts for the fact that not every respondent had exactly the same probability of being selected (recall Chapter 3's discussion of probability sampling — the "known, nonzero chance" every adult has of inclusion isn't necessarily an ''equal'' chance). A properly weighted analysis uses these weights to correct for that: <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> weighted.mean(gss$EDUC, w = gss$WTSS, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> This book won't dwell on survey weighting in depth — it's a topic that deserves its own course, honestly — but you should know it exists and know why: an unweighted mean of GSS data is a description of your ''sample''; a properly weighted mean is a better estimate of the ''population'' the sample was drawn to represent. For most exercises in this book, unweighted statistics are perfectly fine for learning the underlying concepts. For anything you intend to actually publish, check with your instructor about whether weighting is expected. == Chapter Summary == Mode, median, and mean each answer "what's typical?" differently, and the level of measurement from Chapter 4 determines which are even valid to compute: mode works everywhere, median needs at least ordinal data, and mean needs interval/ratio data (or, in common sociological practice, a sufficiently long ordinal scale treated as interval). R has no built-in statistical mode function — a genuine, mildly infuriating quirk — so you write a short custom function instead. The mean is sensitive to extreme values in a way the median is not, which is why the two diverge sharply for skewed variables like income; when they disagree, that gap is itself informative, not a nuisance. GSS analyses that aim to generalize to the U.S. population should also consider the sampling weight (<code>WTSS</code>) via <code>weighted.mean()</code>, though this book mostly works with unweighted statistics for the sake of focusing on the underlying concepts. == Practice Examples == === Example 1: Mean and Median of EDUC === '''The Research Question:''' What is the "typical" level of education in the sample, and do the mean and median agree? '''The Code (base R):''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Code (dplyr):''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> library(dplyr) gss %>% summarize(mean_educ = mean(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE), median_educ = median(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE)) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean_educ median_educ 13.68 13 </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' Mean and median are close (13.68 versus 13 years), which suggests <code>EDUC</code> is fairly symmetric without dramatic outliers pulling the mean away from the center — consistent with the fact that years of education is naturally bounded (nobody reports 80 years of schooling the way an income variable can have a genuinely enormous outlier). When mean and median are this close, either is a defensible way to describe the "typical" respondent's education. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Compute the mode of <code>EDUC</code> using the <code>get_mode()</code> function above. Does the modal value fall close to the mean and median, or does it diverge? What would explain either answer? === Example 2: Find the Mode of MARITAL === '''The Research Question:''' What is the most common marital status in the sample? '''The Code:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> get_mode <- function(x) { x <- x[!is.na(x)] ux <- unique(x) ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x, ux)))] } get_mode(gss$MARITAL) table(gss$MARITAL) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> [1] 1 1 2 3 4 5 980 280 310 120 354 </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' The modal category is 1 ("married"), the most frequent marital status by a wide margin. Confirming the mode against the full frequency table (rather than trusting the function's output blind) is good practice — it's a quick sanity check that the function found what you think it found, and it shows you the runner-up categories, which a bare mode value would hide entirely. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Look up what each numeric code in <code>MARITAL</code> actually represents in the GSS codebook, and write one sentence summarizing the marital-status composition of the sample in plain English. === Example 3: Mean vs. Median for CONRINC === '''The Research Question:''' Does the gap between mean and median income reveal something about inequality in the sample? '''The Code:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> [1] 52400 # mean [1] 41000 # median </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' The mean sits well above the median — a classic signature of right-skewed income data. A relatively small number of high earners are pulling the mean upward without moving the median much at all, exactly as the Bezos thought experiment predicted. Reporting only the mean here would overstate what a "typical" respondent actually earns; reporting only the median would undersell how much income the highest earners actually pull in. Reporting both, and naming the gap explicitly, tells the more honest story. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Calculate the size of the gap between the mean and median as a percentage of the median. Would you consider this a small or large amount of skew? What additional information (covered in Chapter 9) would help you judge that more rigorously? == References == <references/> {{BookCat}} p5mbw2t5ywtak76kk3z51qoqmlvdu8j 4671940 4671937 2026-09-23T10:32:22Z Rcragun 41177 /* The Case of Income: Why the Mean and Median Disagree */ added figure 4671940 wikitext text/x-wiki = Chapter 8: Measures of Central Tendency = If someone asks you "what's typical here?" about a pile of numbers, you have three honest ways to answer, and — this is the part introductory statistics courses sometimes rush past — they are not interchangeable. Choosing the wrong one doesn't just give you a slightly different number. It can give you a number that actively misleads whoever's listening. This chapter is about mean, median, and mode: what each one actually tells you, and the specific circumstances under which each one is the right tool for the job. == Mode: The Most Common Value == The '''mode''' is simply the value that occurs most often. It's the only measure of central tendency that works on nominal data — you can find the modal religion, the modal marital status, the modal region, because "most common category" makes sense even when "order" and "distance between values" do not. Here's a genuinely funny R quirk worth knowing about before it wastes twenty minutes of your life: R has no built-in function called <code>mode()</code> that computes the statistical mode. There is a function called <code>mode()</code> in base R — it exists, it runs, it returns an answer — but it tells you the storage mode of an object (whether something is <code>"numeric"</code>, <code>"character"</code>, and so on), which has nothing whatsoever to do with the statistic you're looking for. Every introductory R user eventually runs <code>mode(x)</code> expecting a most-common-value and receives, with total and unhelpful confidence, the word <code>"numeric"</code> instead. This isn't a bug. It's just an unfortunate naming collision decades in the making, and the fix is to write your own small function: <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> get_mode <- function(x) { x <- x[!is.na(x)] ux <- unique(x) ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x, ux)))] } get_mode(gss$MARITAL) </syntaxhighlight> Four lines, and you've built the function the language declined to give you. Welcome to a surprisingly large fraction of applied statistical programming. == Median: The Middle Value == The '''median''' is the value that splits an ordered dataset exactly in half — as many cases above it as below. It requires at minimum ordinal data (you need to be able to put values in order), but is typically only applied to interval or ratio variables. It has one enormously useful property: it's '''resistant to outliers'''. A single extreme value barely moves the median, because the median only cares about position in the ordered list, not magnitude. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> median(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> == Mean: The Arithmetic Average == The '''mean''' is the sum of all values divided by the number of values — the measure most people default to when they hear "average": : <math>\bar{x} = \frac{\sum x_i}{n}</math> It requires interval or ratio data, and it works best when the distribution is roughly symmetric, because unlike the median, the mean is highly '''sensitive to outliers''': every value in the dataset pulls on it, extreme values included, and pulls harder the more extreme they are. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> That <code>na.rm = TRUE</code> should be reflexive by now, from Chapter 5 — leave it off, and one missing value anywhere in the vector silently converts your entire answer to <code>NA</code>. '''dplyr, computing several statistics for several variables at once:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> library(dplyr) gss %>% summarize( mean_educ = mean(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE), median_educ = median(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) ) </syntaxhighlight> == When to Use Which: The Chapter 4 Payoff == This is the moment the level-of-measurement typology from Chapter 4 stops being an abstract classification exercise and starts actually deciding what you're allowed to compute: * '''Nominal data''' → mode only. A mean or median on unordered categories is nonsense, per Chapter 4's opening joke about the "average religion." * '''Ordinal data''' → mode and median are both defensible; mean is common in sociological practice (recall Chapter 4's discussion of treating long ordinal scales as interval) but should be used with awareness that it's a simplification. * '''Interval/ratio data''' → all three are available, and the choice between mean and median usually comes down to shape: symmetric distributions, prefer the mean; skewed distributions, prefer the median, or report both. == The Case of Income: Why the Mean and Median Disagree == Here is the clearest illustration of why this choice matters, and it involves one very rich, entirely hypothetical neighbor. Imagine nine people in a room, each earning $40,000 a year. The mean and median both equal $40,000 — no disagreement, nothing interesting happening. Now [[wikipedia:Jeff_Bezos|Jeff Bezos]] walks into the room. The '''median''' barely moves, because Bezos is still just one ordered value at the top of the list. The '''mean''', by contrast, explodes — divide his net worth's influence across ten people and the "average" income in that room is now some meaningless nine-figure number that describes literally none of the ten actual incomes in it, Bezos's included. This isn't a contrived example designed to be memorable (although it is memorable). It's a structurally accurate description of what real income distributions look like, per Chapter 7's discussion of right-skew. This is precisely why economists and sociologists report median household income rather than mean household income when describing a "typical" household — the mean is dragged upward by a thin tail of very high earners, badly overstating what a typical family actually takes home. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> If the mean is noticeably higher than the median for a right-skewed variable like income, that gap ''is'' the story — it's a direct, numeric signature of inequality, not a technical inconvenience to smooth over. [[File:Histogram of Income with Mean and Median Denoted.jpg|alt=A histogram of respondents' income from the 2010 GSS, with the mean and median overlayed on top.|center|thumb|800x800px|A histogram of respondents' income from the 2010 GSS, with the mean and median overlayed on top.]] == A Brief Note on Weighted Means == The GSS includes a sampling weight variable, typically named something like <code>WTSS</code>, which adjusts for the fact that not every respondent had exactly the same probability of being selected (recall Chapter 3's discussion of probability sampling — the "known, nonzero chance" every adult has of inclusion isn't necessarily an ''equal'' chance). A properly weighted analysis uses these weights to correct for that: <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> weighted.mean(gss$EDUC, w = gss$WTSS, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> This book won't dwell on survey weighting in depth — it's a topic that deserves its own course, honestly — but you should know it exists and know why: an unweighted mean of GSS data is a description of your ''sample''; a properly weighted mean is a better estimate of the ''population'' the sample was drawn to represent. For most exercises in this book, unweighted statistics are perfectly fine for learning the underlying concepts. For anything you intend to actually publish, check with your instructor about whether weighting is expected. == Chapter Summary == Mode, median, and mean each answer "what's typical?" differently, and the level of measurement from Chapter 4 determines which are even valid to compute: mode works everywhere, median needs at least ordinal data, and mean needs interval/ratio data (or, in common sociological practice, a sufficiently long ordinal scale treated as interval). R has no built-in statistical mode function — a genuine, mildly infuriating quirk — so you write a short custom function instead. The mean is sensitive to extreme values in a way the median is not, which is why the two diverge sharply for skewed variables like income; when they disagree, that gap is itself informative, not a nuisance. GSS analyses that aim to generalize to the U.S. population should also consider the sampling weight (<code>WTSS</code>) via <code>weighted.mean()</code>, though this book mostly works with unweighted statistics for the sake of focusing on the underlying concepts. == Practice Examples == === Example 1: Mean and Median of EDUC === '''The Research Question:''' What is the "typical" level of education in the sample, and do the mean and median agree? '''The Code (base R):''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Code (dplyr):''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> library(dplyr) gss %>% summarize(mean_educ = mean(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE), median_educ = median(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE)) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean_educ median_educ 13.68 13 </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' Mean and median are close (13.68 versus 13 years), which suggests <code>EDUC</code> is fairly symmetric without dramatic outliers pulling the mean away from the center — consistent with the fact that years of education is naturally bounded (nobody reports 80 years of schooling the way an income variable can have a genuinely enormous outlier). When mean and median are this close, either is a defensible way to describe the "typical" respondent's education. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Compute the mode of <code>EDUC</code> using the <code>get_mode()</code> function above. Does the modal value fall close to the mean and median, or does it diverge? What would explain either answer? === Example 2: Find the Mode of MARITAL === '''The Research Question:''' What is the most common marital status in the sample? '''The Code:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> get_mode <- function(x) { x <- x[!is.na(x)] ux <- unique(x) ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x, ux)))] } get_mode(gss$MARITAL) table(gss$MARITAL) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> [1] 1 1 2 3 4 5 980 280 310 120 354 </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' The modal category is 1 ("married"), the most frequent marital status by a wide margin. Confirming the mode against the full frequency table (rather than trusting the function's output blind) is good practice — it's a quick sanity check that the function found what you think it found, and it shows you the runner-up categories, which a bare mode value would hide entirely. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Look up what each numeric code in <code>MARITAL</code> actually represents in the GSS codebook, and write one sentence summarizing the marital-status composition of the sample in plain English. === Example 3: Mean vs. Median for CONRINC === '''The Research Question:''' Does the gap between mean and median income reveal something about inequality in the sample? '''The Code:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> [1] 52400 # mean [1] 41000 # median </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' The mean sits well above the median — a classic signature of right-skewed income data. A relatively small number of high earners are pulling the mean upward without moving the median much at all, exactly as the Bezos thought experiment predicted. Reporting only the mean here would overstate what a "typical" respondent actually earns; reporting only the median would undersell how much income the highest earners actually pull in. Reporting both, and naming the gap explicitly, tells the more honest story. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Calculate the size of the gap between the mean and median as a percentage of the median. Would you consider this a small or large amount of skew? What additional information (covered in Chapter 9) would help you judge that more rigorously? == References == <references/> {{BookCat}} mdkxavu8wxeo195d2wnicpt05613hb5 4671941 4671940 2026-09-23T10:40:49Z Rcragun 41177 /* Chapter Summary */ minor edits 4671941 wikitext text/x-wiki = Chapter 8: Measures of Central Tendency = If someone asks you "what's typical here?" about a pile of numbers, you have three honest ways to answer, and — this is the part introductory statistics courses sometimes rush past — they are not interchangeable. Choosing the wrong one doesn't just give you a slightly different number. It can give you a number that actively misleads whoever's listening. This chapter is about mean, median, and mode: what each one actually tells you, and the specific circumstances under which each one is the right tool for the job. == Mode: The Most Common Value == The '''mode''' is simply the value that occurs most often. It's the only measure of central tendency that works on nominal data — you can find the modal religion, the modal marital status, the modal region, because "most common category" makes sense even when "order" and "distance between values" do not. Here's a genuinely funny R quirk worth knowing about before it wastes twenty minutes of your life: R has no built-in function called <code>mode()</code> that computes the statistical mode. There is a function called <code>mode()</code> in base R — it exists, it runs, it returns an answer — but it tells you the storage mode of an object (whether something is <code>"numeric"</code>, <code>"character"</code>, and so on), which has nothing whatsoever to do with the statistic you're looking for. Every introductory R user eventually runs <code>mode(x)</code> expecting a most-common-value and receives, with total and unhelpful confidence, the word <code>"numeric"</code> instead. This isn't a bug. It's just an unfortunate naming collision decades in the making, and the fix is to write your own small function: <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> get_mode <- function(x) { x <- x[!is.na(x)] ux <- unique(x) ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x, ux)))] } get_mode(gss$MARITAL) </syntaxhighlight> Four lines, and you've built the function the language declined to give you. Welcome to a surprisingly large fraction of applied statistical programming. == Median: The Middle Value == The '''median''' is the value that splits an ordered dataset exactly in half — as many cases above it as below. It requires at minimum ordinal data (you need to be able to put values in order), but is typically only applied to interval or ratio variables. It has one enormously useful property: it's '''resistant to outliers'''. A single extreme value barely moves the median, because the median only cares about position in the ordered list, not magnitude. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> median(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> == Mean: The Arithmetic Average == The '''mean''' is the sum of all values divided by the number of values — the measure most people default to when they hear "average": : <math>\bar{x} = \frac{\sum x_i}{n}</math> It requires interval or ratio data, and it works best when the distribution is roughly symmetric, because unlike the median, the mean is highly '''sensitive to outliers''': every value in the dataset pulls on it, extreme values included, and pulls harder the more extreme they are. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> That <code>na.rm = TRUE</code> should be reflexive by now, from Chapter 5 — leave it off, and one missing value anywhere in the vector silently converts your entire answer to <code>NA</code>. '''dplyr, computing several statistics for several variables at once:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> library(dplyr) gss %>% summarize( mean_educ = mean(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE), median_educ = median(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) ) </syntaxhighlight> == When to Use Which: The Chapter 4 Payoff == This is the moment the level-of-measurement typology from Chapter 4 stops being an abstract classification exercise and starts actually deciding what you're allowed to compute: * '''Nominal data''' → mode only. A mean or median on unordered categories is nonsense, per Chapter 4's opening joke about the "average religion." * '''Ordinal data''' → mode and median are both defensible; mean is common in sociological practice (recall Chapter 4's discussion of treating long ordinal scales as interval) but should be used with awareness that it's a simplification. * '''Interval/ratio data''' → all three are available, and the choice between mean and median usually comes down to shape: symmetric distributions, prefer the mean; skewed distributions, prefer the median, or report both. == The Case of Income: Why the Mean and Median Disagree == Here is the clearest illustration of why this choice matters, and it involves one very rich, entirely hypothetical neighbor. Imagine nine people in a room, each earning $40,000 a year. The mean and median both equal $40,000 — no disagreement, nothing interesting happening. Now [[wikipedia:Jeff_Bezos|Jeff Bezos]] walks into the room. The '''median''' barely moves, because Bezos is still just one ordered value at the top of the list. The '''mean''', by contrast, explodes — divide his net worth's influence across ten people and the "average" income in that room is now some meaningless nine-figure number that describes literally none of the ten actual incomes in it, Bezos's included. This isn't a contrived example designed to be memorable (although it is memorable). It's a structurally accurate description of what real income distributions look like, per Chapter 7's discussion of right-skew. This is precisely why economists and sociologists report median household income rather than mean household income when describing a "typical" household — the mean is dragged upward by a thin tail of very high earners, badly overstating what a typical family actually takes home. <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> If the mean is noticeably higher than the median for a right-skewed variable like income, that gap ''is'' the story — it's a direct, numeric signature of inequality, not a technical inconvenience to smooth over. [[File:Histogram of Income with Mean and Median Denoted.jpg|alt=A histogram of respondents' income from the 2010 GSS, with the mean and median overlayed on top.|center|thumb|800x800px|A histogram of respondents' income from the 2010 GSS, with the mean and median overlayed on top.]] == A Brief Note on Weighted Means == The GSS includes a sampling weight variable, typically named something like <code>WTSS</code>, which adjusts for the fact that not every respondent had exactly the same probability of being selected (recall Chapter 3's discussion of probability sampling — the "known, nonzero chance" every adult has of inclusion isn't necessarily an ''equal'' chance). A properly weighted analysis uses these weights to correct for that: <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> weighted.mean(gss$EDUC, w = gss$WTSS, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> This book won't dwell on survey weighting in depth — it's a topic that deserves its own course, honestly — but you should know it exists and know why: an unweighted mean of GSS data is a description of your ''sample''; a properly weighted mean is a better estimate of the ''population'' the sample was drawn to represent. For most exercises in this book, unweighted statistics are perfectly fine for learning the underlying concepts. For anything you intend to actually publish, check with your instructor about whether weighting is expected. == Chapter Summary == Mode, median, and mean each answer "what's typical?" differently, and the level of measurement from Chapter 4 determines which are even valid to compute: mode works everywhere, median needs at least ordinal data, and mean needs interval/ratio data (or, in common sociological practice, a sufficiently long ordinal scale treated as interval). R has no built-in statistical mode function — a genuine, mildly infuriating quirk — so you write a short custom function instead (or look for the option with the most observations in a table). The mean is sensitive to extreme values in a way the median is not, which is why the two diverge sharply for skewed variables like income; when they disagree, that gap is itself informative, not a nuisance. GSS analyses that aim to generalize to the U.S. population should also consider the sampling weight (<code>WTSS</code>) via <code>weighted.mean()</code>, though this book mostly works with unweighted statistics for the sake of focusing on the underlying concepts. == Practice Examples == === Example 1: Mean and Median of EDUC === '''The Research Question:''' What is the "typical" level of education in the sample, and do the mean and median agree? '''The Code (base R):''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$EDUC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Code (dplyr):''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> library(dplyr) gss %>% summarize(mean_educ = mean(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE), median_educ = median(EDUC, na.rm = TRUE)) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean_educ median_educ 13.46 13 </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' Mean and median are close (13.46 versus 13 years), which suggests <code>EDUC</code> is fairly symmetric without dramatic outliers pulling the mean away from the center — consistent with the fact that years of education is naturally bounded (nobody reports 80 years of schooling the way an income variable can have a genuinely enormous outlier). When mean and median are this close, either is a defensible way to describe the "typical" respondent's education. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Compute the mode of <code>EDUC</code> using the <code>get_mode()</code> function above. Does the modal value fall close to the mean and median, or does it diverge? What would explain either answer? === Example 2: Find the Mode of MARITAL === '''The Research Question:''' What is the most common marital status in the sample? '''The Code:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r">get_mode <- function(x) { x <- x[!is.na(x)] ux <- unique(x) ux[which.max(tabulate(match(x, ux)))] } get_mode(gss$MARITAL) table(gss$MARITAL)</syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> [1] 1 1 2 3 4 5 891 181 341 65 565 </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' The modal category is 1 ("married"), the most frequent marital status by a wide margin. Confirming the mode against the full frequency table (rather than trusting the function's output blind) is good practice — it's a quick sanity check that the function found what you think it found, and it shows you the runner-up categories, which a bare mode value would hide entirely. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Look up what each numeric code in <code>MARITAL</code> actually represents in the GSS codebook, and write one sentence summarizing the marital-status composition of the sample in plain English. === Example 3: Mean vs. Median for CONRINC === '''The Research Question:''' Does the gap between mean and median income reveal something about inequality in the sample? '''The Code:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> mean(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) median(gss$CONRINC, na.rm = TRUE) </syntaxhighlight> '''The Output:''' <syntaxhighlight lang="r"> [1] 31632.37 # mean [1] 22082.5 # median </syntaxhighlight> '''The Interpretation:''' The mean sits well above the median — a classic signature of right-skewed income data. A relatively small number of high earners are pulling the mean upward without moving the median much at all, exactly as the Bezos thought experiment predicted. Reporting only the mean here would overstate what a "typical" respondent actually earns; reporting only the median would undersell how much income the highest earners actually pull in. Reporting both, and naming the gap explicitly, tells the more honest story. '''Follow-Up Challenge:''' Calculate the size of the gap between the mean and median as a percentage of the median. Would you consider this a small or large amount of skew? What additional information (covered in Chapter 9) would help you judge that more rigorously? == References == <references/> {{BookCat}} ffd92j3e21b63eb26of6dpwd6zvspv3 2 485370 4671946 4663378 2026-09-23T11:42:41Z KafuaJoy 3622578 /* The Days of a Village Raising a Child */ 4671946 wikitext text/x-wiki = The Days of a Village Raising a Child = There was a time when a child could walk from one end of a village to another and meet people who knew whose child they were. If a child was sent to buy salt and stopped to play along the way, someone would notice. If a child was hungry, there was usually someone nearby who could offer food. If a child did something wrong, they might not make it home before an auntie, neighbour or older person had already heard about it. And when a child succeeded, the celebration rarely belonged to the child and the parents alone. It belonged to the village. This is the idea behind the saying that '''it takes a village to raise a child'''. The village was not perfect. Children could experience neglect, harsh discipline, inequality and other forms of harm within communities. But the idea of the village recognised something important: parents do not raise children in isolation. A child grows through relationships. They learn language from people around them. They learn how to greet others, how to share food, how to work, how to listen, how to resolve disagreements and how to recognise themselves as part of something larger than themselves. This book explores that village. It looks at the people who formed it, the lessons children learned from it, the changes that have weakened some traditional forms of community, and the possibility of creating new villages for children growing up in today's Africa. == Table of Contents == # [[Introduction]] # [[/The Meaning of the Village|The Meaning of the Village]] # [[/A Child Belongs to Everyone|A Child Belongs to Everyone]] # [[/The Family Beyond Blood|The Family Beyond Blood]] # [[/The Village as a Classroom|The Village as a Classroom]] 2cyo40sa767wpe37jk4nuayr5wbvxji 0 485425 4671784 4671760 2026-09-22T13:16:06Z MathXplore 3097823 MathXplore moved page [[User:A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] to [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] over a redirect without leaving a redirect: Revert 4670700 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''<big>A Young Reader's Guide to a Clean and Healthy Environment.</big>''' == == '''Book Summary:''' == A Young Reader’s Guide to a Clean and Healthy Community is an educational book for Primary 4–6 learners that teaches children how to care for their homes, schools and communities. The book begins by helping children understand what a community is and why everyone has a responsibility to care for it. It then introduces proper waste management, protection of water sources, the importance of trees, teamwork and children's leadership. Through simple explanations, stories, activities and discussion questions, learners are encouraged to move from simply learning about environmental problems to taking positive action. === Expected Outcome === The book will encourage children to practice good hygiene, protect the environment, work together and take responsibility for creating cleaner, safer and healthier communities. === Conclusion === The book will remind young readers that everyone has a role to play in protecting the environment and that '''small actions can make a big difference'''. == '''Introduction:''' == Our environment is our home. We live, learn, play and grow in it. Keeping it clean and healthy helps us stay safe and happy. This book teaches young readers simple ways to care for their homes, schools and communities. Through short stories, activities and questions, children will learn about rubbish, clean water, trees, teamwork and responsibility. Remember, '''small actions can make a big difference!''' == Chapter 1: Our Community, Our Responsibility == === Understanding a community === While we traditionally think of a community as the people in a given geographical location, the word can really refer to any group sharing something in common -- '''place''' (such as a city, neighborhood, or school district), '''experience''' (such as shared experience of racism), or '''interest''' (e.g., a community's concern about poverty or violence prevention). These various communities often overlap. A Black art teacher, for example, might see herself (or be seen by others) as a member of the Black, arts, and/or education communities, as well as of a particular faith community. Whichever community defines your work, you will want to get to know it well. Examples of communities include homes, schools, villages and neighborhoods. People in a community share places and resources. They should help one another and work together to solve problems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Community shared resources: Connecting the Dots: The Impact of Shared Resources in Local Communities |url=https://fastercapital.com/content/Community-shared-resources--Connecting-the-Dots--The-Impact-of-Shared-Resources-in-Local-Communities.html |access-date=2026-09-14 |website=FasterCapital |language=en}}</ref> === What do we mean by understanding and describing the community? === Understanding the community entails understanding it in a number of ways. Whether or not the community is defined geographically, it still has a geographic context -- a setting that it exists in. Getting a clear sense of this setting may be key to a full understanding of it. At the same time, it's important to understand the specific community you're concerned with. You have to get to know its people -- their culture, their concerns, and relationships -- and to develop your own relationships with them as well. * ''Physical aspects''. Every community has a physical presence of some sort, even if only one building. Most have a geographic area or areas they are either defined by or attached to. It's important to know the community's size and the look and feel of its buildings, its topography (the lay of the land -- the hills, valleys, rivers, roads, and other features you'd find on a map), and each of its neighborhoods. Also important are how various areas of the community differ from one another, and whether your impression is one of clean, well-maintained houses and streets, or one of shabbiness, dirt, and neglect. If the community is one defined by its population, then its physical properties are also defined by the population: where they live, where they gather, the places that are important to them. The characteristics of those places can tell you a great deal about the people who make up the community. Their self-image, many of their attitudes, and their aspirations are often reflected in the places where they choose -- or are forced by circumstance or discrimination -- to live, work, gather, and play. * ''Infrastructure''. Roads, bridges, transportation (local public transportation, airports, train lines), electricity, landline and mobile telephone service, broadband service, and similar "basics" make up the infrastructure of the community, without which it couldn't function. * ''Patterns of settlement, commerce, and industry''. Where are those physical spaces we've been discussing? Communities reveal their character by where and how they create living and working spaces. Where there are areas with severely inadequate housing and limited services --  substandard housing in areas with few or no services that are the only options for people with lower incomes -- the value the larger community places on those residents seems clear. Are heavy industries located next to residential neighborhoods? If so, who lives in those neighborhoods? Are some parts of the community dangerous, either because of high crime and violence or because of unsafe conditions in the built or natural environment? * ''Demographics''.  It's vital to understand who makes up the community.  Age, gender, race and ethnicity, marital status, education, number of people in household, first language -- these and other statistics make up the demographic profile of the population. When you put them together (e.g.,  the education level of black women ages 18-24), it gives you a clear picture of who community residents are. * ''History''. The long-term history of the community can tell you about community traditions, what the community is, or has been, proud of, and what residents would prefer not to talk about. Recent history can afford valuable information about conflicts and factions within the community, important issues, past and current relationships among key people and groups -- many of the factors that can trip up any effort before it starts if you don't know about and address them. * ''Community leaders, formal and informal''. Some community leaders are elected or appointed -- mayors, city councilors, directors of public works. Others are considered leaders because of their activities or their positions in the community -- community activists, corporate CEO's, college presidents, doctors, clergy.  Still others are recognized as leaders because, they are trusted for their proven integrity, courage, and/or care for others and the good of the community. * ''Community culture, formal and informal''. This covers the spoken and unspoken rules and traditions by which the community lives. It can include everything from community events and slogans -- the blessing of the fishing fleet, the "Artichoke Capital of the World" -- to norms of behavior -- turning a blind eye to alcohol use disorder or domestic violence -- to patterns of discrimination and exercise of power. Understanding the culture and how it developed can be crucial, especially if that's what you're attempting to change. * ''Existing groups''.  Most communities have an array of groups and organizations of different kinds -- service clubs (Lions, Rotary, etc.), faith groups, youth organizations, sports teams and clubs, groups formed around shared interests, the boards of community-wide organizations (the YMCA, the Rotary Club), as well as groups devoted to self-help, advocacy, and activism.  Knowing of the existence and importance of each of these groups can pave the way for alliances or for understanding opposition. * ''Existing institutions''. Every community has institutions that are important to it, and that have more or less credibility with residents. Colleges and universities, libraries, religious institutions, hospitals -- all of these and many others can occupy important places in the community. It's important to know what they are, who represents them, and what influence they wield. * ''Economics''.  Who are the major employers in the community?  What, if any, business or industry is the community's base? Who, if anyone, exercises economic power? How is wealth distributed? Would you characterize the community as poor, working, class, middle class, or affluent?  What are the economic prospects of the population in general and/or the population you're concerned with? * ''Government/Politics''. Understanding the structure of community government is obviously important. Some communities may have strong mayors and weak city councils, others the opposite. Still other communities may have no mayor at all, but only a town manager, or may have a different form of government entirely.  Whatever the government structure, where does political power lie? Understanding where the real power is can be the difference between a successful effort and a vain one. * ''Social structure''. Many aspects of social structure are integrated into other areas -- relationships, politics, economics -- but there are also the questions of how people in the community relate to one another on a daily basis, how problems are (or aren't) resolved, who socializes or does business with whom, etc. This area also includes perceptions and symbols of status and respect, and whether status carries entitlement or responsibility (or both). * ''Attitudes and values''. Again, much of this area may be covered by investigation into others, particularly culture. What does the community care about, and what does it ignore? What are residents' assumptions about the proper way to behave, to dress, to do business, to treat others? Is there widely accepted discrimination against one or more groups by the majority or by those in power? What are the norms for interaction among those who with different opinions or different backgrounds? '''We'll discuss all of these aspects of community in greater detail later in the section.'''<blockquote>There are obviously many more aspects of community that can be explored, such as health or education.  The assumption here is that as part of an assessment, you'll aim for a general understanding of the community, as described in this section, and also assess, with a narrower focus, the specific aspects you're interested in.</blockquote>Once you've explored the relevant areas of the community, you'll have the information to create a community description. Depending on your needs and information, this description might be anything from a two-or three-page outline to an in-depth portrait of the community that extends to tens of pages and includes charts, graphs, photographs, and other elements. The point of doing it is to have a picture of the community at a particular point in time that you can use to provide a context for your community assessment and to see the results of whatever actions you take to bring about change.<blockquote>A community description can be as creative as you're capable of making it.  It can be written as a story, can incorporate photos and commentary from community residents, can be done online and include audio and video, etc. The more interesting the description is, the more people are likely to actually read it.</blockquote> === Caring for Our Surroundings and the enviroment === Our surroundings or environment is the natural world around you the air, water, land, plants, and animals. Everything in nature is part of your environment. You share this environment with people, animals, and plants in your community. === '''How you can care for your surroundings''' === === Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle === You can follow the three-R rule every day. '''Reduce''' means using less so you make less waste. '''Reuse''' means using something again instead of throwing it away. '''Recycle''' means turning old materials into new ones. For example, you can use a reusable lunch bag and water bottle at school. You can decorate an old jar and use it as a pencil holder. You can put paper and plastic bottles in the recycling bin. === Sorting Your Waste === You sort your waste by putting it in the right bin. Banana peels go in the '''compost bin'''. A plastic bottle goes in the '''recycling bin'''. A broken toy that cannot be fixed goes in the '''garbage bin'''. Sorting waste properly helps protect the environment. === Composting === Composting means collecting food waste like; banana peels, left overs and vegetable cuttings. These wastes break down and turn into rich soil for gardens. === Saving Water and Energy === You can save water by turning off the tap while brushing your teeth. You can save electricity by turning off lights when you leave a room. These small actions help protect natural resources every single day. === Planting Trees and Native Plants === Trees clean the air and give animals a home. Planting flowers and native plants in your garden helps birds, bees, and butterflies find food and shelter. This supports the wildlife in your neighborhood. Additionally, you can help by; Cleaning our homes, classrooms and playgrounds, and Keeping water sources clean. * Avoiding damage to public property. * Helping people who need support. === Children's Responsibilities === Children have an important role in caring for their communities. They can help by setting a good example and encouraging others to behave responsibly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-05 |title=Empowering Kids to Make a Big Impact in Their Communities |url=https://sesameworkshop.org/resources/empowering-kids-to-make-a-big-impact-in-their-communities/ |access-date=2026-09-14 |website=Sesame Workshop |language=en-US}}</ref> Children should respect others, avoid littering and report dangerous or dirty places to trusted adults. === Short Story: The Rubbish Behind the Library === Some pupils noticed rubbish behind their school library. They decided to clean the area with the help of their teacher. They collected the rubbish, placed it in bins and planted flowers near the library. The area became clean and beautiful. Other pupils followed their example. '''Lesson:''' Everyone can help to improve the community. === Activity and Discussion === # What is a community? # Name three ways of keeping your school clean. # Why should children care for their surroundings? # Organize a small classroom cleaning activity. == Chapter 2: Types of Waste and Every Piece of Rubbish Has a Place == === Introduction === Every day, people produce waste. We throw away food scraps, plastic bottles, paper, cans, old clothes, broken equipment, and many other things. Waste is a normal part of human life, but the way we handle it determines whether it becomes a danger or a useful resource. Waste that is thrown anywhere can make our surroundings dirty, block drainage channels, pollute water, attract pests, and spread disease. However, when waste is '''sorted, reused, recycled, treated, or disposed of correctly''', it can be managed safely. This chapter explains the main '''types of waste''' and introduces an important idea: '''every piece of rubbish has a proper place'''. This chapter explains the main '''types of waste''' and introduces an important idea: '''every piece of rubbish has a proper place'''. ---- === 1. What Is Waste? === '''Waste''' is any material, substance, or object that a person no longer wants or needs and decides to discard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is waste? – KS2 Science curriculum |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z2rhcj6 |access-date=2026-09-14 |website=BBC Bitesize |language=en-GB}}</ref> Examples include: * Banana peels * Plastic bottles * Newspapers * Empty tins * Broken glass * Old batteries * Used clothes * Food leftovers * Broken electronic devices Not all waste is the same. Different materials have different effects on the environment and require different methods of handling. ---- === 2. Types of Waste === Waste can be classified in several ways. The most common classification is according to its '''nature and source'''. ==== A. Biodegradable Waste ==== '''Biodegradable waste''' is waste that can be broken down naturally by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Examples include: * Fruit and vegetable peels * Food leftovers * Leaves * Grass * Animal manure * Paper and some untreated natural materials Biodegradable waste can often be turned into '''compost''', which is useful for improving soil. === Example === Instead of throwing banana peels into a general rubbish pile, they can be collected with other organic materials and composted. '''Remember:''' '''Biodegradable = can naturally break down.''' ---- ==== B. Non-Biodegradable Waste ==== '''Non-biodegradable waste''' does not break down easily through natural processes, or it may take a very long time to do so. Examples include: * Plastic bags * Plastic bottles * Glass * Some metals * Synthetic materials Some non-biodegradable materials can be '''reused or recycled''' rather than thrown away. === Why is it a problem? === When non-biodegradable waste is poorly managed, it can remain in the environment for long periods and contribute to land and water pollution. '''Remember:''' '''Non-biodegradable = does not easily break down naturally.''' ---- === 3. Recyclable Waste === '''Recyclable waste''' consists of materials that can be collected and processed into new products.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gabriel |first=Mr |date=2024-09-12 |title=How to Dispose Waste Properly: A Guide to Proper Waste Management |url=https://whatisgreenliving.com/how-to-dispose-waste-properly/ |access-date=2026-09-14 |website=What is Green Living? |language=en-GB}}</ref> Common recyclable materials include: * Paper * Cardboard * Certain plastics * Aluminium cans * Steel cans * Glass bottles and containers For recycling to work effectively, materials should be '''sorted and kept reasonably clean'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Topic 2 Reusing in daily life – CICLO |url=https://ciclo-project.eu/topic/topic-2-reusing-in-daily-life/ |access-date=2026-09-14 |language=en-GB}}</ref> === Example === An empty metal drink can can be collected, processed, and used to make new metal products instead of being sent directly to a landfill. ---- === 4. Hazardous Waste === '''Hazardous waste''' is waste that can cause harm to people, animals, or the environment if it is handled or disposed of incorrectly. Examples include: * Used batteries * Certain chemicals * Pesticide containers * Some paints and solvents * Medical sharps * Some electronic waste * Certain cleaning products Hazardous waste should '''not simply be mixed with ordinary household rubbish'''. It may require special collection, treatment, or disposal. ==== Safety rule ==== Never play with, burn, open, or pour unknown chemicals or hazardous waste into drains, rivers, or onto the ground. ---- === 5. Electronic Waste === '''Electronic waste''', commonly called '''e-waste''', includes unwanted electrical and electronic equipment. Examples include: * Old mobile phones * Computers * Televisions * Radios * Chargers * Keyboards * Printers * Broken appliances Electronic devices contain valuable materials that can sometimes be recovered and reused. They may also contain substances that require careful handling. Therefore, unwanted electronics should be taken to appropriate collection or recycling facilities where available. ---- === 6. Medical Waste === '''Medical waste''' is waste produced during healthcare activities. Examples include: * Used syringes * Needles * Bandages * Gloves * Contaminated dressings * Certain medicines and medical materials Medical waste can pose health risks if it is not properly handled. For example, '''used needles should never be placed loosely into ordinary rubbish''', because they can injure people and potentially transmit infection. Healthcare facilities use special containers and procedures for managing such waste. ---- === 7. Construction and Demolition Waste === Construction activities produce waste such as: * Broken bricks * Concrete * Soil * Wood * Roofing materials * Scrap metal * Tiles Some of these materials can be reused in construction or recycled. Good construction waste management reduces unnecessary dumping and saves useful materials. ---- === 8. Liquid Waste === '''Liquid waste''' is waste in liquid form. Examples include: * Wastewater * Used cooking oil * Certain industrial liquids * Sewage * Some chemical liquids Liquid waste must be managed carefully because it can easily enter soil, drains, streams, lakes, and groundwater. '''Never pour hazardous liquids into a river, open drain, or onto bare soil.''' ---- === 9. Gaseous Waste === Some human activities release waste substances into the air in the form of gases or particles. Sources can include: * Vehicle exhaust * Industrial processes * Burning waste * Certain fuel-burning appliances Poor management of air pollutants can contribute to poor air quality and environmental damage. This is one reason '''open burning of rubbish is generally a poor waste-management practice''', especially when plastics and other materials are burned. ---- === 10. Every Piece of Rubbish Has a Place === The statement '''“Every piece of rubbish has a place”''' teaches us that waste should not be thrown carelessly. Different kinds of waste should go to appropriate destinations. A simple waste-sorting system can look like this: {| class="wikitable" !Type of waste !Examples !Suitable action |- |Organic waste |Food scraps, leaves |Composting |- |Paper/cardboard |Newspapers, boxes |Reuse or recycle |- |Plastics |Bottles, containers |Reuse or recycle where facilities exist |- |Glass |Bottles, jars |Reuse or recycle |- |Metals |Cans, scrap metal |Recycle |- |E-waste |Phones, computers |Special collection/recycling |- |Hazardous waste |Batteries, chemicals |Special handling |- |Medical waste |Needles, contaminated materials |Approved medical-waste system |- |General residual waste |Materials that cannot be recovered |Appropriate final disposal |} The exact collection system differs from one community to another, so people should follow the waste-sorting rules used by their local authority or waste-collection service. ---- === 11. The Waste Hierarchy === Good waste management does not begin with throwing things away. It follows a hierarchy that encourages people to prevent waste first. ==== 1. Refuse ==== Avoid unnecessary items when possible. '''Example:''' Refuse unnecessary single-use packaging. ==== 2. Reduce ==== Use fewer resources and produce less waste. '''Example:''' Buy only the food you are likely to use. ===== 3. Reuse ===== Use an item again instead of throwing it away. '''Example:''' Use a durable shopping bag repeatedly. ===== 4. Repair ===== Fix broken items when practical. '''Example:''' Repair a chair rather than immediately replacing it. ===== 5. Recycle ===== Process suitable materials into new products. '''Example:''' Recycle suitable paper, metal, glass, and plastics. ===== 6. Recover ===== Recover useful materials or energy from waste through appropriate processes. ===== 7. Dispose ===== Waste that cannot reasonably be reused, recycled, or recovered should be disposed of safely. '''The key lesson is: disposal should not be our first choice.''' ---- === 12. Why Proper Waste Management Matters === Proper waste management has many benefits. ==== Protects human health ==== Accumulated rubbish can attract flies, rats, and other pests. Poorly managed waste can also create opportunities for disease transmission. ==== Protects water ==== Waste dumped into waterways can contaminate rivers, lakes, and other sources of water. ==== Protects soil ==== Chemicals and other harmful substances can contaminate soil when waste is poorly disposed of. ==== Keeps communities clean ==== Clean streets, schools, homes, and public spaces are safer and more pleasant. ==== Saves resources ==== Recycling and reuse allow valuable materials to remain in use rather than constantly requiring new raw materials. ==== Reduces pollution ==== Sorting and treating waste properly can reduce pollution caused by dumping and inappropriate burning. ---- === 13. Waste Management at Home and School === Everyone can contribute to better waste management. ==== At home ==== * Keep rubbish in suitable containers. * Separate organic waste from recyclable materials where possible. * Compost suitable organic waste. * Reuse containers and bags. * Avoid unnecessary single-use products. * Keep hazardous materials separate. * Never dump rubbish in drainage channels or waterways. ==== At school ==== Schools can: * Provide clearly labelled waste bins. * Teach learners about waste separation. * Organise clean-up activities. * Encourage reusable water bottles. * Collect paper for recycling where facilities exist. * Compost suitable food and garden waste. * Ensure sharp or hazardous materials are handled safely. ---- === 14. A Simple Waste-Sorting Activity === Imagine that you have the following items: # Banana peel # Plastic water bottle # Newspaper # Broken battery # Glass bottle # Old mobile phone # Food leftovers # Used needle How should they be handled? * '''Banana peel →''' organic waste/compost * '''Plastic bottle →''' reuse or appropriate plastic recycling * '''Newspaper →''' reuse or paper recycling * '''Battery →''' special battery/e-waste collection * '''Glass bottle →''' reuse or glass recycling * '''Old mobile phone →''' e-waste collection/recycling * '''Food leftovers →''' composting where appropriate * '''Used needle →''' approved sharps/medical-waste disposal This demonstrates why '''sorting waste at the point where it is produced''' is so important. ---- === 15. Key Vocabulary === '''Waste:''' Material that is discarded because it is no longer wanted or needed. '''Biodegradable:''' Able to break down naturally through biological processes. '''Non-biodegradable:''' Not easily broken down naturally. '''Recycle:''' Process used materials so they can be made into new products. '''Reuse:''' Use an item again instead of discarding it. '''Compost:''' Decomposed organic material that can be used to improve soil. '''Hazardous waste:''' Waste that can pose a danger to people or the environment. '''E-waste:''' Discarded electrical and electronic equipment. === Short Story: Amina's Big Idea === Amina saw many plastic bottles around her school. She suggested collecting the bottles and using some of them to make flower containers. Her classmates helped her. Soon, the school had fewer bottles on the ground and more beautiful flowers. '''Lesson:''' Waste materials can sometimes be reused in useful ways. === Practical Activity === Collect safe reusable materials and make a useful object, such as a flowerpot, pencil holder or decoration. == Chapter 3: Water Is Life == === Introduction === Water is one of the most important resources on Earth. Every living thing needs water to survive. People, animals, and plants all depend on water for life and growth. We use water every day for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes, cleaning, farming, and many other activities. Water is also important in industries, transport, energy production, and recreation. Because water is essential for life, we must use it wisely, protect it from pollution, and make sure that everyone has access to safe water. ---- === 1. What Is Water? === Water is a natural substance made up of hydrogen and oxygen. In its pure form, it has no colour, smell, or taste. Water exists in three main states: * '''Liquid''' – such as water in rivers, lakes, and oceans. * '''Solid''' – such as ice and snow. * '''Gas''' – water vapour found in the atmosphere. Water constantly moves between these states through the '''water cycle'''. ---- === 2. Sources of Water === Water comes from different natural sources. ==== A. Rainwater ==== Rain is an important source of fresh water. Rainwater fills rivers, lakes, wetlands, and reservoirs and also helps to replenish groundwater. People can collect rainwater from rooftops and store it in tanks for appropriate household or other uses. ==== B. Rivers and Streams ==== Rivers and streams provide water for domestic use, agriculture, livestock, industry, and ecosystems. However, water from rivers may contain microorganisms, chemicals, or other contaminants. It may therefore require appropriate treatment before it is safe to drink. ==== C. Lakes ==== Lakes contain large amounts of water and support people, plants, animals, and economic activities. Lakes can provide water for communities, fishing, agriculture, transport, and recreation. ==== D. Groundwater ==== Groundwater is water stored beneath the Earth's surface in soil and rock. It can be accessed through: * Wells * Boreholes * Springs Groundwater is an important source of drinking water in many communities. ==== E. Wetlands ==== Wetlands are areas where water covers or saturates the land for part or all of the year. They provide important environmental services, including storing water, supporting wildlife, and helping to filter pollutants. ---- === 3. Why Water Is Life === Water is essential for almost every activity that supports life. ==== A. Water for Drinking ==== The human body needs water to function properly. People lose water through activities such as breathing, sweating, and urination, so they need to replace it regularly. Safe drinking water is important for maintaining good health. ==== B. Water for Food Production ==== Farmers need water to grow crops and keep animals healthy. Water is used for: * Irrigation * Watering livestock * Cleaning agricultural equipment * Processing some agricultural products Without sufficient water, food production can be seriously affected. ==== C. Water for Plants ==== Plants need water for growth and survival. Water helps plants transport nutrients and supports photosynthesis. Without enough water, plants may wilt, stop growing, or die. ==== D. Water for Animals ==== Animals need water for drinking and other biological processes. Rivers, lakes, wetlands, and other water bodies also provide habitats for many animals. ==== E. Water for Hygiene and Sanitation ==== Water is essential for: * Washing hands * Bathing * Cleaning homes * Washing clothes * Cleaning utensils * Flushing toilets Good hygiene and sanitation help protect communities from disease. ==== F. Water in Industry ==== Industries use water for many purposes, including: * Manufacturing * Cooling machinery * Cleaning * Food processing * Producing certain goods Industries must manage water responsibly and prevent harmful substances from entering water sources. ---- === 4. The Water Cycle === Water does not simply disappear after it is used. It moves continuously through the environment in a process called the '''water cycle'''. The main stages include: ==== 1. Evaporation ==== Heat from the Sun causes water from oceans, lakes, rivers, and other surfaces to change into water vapour. ==== 2. Transpiration ==== Plants release water vapour into the atmosphere through tiny openings in their leaves. ==== 3. Condensation ==== Water vapour rises, cools, and forms tiny droplets that make clouds. ==== 4. Precipitation ==== When water droplets become sufficiently large, they fall to Earth as: * Rain * Snow * Sleet * Hail ==== 5. Collection and Infiltration ==== Water collects in rivers, lakes, oceans, and other water bodies. Some water also soaks into the ground and becomes groundwater. The cycle then continues. ---- === 5. Clean Water and Polluted Water === Not all water is safe to drink. '''Clean and safe water''' is water that does not contain harmful levels of microorganisms, chemicals, or other contaminants. '''Polluted water''' contains substances that can harm people, animals, plants, or ecosystems. Water pollution can come from many sources. === Examples include: === * Sewage * Plastic waste * Oil * Industrial chemicals * Agricultural chemicals * Animal waste * Household waste * Soil and sediment ---- === 6. Effects of Water Pollution === Water pollution can have serious consequences. ==== A. Human Health ==== Contaminated water can contribute to diseases and other health problems, particularly where sanitation and water treatment are inadequate. ==== B. Aquatic Life ==== Pollution can harm fish, insects, plants, amphibians, and other organisms living in water. ==== C. Food Production ==== Polluted water used for agriculture can affect crops, livestock, and food safety. ==== D. The Environment ==== Pollution can damage aquatic ecosystems and reduce the quality of habitats. ==== E. Economic Activities ==== Fishing, tourism, agriculture, and other activities can suffer when water resources become polluted. ---- === 7. How We Can Protect Water === Everyone has a role to play in protecting water resources. ==== At Home ==== * Do not throw rubbish into drains, rivers, or lakes. * Repair leaking taps and pipes. * Use only the water you need. * Avoid wasting water while washing. * Dispose of chemicals and oils appropriately. * Keep toilets and sanitation facilities clean. ==== At School ==== Students can: * Turn off taps after use. * Report leaking taps and pipes. * Keep school compounds free from litter. * Avoid throwing rubbish into drainage channels. * Participate in water-conservation activities. * Teach others about the importance of water. ==== In the Community ==== Communities can: * Protect wells, springs, rivers, and wetlands. * Prevent dumping near water sources. * Plant and protect vegetation where appropriate. * Maintain drainage and sanitation systems. * Encourage responsible water use. * Support safe water and sanitation projects. ---- === 8. Water Conservation === '''Water conservation''' means using water carefully and avoiding unnecessary waste. Simple actions can save large amounts of water. === Examples === Instead of leaving a tap running while brushing your teeth, turn it off when water is not needed. When washing clothes or dishes, use a reasonable amount of water rather than allowing water to run continuously. Leaking taps and pipes should be repaired because a small leak can waste water over time. Rainwater can also be collected and used for suitable purposes. ---- === 9. The Importance of Wetlands and Forests === Natural ecosystems help protect water resources. ==== Wetlands ==== Wetlands can store water, provide habitats, and help remove some pollutants from water. ==== Forests and Vegetation ==== Vegetation helps protect soil and can reduce erosion and surface runoff. Vegetated areas around water bodies can therefore contribute to the protection of water quality. Destroying wetlands and removing vegetation carelessly can increase environmental problems such as erosion, flooding, and water pollution. ---- === 10. Safe Drinking Water === Water intended for drinking should be obtained from a safe source and, where necessary, treated appropriately. Methods of treating water may include: * Boiling * Filtration * Chlorination * Other approved water-treatment methods The correct treatment method depends on the source and the contaminants that may be present. Water should also be stored safely in clean, covered containers to reduce the chance of contamination. ---- === 11. Water and Our Future === Fresh water is limited and unevenly distributed. Some communities have reliable access to safe water, while others face shortages or difficulties accessing clean water. Population growth, pollution, climate variability, changing land use, and increasing demand can place pressure on water resources. Protecting water today helps ensure that future generations can also benefit from this essential resource. ---- === 12. Practical Activity: Saving Water === ==== Activity ==== For one day, observe how water is used at home or school. Make a list of activities such as: * Drinking * Cooking * Bathing * Washing hands * Washing clothes * Cleaning * Watering plants Then identify activities where water may be wasted. ==== Questions ==== # Which activity uses the most water? # Where is water being wasted? # How could the waste be reduced? # What can you do personally to save water? Discuss your answers with your classmates or family members. ---- === 13. Key Vocabulary === '''Water:''' A natural substance essential for life. '''Water cycle:''' The continuous movement of water through the environment. '''Evaporation:''' The change of liquid water into water vapour. '''Condensation:''' The change of water vapour into liquid droplets. '''Precipitation:''' Water falling from clouds as rain, snow, sleet, or hail. '''Groundwater:''' Water stored beneath the Earth's surface. '''Water pollution:''' The contamination of water by harmful substances. '''Water conservation:''' The careful and responsible use of water. '''Wetland:''' Land that is covered or saturated with water for part or all of the year. '''Sanitation:''' Systems and practices for safely managing human waste and maintaining hygiene. ---- === 14. Summary === Water is essential for '''people, animals, plants, agriculture, sanitation, industry, and ecosystems'''. It comes from sources such as rain, rivers, lakes, groundwater, and wetlands. Water moves continuously through the '''water cycle''', but clean and accessible freshwater is a valuable resource that must be protected. Pollution, waste, careless use, and damage to natural ecosystems can threaten water resources. We can help by '''saving water, preventing pollution, protecting water sources, practising good sanitation, and using water responsibly'''. The most important lesson is simple:<blockquote>'''Water is life. Protect every drop.'''</blockquote> ==== Short Story: The Dirty Stream ==== Children in a village noticed that their stream was becoming dirty. Some people were throwing rubbish into it. The children spoke to their teacher and community leaders. Together, they organised a clean-up and encouraged people to stop dumping rubbish in the stream. '''Lesson:''' Protecting water requires teamwork and responsible behavior. ==== Water-Protection Challenge ==== For one week: * Close taps properly after use. * Use only the water you need. * Keep water containers clean. * Encourage others not to pollute water sources. == Chapter 4: Trees == === Introduction === Trees are among the most useful living things on Earth. They grow in forests, gardens, farms, school compounds, along roads, and around our homes. Trees provide food, shelter, shade, materials, and many other benefits. Trees also help protect the environment. They absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, release oxygen through photosynthesis, help protect soil from erosion, and provide habitats for many animals. For these reasons, trees can truly be described as '''our friends'''. However, trees need care and protection so that they can continue benefiting people and the environment. ---- === 1. What Is a Tree? === A tree is a large plant with a woody stem or trunk, branches, leaves, and roots. The main parts of a tree include: * '''Roots''' – anchor the tree in the soil and absorb water and minerals. * '''Trunk''' – supports the tree and transports water and nutrients. * '''Branches''' – hold the leaves, flowers, and fruits. * '''Leaves''' – make food for the tree through photosynthesis. * '''Flowers''' – help many trees reproduce. * '''Fruits and seeds''' – help produce new trees. Trees vary greatly in size, shape, and appearance. ---- === 2. Trees Give Us Oxygen === Trees and other green plants carry out '''photosynthesis'''. During photosynthesis, plants use: * Sunlight * Water * Carbon dioxide to produce food, while releasing oxygen into the atmosphere. Oxygen is needed by humans and many animals for respiration. Trees therefore play an important role in maintaining the gases that support life. ---- === 3. Trees Give Us Food === Many trees provide food for people and animals. Examples include: * Mango trees * Avocado trees * Orange trees * Jackfruit trees * Banana plants * Coconut palms Trees can provide fruits, nuts, seeds, leaves, and other edible products. Animals also depend on trees for food. ---- === 4. Trees Provide Shade === Trees provide shade from strong sunlight. People can sit under trees to rest, study, talk, or relax. Trees around homes, schools, parks, and public spaces can make these places more comfortable. Shade from trees can also help reduce the amount of direct sunlight reaching buildings and the ground. ---- === 5. Trees Provide Homes for Animals === Trees are important habitats for many living organisms. Birds may build nests in branches. Insects may live on leaves and bark. Monkeys, squirrels, reptiles, and other animals may use trees for shelter, food, or movement. A large tree can therefore support many different forms of life. When trees are destroyed, animals can lose their homes and sources of food. ---- === 6. Trees Protect the Soil === Tree roots hold soil together. When heavy rain falls on bare soil, it can wash soil away. This process is called '''soil erosion'''. Trees can help reduce erosion because: * Their roots hold soil together. * Their leaves and branches reduce the force of falling rain. * Fallen leaves cover the soil. * Tree-covered land can slow surface runoff. Protecting trees is therefore one way of helping to protect soil. ---- === 7. Trees Help Protect Water === Trees and other vegetation play an important role in the water cycle. Their roots help water enter and move through the soil. Vegetation can also reduce soil erosion and the amount of sediment carried into rivers and lakes. Trees growing near water bodies can therefore contribute to the protection of water resources. ---- === 8. Trees Help Fight Climate Change === Trees absorb '''carbon dioxide''', a greenhouse gas, as they grow. Through photosynthesis, trees use carbon dioxide to make food. Some of the carbon becomes stored in the tree's wood, roots, and other parts. Forests and other ecosystems therefore store significant amounts of carbon. Protecting existing forests and planting appropriate trees can contribute to efforts to address climate change, although trees are only one part of the solution. ---- === 9. Trees Provide Materials === Trees provide materials that people use in everyday life. Wood can be used to make: * Furniture * Doors * Houses * Poles * Tools * Paper products Some trees also provide materials such as: * Rubber * Cork * Resins * Fibres * Oils These materials support many livelihoods and industries. However, trees should be harvested responsibly, and forests should be managed sustainably. ---- === 10. Trees Provide Medicine === Some trees contain substances that have been used traditionally or scientifically in medicines and other health-related products. Examples of trees associated with traditional or medicinal uses include: * Neem * Eucalyptus * Cinchona * Some species of acacia Medicinal plants should be used carefully. Traditional knowledge does not automatically mean that a plant is safe or effective for every medical condition. ---- === 11. Trees Improve the Environment === Trees contribute to healthier surroundings in several ways. They can: * Provide habitats for wildlife. * Help reduce soil erosion. * Store carbon. * Provide shade. * Improve the appearance of landscapes. * Reduce wind speeds in some areas. * Contribute to cleaner and cooler local environments. Trees in towns and cities can be especially valuable because they provide shade and green spaces among buildings and roads. ---- === 12. Trees and the Air We Breathe === Trees interact with the atmosphere in important ways. Their leaves absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and release oxygen. Trees can also trap some airborne particles on their leaves. However, trees do not remove all air pollution, and planting the right species in appropriate locations is important. ---- === 13. Why People Cut Down Trees === People cut down trees for different reasons. These include: * Getting firewood * Producing charcoal * Obtaining timber * Clearing land for farming * Building houses and roads * Producing paper and other products Some tree harvesting is necessary for human needs. The problem arises when trees are removed '''faster than they can naturally or deliberately be replaced'''. This can lead to '''deforestation'''. ---- === 14. Effects of Deforestation === '''Deforestation''' is the large-scale removal of forests or trees from an area. Deforestation can result in: * Loss of wildlife habitats * Increased soil erosion * Loss of biodiversity * Reduced carbon storage * Changes in local water cycles * Loss of valuable forest resources When forests are cleared without proper management, the environmental and social consequences can be serious. ---- === 15. How We Can Protect Trees === Everyone can help protect trees. ==== At Home ==== * Plant suitable trees. * Avoid unnecessary cutting of trees. * Use wood and paper responsibly. * Protect young trees from damage. * Compost suitable organic waste and return nutrients to the soil where appropriate. ==== At School ==== Students can: * Plant and care for trees. * Avoid damaging tree trunks and branches. * Keep school gardens clean. * Water young trees when necessary. * Learn about local tree species. * Organise tree-care activities. ==== In the Community ==== Communities can: * Protect forests and woodlands. * Plant appropriate native or well-adapted species. * Prevent uncontrolled cutting. * Encourage sustainable forestry. * Protect trees along rivers and other sensitive areas. * Educate people about the value of trees. ---- === 16. Planting a Tree === Planting a tree is useful, but simply putting a seedling in the ground is not enough. The tree must be cared for. ==== Basic steps ==== # '''Choose a suitable species''' for the local environment. # '''Choose an appropriate location''' with enough space for the mature tree. # '''Prepare the soil''' and dig a suitable planting hole. # '''Plant the seedling carefully.''' # '''Water it when necessary''', especially during dry periods. # '''Protect it from animals and damage.''' # '''Remove competing weeds when appropriate.''' # '''Continue caring for the tree as it grows.''' A healthy mature tree may take many years to develop, so tree planting requires patience. ---- === 17. Trees and Responsibility === Trees belong to a wider ecosystem. When we care for them, we are also helping many other organisms. We should remember:<blockquote>'''Plant a tree, care for a tree, and protect a tree.'''</blockquote>Planting trees is important, but '''protecting existing mature trees is also very valuable''' because mature trees already provide established habitat, shade, and carbon storage. ---- === 18. Practical Activity: Adopt a Tree === Choose a tree at your school or home. Observe it regularly and record: * Its height or approximate size * The shape of its leaves * Whether it has flowers or fruits * Animals or insects found on it * Changes you observe over several weeks Give the tree a name if you wish and create a simple care schedule. === Questions === # What type of tree did you observe? # What benefits does it provide? # Which animals use it? # How can you protect it? # What changes did you observe over time? ---- === 19. Key Vocabulary === '''Tree:''' A large woody plant with a trunk, branches, leaves, and roots. '''Photosynthesis:''' The process by which green plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to make food and release oxygen. '''Habitat:''' The natural home or environment of a plant or animal. '''Deforestation:''' The large-scale removal of forests or trees. '''Soil erosion:''' The removal of soil by agents such as water or wind. '''Biodiversity:''' The variety of living organisms in an area or on Earth. '''Forest:''' A large area dominated by trees and associated plants and animals. '''Sustainable:''' Using resources in a way that allows them to remain available for the future. '''Carbon dioxide:''' A gas in the atmosphere that plants use during photosynthesis and that also contributes to the greenhouse effect. ---- === 20. Summary === Trees are essential parts of our environment. They provide '''food, shade, oxygen, habitats, materials, and protection for soil and water'''. They also absorb carbon dioxide and store carbon. However, uncontrolled cutting and destruction of forests can cause deforestation, habitat loss, soil erosion, and other environmental problems. We can protect trees by '''planting appropriate trees, caring for young trees, reducing unnecessary tree cutting, using forest products responsibly, and protecting natural forests'''. Trees are more than sources of wood and fruit. They are living parts of ecosystems that support people, animals, and the environment.. === Activity === Plant or care for a tree or flower at home or school. Observe it regularly and record how it changes. == Chapter 5: Plastic Pollution == === Introduction === Plastic is one of the most widely used materials in the modern world. We find plastic in bottles, bags, food packaging, toys, containers, clothes, electronics, and many other products. Plastic is useful because it is light, strong, waterproof, and relatively inexpensive. However, when plastic is used carelessly and discarded improperly, it can become a serious environmental problem. '''Plastic pollution''' occurs when plastic waste accumulates in places where it can harm people, animals, and the environment. The good news is that everyone can help reduce plastic pollution by making responsible choices about how we use, reuse, collect, and dispose of plastic. ---- === 1. What Is Plastic? === Plastic is a group of materials made mainly from polymers. Many plastics are produced from fossil-fuel-based raw materials, although some newer plastics are made partly or entirely from other sources. Plastic can be manufactured into many different shapes and forms. Examples include: * Plastic bags * Bottles * Food containers * Packaging * Pipes * Toys * Furniture * Household equipment Because plastic can be made into so many useful products, it has become an important material in everyday life. ---- === 2. What Is Plastic Pollution? === '''Plastic pollution''' is the accumulation or presence of plastic waste in the environment in ways that cause harm or create environmental problems. Plastic waste can be found: * On streets * In drainage channels * In gardens * On beaches * In rivers and lakes * In wetlands * In forests * In agricultural areas * In oceans Plastic that is thrown on the ground can be carried by wind or rain into drainage systems and waterways. ---- === 3. Common Sources of Plastic Waste === Plastic waste comes from many activities. ==== At Home ==== Households may produce plastic waste from: * Shopping bags * Food packaging * Bottles * Containers * Wrappers * Disposable utensils ==== At School ==== Schools may produce plastic waste from: * Water bottles * Snack wrappers * Packaging * Plastic stationery * Disposable food containers ==== In Businesses ==== Shops, restaurants, markets, and industries may generate large amounts of plastic packaging and other plastic waste. ==== In Agriculture ==== Some agricultural activities use plastic materials such as containers, packaging, irrigation components, and other products. ---- === 4. Why Does Plastic Become a Problem? === Plastic itself can be useful. The problem often occurs when it is '''used unnecessarily, discarded carelessly, or poorly managed'''. Plastic can persist in the environment for long periods. Larger plastic items can break into smaller pieces called '''microplastics''' rather than simply disappearing. When plastic waste is not collected or managed properly, it can spread through the environment. ---- === 5. Plastic Pollution and Water === Plastic waste can enter rivers, lakes, wetlands, and oceans. It may be carried into waterways by: * Rain * Floodwater * Wind * Poorly managed rubbish * Drainage systems Once plastic enters water, it can interfere with aquatic ecosystems and make waterways dirty. Plastic waste can also block drains and contribute to flooding when drainage systems become obstructed. ---- === 6. Plastic Pollution and Animals === Animals can be harmed by plastic pollution. Some animals may mistake plastic for food and swallow it. This can cause injury, illness, or blockage of the digestive system. Animals can also become trapped or entangled in plastic materials such as bags, strings, fishing lines, and other discarded objects. Keeping plastic waste out of natural habitats helps protect wildlife. ---- === 7. Microplastics === '''Microplastics''' are very small pieces of plastic, generally less than 5 millimetres in size. They can be produced when larger plastic items break down into smaller pieces. Some microplastics also come directly from products or industrial processes. Because they are so small, microplastics can be difficult to remove from the environment. They have been detected in many environmental settings, including water, soil, air, and living organisms. Scientists continue to study their effects on ecosystems and human health. ---- === 8. Plastic Pollution and Soil === Plastic waste can accumulate on land and become mixed with soil. This can: * Make land unattractive and difficult to manage. * Interfere with farming activities. * Harm animals that live in or feed from the soil. * Break down into smaller plastic particles. * Carry pollutants into the wider environment. Farmers and communities can help by preventing plastic waste from being dumped on agricultural land. ---- === 9. Burning Plastic === Some people burn plastic waste because they want to get rid of it quickly. However, '''burning plastic in open fires is not a safe waste-management method'''. Depending on the type of plastic and how it burns, smoke can contain harmful pollutants and fine particles. Instead of burning plastic, it is better to: * Reduce unnecessary plastic use. * Reuse suitable items. * Separate recyclable materials. * Use appropriate waste-collection services. * Dispose of residual waste through approved systems. ---- === 10. Plastic Recycling === '''Recycling''' involves collecting and processing used materials so that they can become inputs for new products. Some types of plastic can be recycled. However, not every plastic item is accepted by every recycling system. Recycling facilities may differ in the types of plastics they can process. Therefore, people should follow the sorting instructions provided by their local waste-management or recycling service. ---- === 11. Reuse Before Recycling === Recycling is useful, but '''reuse can sometimes be even simpler'''. For example, a durable container can be used repeatedly instead of being thrown away after one use. Reusable alternatives may include: * Shopping bags * Water bottles * Food containers * Cups * Lunch boxes The best option depends on the product and how it is used. The important principle is to avoid unnecessary waste. ---- === 12. How Can We Reduce Plastic Pollution? === Everyone can take practical steps. ==== A. Refuse Unnecessary Plastic ==== If you do not need a disposable plastic item, avoid taking it. ==== B. Reduce Plastic Use ==== Choose products with less unnecessary packaging when practical. ==== C. Reuse ==== Use suitable durable products more than once. ==== D. Recycle ==== Separate recyclable plastic according to local collection requirements. ==== E. Dispose Properly ==== Put plastic waste into the correct waste container rather than throwing it on the ground. ==== F. Keep Waterways Clean ==== Never throw plastic into rivers, lakes, wetlands, drainage channels, or other water bodies. ---- === 13. Plastic Pollution at School === Students can help reduce plastic pollution at school. They can: * Carry reusable water bottles. * Avoid unnecessary disposable packaging. * Use rubbish bins correctly. * Separate recyclable waste where a recycling system exists. * Participate in clean-up activities. * Encourage classmates not to litter. * Report overflowing rubbish bins to teachers or school administrators. A clean school environment begins with responsible everyday habits. ---- === 14. Plastic Pollution in the Community === Communities can work together to reduce plastic pollution. Useful actions include: * Organising clean-up activities. * Providing appropriate rubbish bins. * Supporting waste collection. * Encouraging reusable shopping bags. * Educating residents about waste separation. * Preventing dumping in drainage channels. * Supporting responsible recycling initiatives. Businesses can also help by reducing unnecessary packaging and improving the collection and management of plastic waste. ---- === 15. The Plastic Pollution Solution === There is no single solution to plastic pollution. A successful approach involves several actions: '''Prevent → Reduce → Reuse → Recycle → Dispose safely''' This means we should think about waste '''before''' we create it. For example:<blockquote>Instead of buying a disposable plastic bottle every day, a person may carry a suitable reusable bottle and refill it with safe drinking water.</blockquote>Small changes repeated by many people can make a significant difference. ---- === 16. Practical Activity: Plastic Audit === ==== Activity ==== For one day, collect or record the plastic waste produced by your household or class. Group the items into categories such as: * Bottles * Bags * Wrappers * Containers * Other plastic items Then discuss: # Which type of plastic waste was most common? # Which items could have been avoided? # Which items could be reused? # Which items could potentially be recycled? # How could your household or class produce less plastic waste? Create a '''“Plastic Reduction Plan”''' with three actions that your class can follow for one month. ---- === 17. Key Vocabulary === '''Plastic:''' A group of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials made mainly from polymers. '''Plastic pollution:''' The accumulation or presence of plastic waste in the environment in ways that cause harm or environmental problems. '''Microplastic:''' A very small plastic particle, generally less than 5 millimetres in size. '''Recycle:''' To process used materials so they can be used to make new products. '''Reuse:''' To use an item again instead of throwing it away. '''Litter:''' Waste that has been carelessly discarded in the environment. '''Waste management:''' The collection, sorting, treatment, recovery, and safe disposal of waste. '''Biodegradable:''' Able to break down naturally through biological processes. ---- === 18. Questions for Discussion === # What is plastic pollution? # Give five examples of plastic items used in your community. # How can plastic enter rivers and lakes? # How can plastic harm animals? # What are microplastics? # Why is burning plastic in open fires a problem? # What is the difference between reusing and recycling? # How can students reduce plastic waste at school? # Why should plastic not be thrown into drainage channels? # What three actions can your community take to reduce plastic pollution? ---- === 19. Summary === Plastic is a useful material, but poor management of plastic waste can cause pollution on land and in water. Plastic waste can block drainage systems, damage habitats, harm animals, and break down into microplastics. Burning plastic in open fires can also release harmful pollutants. We can reduce plastic pollution by following the principles of: '''Refuse → Reduce → Reuse → Recycle → Dispose safely''' Everyone has a role to play. At home, at school, in markets, and throughout our communities, responsible choices can help keep our environment clean.<blockquote>'''Use plastic wisely, keep it out of nature, and give every piece of waste the right place.'''</blockquote> == Chapter 6: Our Changing World == === Introduction === The Earth is our home. It provides us with air to breathe, water to drink, food to eat, and land on which we live and work. The Earth's climate also affects plants, animals, agriculture, and human activities. Today, the Earth's climate is changing. '''Climate change''' refers to long-term changes in the average conditions of the Earth's climate, including changes in temperature, rainfall, and weather patterns. Climate has changed naturally throughout Earth's history. However, human activities have caused a significant increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, contributing to the current warming of the planet. Understanding climate change helps us make informed choices about how to protect people, communities, and the natural environment. ---- === 1. What Is Climate? === '''Climate''' is the usual pattern of weather in a particular place over a long period. Climate includes things such as: * Temperature * Rainfall * Humidity * Wind * Seasons For example, one rainy day tells us about '''weather''', while the typical pattern of rainfall over many years tells us about '''climate'''. === Weather and Climate === '''Weather:''' What the atmosphere is like over a short period. '''Climate:''' The long-term pattern of atmospheric conditions. A simple way to remember this is:<blockquote>'''Weather is what we experience today; climate is the pattern we observe over many years.'''</blockquote> ---- === 2. What Is Climate Change? === '''Climate change''' is a long-term change in the Earth's climate. It can involve changes in: * Average temperatures * Rainfall patterns * The frequency or intensity of some extreme weather events * Sea levels * Glaciers and ice * Oceans and ecosystems Climate change is not simply about the Earth becoming warmer every day. Different regions can experience different changes. ---- === 3. The Greenhouse Effect === The Earth's atmosphere contains gases called '''greenhouse gases'''. Important greenhouse gases include: * Carbon dioxide * Methane * Nitrous oxide * Water vapour These gases help keep the Earth warm enough for life. This natural process is called the '''greenhouse effect'''. Without the natural greenhouse effect, Earth would be much colder. The problem is that human activities have increased the concentrations of several greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This strengthens the greenhouse effect and causes additional warming. ---- === 4. Causes of Modern Climate Change === Human activities are the main cause of the recent long-term warming of the Earth's climate. Major sources of greenhouse gas emissions include: ==== A. Burning Fossil Fuels ==== Coal, oil, and natural gas are burned to produce energy for: * Electricity * Transport * Industry * Heating and cooking Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. ==== B. Deforestation ==== Trees absorb carbon dioxide as they grow. When forests are destroyed, this carbon-storage capacity is reduced, and carbon can also be released into the atmosphere. ==== C. Agriculture ==== Agriculture can produce greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide. Sources include: * Livestock * Rice cultivation * Fertiliser use * Management of agricultural soils ==== D. Industry ==== Some industrial processes release greenhouse gases directly or use large amounts of fossil-fuel energy. ==== E. Waste ==== Poorly managed waste can produce greenhouse gases. For example, organic waste decomposing without enough oxygen in landfills can generate methane. ---- === 5. Signs of a Changing Climate === Scientists use observations from many parts of the world to study climate change. Evidence includes: * Rising global average temperatures * Warming oceans * Melting glaciers and ice sheets * Rising sea levels * Changes in some ecosystems * Changes in the timing or distribution of some biological events These changes occur over long periods, so scientists use measurements collected over many years. ---- === 6. Climate Change and Water === Climate change can affect water resources. Changes in temperature and rainfall can influence: * Rivers * Lakes * Groundwater * Soil moisture * Water availability Some areas may experience heavier rainfall or flooding, while others may experience longer or more severe dry periods. Changes in water availability can affect households, agriculture, animals, and ecosystems. ---- === 7. Climate Change and Agriculture === Agriculture depends heavily on climate. Farmers need suitable: * Rainfall * Temperatures * Soil conditions * Growing seasons Climate change can make farming more difficult when rainfall becomes less predictable or temperatures become unsuitable for certain crops. Farmers can respond through '''adaptation''', such as: * Planting drought-tolerant crops where appropriate * Improving water management * Using soil-conservation methods * Adjusting planting dates * Diversifying crops and livelihoods The best adaptation measures depend on local conditions. ---- === 8. Climate Change and Animals === Animals depend on suitable habitats, food, water, and temperatures. As climate conditions change, some species may: * Move to new areas * Change feeding or breeding patterns * Face greater pressure from habitat changes * Become more vulnerable to disease or other environmental stresses Species that cannot adapt or move quickly enough may face increased risks. Protecting natural habitats can help wildlife cope with environmental changes. ---- === 9. Climate Change and Forests === Forests are important in the fight against climate change. Trees remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store carbon in their: * Trunks * Branches * Leaves * Roots * Soil Forests also provide habitats, protect soil, support water systems, and provide resources for communities. Protecting forests and managing them sustainably can therefore provide both environmental and social benefits. ---- === 10. Climate Change and Human Health === Climate change can affect human health in several ways. For example, changes in temperature can increase heat-related risks. Flooding can damage homes and sanitation systems, while drought can affect food and water supplies. Climate change can also influence the conditions under which some disease-carrying organisms survive and spread. The effects are not the same everywhere. Local conditions, healthcare systems, infrastructure, and people's ability to adapt all matter. ---- === 11. Climate Change and Extreme Weather === Climate change does not cause every individual weather event. However, warming can influence the likelihood or intensity of '''some''' extreme events. Examples include: * Heatwaves * Heavy rainfall * Flooding * Droughts The relationship differs between types of events and locations, so scientists study individual events and regions carefully. ---- === 12. What Is Climate Change Adaptation? === '''Adaptation''' means adjusting to actual or expected climate changes in order to reduce harm or take advantage of possible opportunities. Examples include: * Building stronger drainage systems. * Protecting wetlands. * Improving water storage. * Growing crops suited to changing conditions. * Planting trees for shade. * Developing early-warning systems for dangerous weather. * Improving building designs. Adaptation helps communities prepare for changes that are already occurring or expected. ---- === 13. What Is Climate Change Mitigation? === '''Mitigation''' means reducing greenhouse gas emissions or increasing the amount of greenhouse gases removed from the atmosphere. Examples include: * Using renewable energy such as solar and wind power. * Improving energy efficiency. * Using public transport where practical. * Walking or cycling for suitable journeys. * Protecting and restoring forests. * Reducing unnecessary waste. * Improving waste management. * Developing lower-emission technologies. Mitigation addresses the causes of climate change, while adaptation focuses on reducing the harm caused by its effects. ---- === 14. What Can Students Do? === Students may not control large industries or national policies, but their everyday actions can contribute to environmental protection. ==== At School ==== Students can: * Switch off unnecessary lights and electrical equipment. * Avoid wasting paper. * Walk or cycle where it is safe and practical. * Use reusable items where appropriate. * Plant and care for trees. * Prevent littering. * Protect school gardens and green spaces. ==== At Home ==== Families can: * Use energy efficiently. * Reduce unnecessary waste. * Reuse suitable items. * Avoid unnecessary burning of waste. * Save water. * Plant and care for appropriate trees. * Choose lower-waste options where practical. Individual actions are useful, but addressing climate change also requires action by communities, businesses, governments, and other institutions. ---- === 15. Climate Change and Our Community === Communities can work together to become more resilient. Useful activities include: * Protecting forests and wetlands. * Improving drainage. * Maintaining clean water sources. * Planting appropriate trees. * Using sustainable farming practices. * Preparing emergency plans. * Sharing information about climate risks. * Supporting reliable weather and early-warning information. Local knowledge is also valuable. People who have lived in an area for many years may notice changes in rainfall, seasons, water availability, or farming conditions. Combining local knowledge with scientific information can help communities plan effectively. ---- === 16. A Greener Future === A changing climate presents challenges, but people can take action. A greener future can involve: * Clean and efficient energy * Sustainable agriculture * Protected forests * Healthy wetlands * Less waste * Cleaner transport * Efficient use of water * Climate-resilient communities Young people have an important role because today's decisions will affect the world they live in throughout their lives. ---- === 17. Practical Activity: Observe Your Environment === ==== Activity ==== Keep a simple weather diary for two weeks. Each day, record: * Temperature if a thermometer is available * Whether it rained * Approximate amount of rainfall if measurable * Cloud conditions * Wind conditions * Any unusual weather observations At the end of two weeks, discuss: # Which days were rainy? # Which days were dry? # Did the weather change from day to day? # Can two weeks of observations tell us the long-term climate of your area? Why or why not? # Why do scientists need measurements collected over many years to study climate? This activity helps students understand the difference between '''weather''' and '''climate'''. ---- === 18. Key Vocabulary === '''Climate:''' The long-term pattern of weather conditions in a particular area. '''Climate change:''' Long-term changes in the Earth's climate. '''Greenhouse gas:''' A gas that absorbs and re-emits infrared radiation, contributing to the greenhouse effect. '''Greenhouse effect:''' The natural process by which certain atmospheric gases help keep Earth warm. '''Global warming:''' The long-term increase in Earth's average surface temperature. '''Deforestation:''' The large-scale removal of forests or trees. '''Mitigation:''' Actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions or increase greenhouse gas removal. '''Adaptation:''' Adjustments that help people and ecosystems cope with actual or expected climate changes. '''Renewable energy:''' Energy from sources that are naturally replenished, such as sunlight, wind, and flowing water. '''Resilience:''' The ability of people, communities, or ecosystems to prepare for, cope with, and recover from difficulties. ---- === 19. Questions for Discussion === # What is climate? # What is the difference between weather and climate? # What is climate change? # What is the greenhouse effect? # Name four human activities that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. # How can climate change affect agriculture? # How can climate change affect water resources? # What is the difference between adaptation and mitigation? # How can forests help address climate change? # What can students do to help protect the environment? # Why is it important to collect climate information over many years? # How can your community prepare for climate-related risks? ---- === 20. Summary === Climate is the long-term pattern of weather in a place. '''Climate change''' refers to long-term changes in climate, including changes in temperature and rainfall patterns. The Earth's climate has changed naturally in the past, but human activities—particularly the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use—have increased greenhouse gas concentrations and caused significant recent warming. Climate change can affect '''water, agriculture, forests, wildlife, human health, and communities'''. People can respond through two important approaches: * '''Mitigation:''' reducing the causes of climate change. * '''Adaptation:''' preparing for and adjusting to its effects. Everyone has a role to play in caring for our planet.<blockquote>'''Our world is changing, and our choices today can help shape the world of tomorrow.'''</blockquote> = References = 262zluvyemi0vg3xjg5c503l0iyq6i0 2 485477 4671811 4670334 2026-09-22T20:36:52Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4670334|4670334]] by [[Special:Contributions/Sisterian|Sisterian]] ([[User talk:Sisterian|discuss]]); Inappropriate to edit someone else's user page in this way 4671811 wikitext text/x-wiki = A Simple Guide to Artificial Intelligence = == 1. Book Overview == '''Title:''' ''A Simple Guide to Artificial Intelligence'' '''Subject:''' Introduction to Artificial Intelligence '''Book type:''' Beginner-level educational guide '''Target audience:''' Secondary-school students, teachers, university beginners, and general readers interested in understanding AI. = <small>2. Purpose of the Book</small> = The main purpose of ''A Simple Guide to Artificial Intelligence'' is to '''make artificial intelligence easy to understand for beginners'''. The book will introduce readers to the basic concepts, technologies, applications, benefits, limitations, and social implications of AI. It is not designed to train readers as AI engineers. Instead, it provides the foundation needed to understand conversations about AI and to continue learning about the subject. = <small>3. Book Summary</small> = The book teaches beginners what AI is, how it works, where it is used, what its benefits and limitations are, and how to use it responsibly. The book therefore focuses on '''simple explanations, practical examples, critical thinking, responsible use, and learning by doing''' rather than complicated mathematics or advanced programming. == <small>4</small>. <small>Structural Book Shell</small> == <big>'''Introduction:'''</big> Artificial intelligence is becoming part of everyday life, from smartphones and search engines to education, healthcare, agriculture, business, and entertainment. However, many people use AI without fully understanding how it works. This book provides a simple starting point for anyone who wants to understand AI. It introduces the basic concepts using clear language, familiar examples, and practical activities. The book does not require the reader to be a programmer or computer scientist. === <big>Chapters:</big> === === Chapter 1: What Is Artificial Intelligence? === Introduces AI, its meaning, common examples, and the difference between AI and ordinary computer programs. === Chapter 2: A Short History of AI === Provides a brief overview of how artificial intelligence developed from early ideas to modern AI systems. === Chapter 3: AI in Everyday Life === Explores examples of AI in smartphones, search engines, recommendations, navigation, translation, chatbots, and other everyday technologies. === Chapter 4: Data and Algorithms === Explains the basic role of data and algorithms in AI systems using simple examples. === Chapter 5: Machine Learning === Introduces how computers can learn patterns from data and make predictions or classifications. === Chapter 6: Neural Networks and Deep Learning === Provides a beginner-friendly explanation of neural networks and why deep learning is important. === Chapter 7: Language, Images and Generative AI === Introduces natural language processing, computer vision, and generative AI, including systems that create text, images, audio, or code. '''<big>Chapter 8: Benefits and Limitations of AI</big>''' Explains what AI can do well and where it can make mistakes or produce unreliable results. === Chapter 9: AI, Ethics and Society === Discusses bias, privacy, security, misinformation, employment, fairness, and human responsibility. === Chapter 10: Using AI Responsibly === Provides practical guidance on checking AI-generated information, protecting personal data, maintaining academic honesty, and using AI appropriately. === Chapter 11: Learning Through Simple AI Activities === Provides simple exercises and beginner projects that allow readers to apply the concepts introduced in the book. == <big>Conclusion</big> == ''A Simple Guide to Artificial Intelligence'' will provide readers with a basic understanding of AI and its growing role in society. By the end of the book, readers should be able to explain what AI is, describe how basic AI systems work, identify common applications, recognize important limitations and risks, and use AI more thoughtfully and responsibly. == <big>References</big> == The book should use reliable and educational sources, including: == Chapter 1: == == What Is Artificial Intelligence? == Artificial Intelligence, or '''AI''', is technology that allows computers to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence. AI can help computers recognise pictures, understand language, answer questions, make suggestions and solve problems. Examples of AI include voice assistants, chatbots, face recognition and smart search engines. Ordinary computer programs usually follow instructions written by people. AI systems can also learn patterns from data and use them to make predictions or decisions. == Chapter 2: == == A Short History of AI == The idea of intelligent machines has existed for many years. Scientists began developing computer systems that could solve problems and perform simple intelligent tasks. Over time, computers became faster and more powerful. Researchers developed machine learning, neural networks and other methods that improved AI. Today, AI is used in education, health, business, transport, communication and many other areas. == Chapter 3: == == AI in Everyday Life == Many people use AI without noticing it. Examples include: * Voice assistants on phones. * Search engines that find information. * Video and music recommendations. * Maps that suggest routes. * Translation tools. * Chatbots that answer questions. * Face and fingerprint recognition. * Email spam filters. * AI helps people save time and complete tasks more easily. == Chapter 4: == == Data and Algorithms == '''Data''' is information collected for use by a computer. It may include numbers, words, pictures, sounds or videos. An '''algorithm''' is a set of steps used to solve a problem or complete a task. AI systems use data and algorithms to identify patterns and produce results. For example, a system may study many pictures of cats and dogs to learn how to tell them apart. The quality of the data can affect the quality of the AI's results. == Chapter 5: == == Machine Learning == Machine learning is a type of AI in which computers learn patterns from data instead of receiving instructions for every possible situation. For example, a computer can study many examples of emails to learn which messages may be spam. Machine learning can be used to: * Recognise objects. * Predict weather or prices. * Recommend content. * Identify spam. * Classify information == Chapter 6: == == Neural Networks and Deep Learning == A neural network is an AI system inspired by the way connected nerve cells work in the human brain. It contains connected parts that process information and identify patterns. '''Deep learning''' uses neural networks with many layers. It is useful for tasks such as speech recognition, image recognition, language processing and self-driving technology. == Chapter 7: == == Language, Images and Generative AI == AI can work with different types of information. * '''Natural Language Processing:''' Helps computers understand and produce human language. * '''Computer Vision:''' Helps computers identify and understand images and videos. * '''Generative AI:''' Creates new content such as text, pictures, music, audio and computer code. Generative AI can be useful for learning and creativity, but its results should always be checked for accuracy. == Chapter 8: == == Benefits and Limitations of AI == === Benefits of AI === AI can: * Save time. * Support learning. * Help doctors analyse information. * Improve communication. * Assist people with disabilities. * Help businesses and organisations work efficiently. === Limitations of AI === AI can: * Make mistakes. * Give incorrect information. * Show bias. * Misunderstand questions. * Depend on poor-quality data. * Produce results that need human checking. AI is a helpful tool, but it does not always understand information like a human being. == Chapter 9: == == AI, Ethics and Society == AI affects individuals and communities. Its use should be guided by fairness, safety and responsibility. Important concerns include: * '''Bias:''' AI may treat some people unfairly because of biased data. * '''Privacy:''' Personal information may be collected or misused. * '''Security:''' AI systems can be attacked or used in harmful ways. * '''Misinformation:''' AI can create false or misleading content. * '''Employment:''' Some jobs may change as technology develops. * '''Human responsibility:''' People must remain responsible for important decisions. == Chapter 10: == == Using AI Responsibly == People should use AI carefully and responsibly. Good practices include: * Check information from trusted sources. * Do not share private information. * Avoid copying AI answers without understanding them. * Follow school and workplace rules. * Give credit to sources. * Use AI to support learning, not to replace personal effort. * Ask a teacher or trusted adult when unsure. * AI should be used honestly, safely and respectfully. == Chapter 11: == == Learning Through Simple AI Activities == Learners can understand AI better through simple activities, such as: # Identify AI tools used at home or school. # Sort examples into AI and non-AI technologies. # Create a simple set of instructions for solving a problem. # Collect safe data, such as favourite fruits, and organise it in a table. # Discuss how a recommendation system works. # Compare an AI-generated answer with information from a trusted book. # Design a poster about responsible AI use. These activities help learners connect AI concepts to everyday life. == Conclusion == Artificial Intelligence is a technology that helps computers perform tasks that require human-like intelligence. It is used in many areas, including education, communication, health and business. AI can be helpful, but it can also make mistakes and create risks. People should therefore check information, protect personal data and use AI responsibly. Understanding AI helps us become informed, careful and responsible users of technology. == References == * * ajpt1ne4alr1xxrpqqbxfuplwgl089u 0 485506 4671831 4671547 2026-09-23T02:33:48Z Idavidmiller 3577687 /* Block Expressions */ Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4671831 wikitext text/x-wiki =Maxima Programming= Although Maxima is not a general-purpose programming language, Maxima as a CAS includes among the built-in ingredients a relatively complete set of programming expressions that are useful for the intended context. Many of the code examples of this section are intended to be illustrative of technical details relevant to Maxima programming as their purpose, and consequently are intentionally elementary in character. Learning any sort of programming language, including Maxima programming expressions, is a subjective process. In any case, it is essential to have enough technical know-how specific to the programming language in order to begin the learning process, even in cases where much positive transfer from other programming experience is involved. Much can be accomplished mathematically using Maxima without having to resort to in-depth knowledge and proficiency in the technical details of Maxima programming expressions. However, Maxima programming expressions are frequently essential for the purpose of defining functions, both in the programming sense of the term, but also more relevantly, for the mathematical sense. For that reason alone, familiarity and sufficient proficiency with Maxima programming expressions should be given some attention. One way to begin the learning process is to become familiar with enough of the programming essentials to accomplish independent efforts toward accomplishing some specific programming goal of interest. The other way is to study the many available programming expressions of others. This section is intended to provide the essentials toward learning by whatever means are chosen. The following table shows some built-in ingredients related to Maxima programming expressions: {| class="wikitable" |+Maxima Programming Category |if |unless |errcatch |prederror |- |block |for |error |return |- |catch |from |warning |throw |- |local |thru |errormsg |sstatus |- |garbage_collect |step |errormsg |status |- |do |next |go | |- |while |in | | |} Some of these programming expression ingredients can also be considered as belonging to one or more other categories than the Programming category. === Block Expressions === Arguably, the first expressions to consider in the context of Maxima programming are '''''block''''' expressions. All <code>block</code> expressions as programming ingredients come in two flavors: * <code>( expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n )</code> * <code>block ([v₁,v_2,…,v_m], expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> The first form of a <code>block</code> expression is equivalent to the second form, but without the first list argument: <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code>, as in <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code>, unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the block expression. In that, case the form <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> must be used. The purpose of the list argument, <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code> is to declare the values of identifiers of the list to be local to the <code>block</code>. If there is no need for local identifiers, the list argument can be omitted (unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the <code>block</code> expression), and either form is sufficient.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* This block expression */ (%i1) (x : 2, x^2); (%o1) 4 /* Is equivalent to this block expression */ (%i2) block (x : 2, x^2); (%o2) 4</syntaxhighlight>So, in the case where values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> of expressions are not required, then the choice of either form of the <code>block</code> expression is a matter of user preference. In both cases, the values of identifiers referenced in the <code>block</code> are global, and not local to the <code>block</code> expression. However, for the sake of clarity and consistency use of the latter form may be a better choice. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* The value 3 assigned to x is global */ (%i3) x : 3; (x) 3 /* The value 2 assigned to x in the block is global */ (%i4) (x : 2, x^2); (%o4) 4 /* The global value assigned to x in the block is 2 not 3 */ (%i5) x; (%o5) 2 </syntaxhighlight>Values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> may not be global:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* the value of identifier y is local only */ (%i6) block ([y], y : 4, y); (%o6) 4 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i7) y; (%o7) y /* the values of identifiers x and y are both local */ (%i8) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x); (%o8) 3 /* the global value of identifier x is not 3, but is 2 */ (%i9) x; (%o9) 2 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i10) y; (%o10) y</syntaxhighlight> Regardless of the form of the <code>block</code> expressions these have in common the comma-separated expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> which are evaluated each in turn from first to last (unless the evaluation sequence is modified by by the <code>go</code>, <code>throw</code>, or <code>return</code> operators), and the value of the block expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code>. The main purpose of the <code>block</code> expression, regardless of the form, is to group expressions that are related in some manner, and the value of the last expression may be the only value of interest. However, there are very few limitations imposed on the nature of the <code>block</code> expression arguments, so it might be the case that the purpose of evaluating the <code>block</code> expression has been achieved before the last expression argument is evaluated, in which case the value of the <code>block</code> expression may not necessarily be the value of the last argument expression. One way to accomplish that is to use an empty string as the last argument expression with the option flag <code>stringdisp</code> set to <code>false</code> which is the default value.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i11) stringdisp; (%o11) false (%i12) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x, ""); (%o12) (%i13) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x)$ </syntaxhighlight> The display of the value of the <code>block</code> expression may be suppressed using a <code>$</code> to end the input expression instead of a semi-colon. Either technique produces a <code>block</code> expression value, but the value is not displayed. If a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated as a argument expression, this will cause evaluation of expression arguments to end explicitly, and the value of the <code>return</code> operator becomes the value of the <code>block</code> expression.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i14) is (equal (x, 2)); (%o14) true %i15) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), " x not 2"); (%o15) 2 (%i16) x : 3; (x) 3 (%i17) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), "x not 2"); (%o17) x not 2 </syntaxhighlight>When a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated within a <code>block</code> expression the result is to stop evaluation of expressions within the enclosing <code>block</code> expression and to return the value of its argument as the value of the enclosing <code>block</code> expression. It therefore can be compared with the <code>return</code> statement found in other programming languages, but with one difference: In Maxima, the <code>return</code> operator affects only the block expression in which the <code>return</code> operator is an expression, and has no effect otherwise.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i18) test_nested_block (val) := block ( [outer_var : 10], print("Entering outer block expression"), /* inner block expression */ block( [inner_var : 20], print (" Entering inner block expression"), if val > 5 then /* another inner block expression */ block ( print (" val > 5"), print (" Returning only to inner block expression"), return (inner_var + val) /* returns only to the inner block expression */ ), /* end of another inner block expression */ print (" inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val) ), /* end of inner block expression */ print ("Back in outer block expression"), outer_var + val /* end of outer block expression */ )$ (%i19) test_nested_block (1); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression inner_var + val is 21 Back in outer block expression (%o19) 11 (%i20) test_nested_block (6); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression val > 5 Returning only to inner block expression Back in outer block expression (%o20) 16</syntaxhighlight> The <code>block</code> operators: Each instance may define local variables and has a comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. '''''Nested blocks''''': There are three <code>block</code> operators used in the right-hand side of the function definition expression named <code>test_nested_block (val</code>. There is an outer <code>block</code> expression that has an inner <code>block</code> expression as an argument,and there is a third <code>block</code> expression that is an argument of the inner <code>block</code> expression. The <code>return</code> operator: If val > 5 is true then the return operator of the most inner block expression is evaluated and evaluation of remaining expressions of that block expression does not occur. The value of that most inner block expression is the value of the argument of the return operator – <code>inner_var + val</code>. Evaluation of expressions continues with the first expression of the inner block expression after the end of the most inner block expression – which is <code>print ("   inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val)</code>. The value of that print operator is the value of <code>inner_var + val</code>. However, while that value is the value of the inner block expression it is effectively lost, as it is not the last expression of the outer block sequence of expressions. That value is the value of <code>outer_var + val</code>, which, being the last expression of the outer block is always the value of the function. ==== Block Expression Evaluation Sequence Modifications ==== <code>block</code> expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> are generally evaluated each in turn from first to last, and the value of the <code>block</code> expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code> unless this sequence is modified by some means. One way to modify the first-to-last expression evaluation sequence of a <code>block</code> expression is by way of a <code>go</code> operator with a label (or "tag") argument ( the "''go to''") as the following exemplifies:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i18) sum_to_n (n) := block ( [i : 1, total : 0], loop, total : total + i, i : i + 1, if i <= n then go (loop), total)$ (%i19) sum_to_n(25); (%o19) 325 (%i20) n; (%o20) n (%i21) i; (%o21) i (%i22) total; (%o22) total </syntaxhighlight>Note the following: * <code>block ([ i : 1,total : 0], ...)</code>: The list argument creates a local environment with local identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code>. The function argument <code>n</code> is also a local identifier. * <code>loop</code>: This label serves as a target inside the <code>block</code> expression to where <code>go (loop)</code> can jump. * <code>if i <= n then go (loop)</code>: This conditional expression causes the <code>go (loop)</code> operator to be evaluated if the condition is <code>true</code>. * <code>total</code>: The value of this local identifier is the returned value of the <code>block</code> expression. It should also be worth noting that the identifiers <code>n</code>, <code>i</code>, and <code>total</code> have local values assigned within the <code>block</code> expression, but their global values are themselves. Also notice that the identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code> were both declared local and assigned initial values within the <code>block</code> list argument. The go-to label argument of the <code>go</code> operator must be the name of a tag appearing within the same block expression. The <code>go</code> operator cannot be used to go to a tag in a different <code>block</code> expression. There is nothing special about the <code>loop</code> identifier name used for the go-to tag in this example. Other identifiers could be used, but they must be atomic. Another way to modify a block expression evaluation sequence is by way of the <code>throw</code> operator.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i32) /* Define a function using a block expression that searches for a specific condition and throws a value */ find_element (target_list, threshold) := block ( [found_val : false], /* local identifier value */ catch( for x in target_list do ( if x > threshold then ( /* Immediately exit the block and return this value */ throw(x) ) ), /* This string is returned only if the loop finishes without throwing */ "No element exceeded the threshold" ) )$ (%i31) /* Test the block */ find_element ( [10, 20, 55, 80], 50 ); (%o31) 55</syntaxhighlight>How It Works catch(...): This creates a boundary that intercepts any throw executed within its scope. throw(x): When Maxima encounters this statement, it immediately stops executing the loop and the rest of the block. It jumps directly out of the <code>catch</code> expression, returning the value of x as the result of the entire catch statement. ==== Nested Block Expressions ==== <code>block</code> operators may appear within other block expressions as arguments – '''''nested''''' <code>block</code> expressions. A local environment with local identifiers may be created for nested block expressions. Local values for identifiers, if declared by a first <code>block</code> operator list argument, are created each time a nested <code>block</code> is evaluated. However, identifiers with global values that have not been declared as local within any <code>block</code> expressions, are global values for nested <code>block</code> expressions as well as enclosing <code>block</code> expressions. Likewise, local identifiers of any enclosing <code>block</code> expression have values that are global within any enclosed blocks, if not declared as local within the enclosed block. If the value of an identifier is not local in a <code>block</code> expression, its value is the value most recently assigned by an enclosing <code>block</code> expression, if any value has been assigned. Otherwise, it is the value of the identifier in the global environment. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) z : 2^(1/3); (z) 2^(1/3) (%i24) /* Outer block starts */ block ( [x : 10, y : 20], /* values of x and y declared local to outer block */ /* Inner block starts */ block ( [y : 99, z : 100], /* values of y and z declared local to inner block */ print ("Inside inner block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the local value of y of outer block"), print("z =", z, "is the local value of z of inner block") ), /* Inner block ends */ /* Outer block resumes */ print ("Back in outer block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the restored value of y of the outer block"), print ("z =", z, "is the value of z global to both blocks") /* Outer block ends */ )$ Inside inner block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 99 is the local value of y of outer block z = 100 is the local value of z of inner block Back in outer block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 20 is the restored value of y of the outer block z = 2^(1/3) is the value of z global to both blocks </syntaxhighlight> ==== Values, Properties, and the <code>local</code> Operator ==== The expression <code>local (v₁, v₂, ... , v_m)</code> within a <code>block</code> expression saves the '''''properties''''' associated with the symbols <code>v₁, v₂, ... , v_m</code>, removes any properties before evaluating other expressions, and restores any saved properties on exit from the block. Because Maxima is an application based on the Common Lisp programming language, it utilizes Lisp '''''symbol''''' structure. Lisp symbols are objects that carry their own "dictionary" of attributes. A Lisp symbol's internal property list (''plist'') is a built-in data structure attached directly to a symbol. Maxima uses this underlying Lisp symbol structure to associate '''''properties''''' with Maxima identifiers. Properties of identifiers can be ''declared explicitly'' by users. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) declare (x, real); (%o23) done </syntaxhighlight> However, some identifier property declarations are ''implemented implicitly'' as properties of a symbol, including <code>:=</code>, <code>array</code>, <code>dependencies</code>, <code>atvalue</code>, <code>matchdeclare</code>, <code>atomgrad</code>, <code>constant</code>, <code>nonscalar</code>, <code>assume</code>, and some others. Below is a description of how each of those specific declarations is implemented as a property under the hood: ====== Functions and Arrays ====== * '''<code>:=</code> (Function Definition):''' When you define a function using <code>f(x) := x^2</code>, the actual expression (<code>x^2</code>) and its argument list (<code>x</code>) are stored as a property of the symbol <code>f</code>. * '''<code>array</code>:''' When you declare or use a subscripted array (like <code>a[i]</code>), the array type, dimensions, and memory pointer are attached as a property to the symbol <code>a</code>. This differentiates it from a standard scalar variable. ====== Calculus and Dependencies ====== * '''<code>dependencies</code>:''' If you declare <code>depends(y, x)</code>, Maxima attaches a dependency list property to <code>y</code> noting that it functionally depends on <code>x</code>. This tells the <code>diff</code> (differentiation) engine not to treat <code>y</code> as a constant relative to <code>x</code>. * '''<code>atvalue</code>:''' When you define a specific value for an expression at a boundary point (e.g., <code>atvalue(y, x=0, 1)</code>), this boundary constraint is stored as an evaluation property on the symbol <code>y</code>. * '''<code>atomgrad</code>:''' This assigns a specific gradient or derivative to an atomic identifier (e.g., telling Maxima what (df/dx) is explicitly). Maxima saves this rule as a gradient property on that symbol. ====== Pattern Matching and Rules ====== * '''<code>matchdeclare</code>:''' Used in Maxima's pattern-matching system (like <code>tellsimp</code>). When you type <code>matchdeclare(x, freeof(a))</code>, Maxima attaches a predicate property to <code>x</code>. When a pattern rule runs, Maxima looks at property list of <code>x</code> to see what conditions a matching expression must meet. ====== Mathematical and Evaluation Attributes ====== * '''<code>constant</code>:''' Declaring <code>declare(c, constant)</code> places a "constant" flag on property list of <code>c</code>. Core routines (like integration and differentiation) check this flag to know they can pull <code>c</code> out of integrals or differentiate it to zero. * '''<code>nonscalar</code>:''' Tells Maxima to treat a symbol as a matrix or vector rather than a regular number. This property changes how operators like <code>.</code> (non-commutative multiplication) treat the symbol. * '''<code>assume</code>:''' When an expression such as <code>assume(x > 0)</code> is used, Maxima's database system (<code>context</code>) assigns facts and properties (like <code>pos</code> or <code>nonnegative</code>) to the symbol <code>x</code>, allowing the simplifier to safely reduce expressions like <code>sqrt(x^2)</code> to <code>x</code>. The effect of the <code>local</code> operator is to make such declarations effective only within a <code>block</code> expression. Otherwise, declarations within a <code>block</code> expression are considered to be global declarations. So what does all of this mean to the typical Maxima user? It means that the list of identifiers that is the first argument of a <code>block</code> expression only declares the '''''values''''' of those identifiers as local to the <code>block</code> expression in which the list is an argument. Any properties of identifiers are not declared local by this means. In order to declare '''''properties''''' of identifiers to be local to a <code>block</code> expression, the <code>local</code> operator must be used as an expression within the <code>block</code> expression. At the point where the local operator is evaluated as an argument of a <code>block</code> expression, the properties of the identifiers that are arguments to the <code>local</code> operator become local to the block. It is not an unfair criticism that perhaps the <code>local</code> operator should have been named something like <code>local_properties</code>. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i25) f (s) := cos (s); (%o25) f(s):=cos(s) (%i26) f (%pi/6); (%o26) sqrt(3)/2 (%i27) block (local (f), f (s) := sin (s), f (%pi/6)); (%o27) 1/2 (%i28) f (s); (%o28) cos(s) </syntaxhighlight>In the above example, the '''''properties''''' of identifier <code>f</code> were declared to be local in the <code>block</code> expression using the <code>local</code> operator. However, global properties of the identifier <code>f</code> were not affected by the local function definition of <code>f</code> in the <code>block</code> expression. The global definition expression of <code>f</code> which is <code>cos (s)</code> and the argument <code>s</code> were not affected by the local definition of <code>f</code> because the properties of <code>f</code> were declared local to the <code>block</code> expression. <code>block</code> expressions can be used for different purposes in the Maxima programming context. <code>block</code> expressions can be used in a stand-alone fashion or as part of an expression. However, <code>block</code> expressions are commonly used in expressions that define '''''functions''''', which is the topic that follows. === Functions === For mathematical functions use always define() instead of := There is only one small difference between them: "The function definition operator. f(x_1, ..., x_n) := expr defines a function named f with arguments x_1, …, x_n and function body expr. := '''never''' evaluates the function body (unless explicitly evaluated by quote-quote <nowiki>''</nowiki>)." "Defines a function named f with arguments x_1, …, x_n and function body expr. define '''always''' evaluates its second argument (unless explicitly quoted). " === Lisp and Maxima === {{BookCat}} axono6z900hy2uxnd99or5o15sqk2x9 4 485508 4671917 4669643 2026-09-23T08:10:13Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General]] 4671917 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk archive}} == A question about the user right move-subpages == Even though reviewers have the ability to move 100 pages per minute (per InitialiseSettings.php), they do not have <code>move-subpages</code>, which allows moving a book (with all its subpages) in one single action. Is this user right considered sensitive (hence it is restricted to administrators by default)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:23, 9 July 2026 (UTC) :I'm not 100% sure what the problem is as long as mass moving is limited to admins in the first place, as this can really cause problems (I recently encountered this mass-moving 100 out of c. 260 pages on a wiki). I support filing a ticket at [[:phab:]] to extend [[:mw:Manual:$wgMaximumMovedPages|$wgMaximumMovedPages]] to 1,000. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 9 July 2026 (UTC) == Viewing unreviewed changes, and recent changes, for a particular book == I've recently started editing [[Chess Opening Theory]] after a long hiatus. Two things * How can I view recent edits, for this book alone. I'm aware of [[Using_Wikibooks/How_To_Edit_A_Wikibook#Watching All Pages in a Book|Watching All Pages in a Book]], which was well hidden on the page on editing, rather than on tracking changes (since rectified), but the advice there is unhelpful. Option 1 is entirely impractical, as one cannot add hundreds of pages one does not know about, and Option 2 simply doesn't work. For example, at this moment, there are 12 relevant edits listed in the main [[Special:RecentChanges]] page (which goes back to 9 July), but the suggested [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Chess_Opening_Theory Related Changes] only lists pages directly linked from the top level. * Similarly, how can one see the unreviewed changes for this book (or even all the books, where I can at least manually filter). I noticed a whole lot going back more than a month and approved most of them, but this was only through some tedious digging around through user contributions and page histories. **Partially answering this question myself, there's [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3APendingChanges&namespace=&tagFilter=&limit=50&category=&size= this page]. Which brings up a followup question. My contributions page doesn't list the changes I've approved (only the one I declined). Is there a way to see these? [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 21:38, 13 July 2026 (UTC) Thanks! [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 21:29, 13 July 2026 (UTC) :At the risk of sounding pedantic, a hack for the first problem whereby [[Special:RecentChangesLinked/Chess_Opening_Theory]] only shows changes that are linked to the top page of the book directly and not all sub-pages or sub-sub-sub-pages, etc. is to just make them all linked from the top page. This can be done with a template that may make it a little more pretty or discreet than a huge list of links. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:53, 14 July 2026 (UTC) ::Thanks, but this doesn't really help. Besides having to add thousands of links to the front page, which certainly shouldn't be displayed there, when someone adds a new variation (which is what a large portion of the edits are), the new entry won't appear on Recent Changes until specifically linked from the front page. [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 17:23, 15 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Greenman|Greenman]] I think using the book categories at [[Special:UnreviewedPages]] might be helpful here—is [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AUnreviewedPages&namespace=0&category=Book%3AChess+Opening+Theory this] approximately what you're looking for? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:24, 16 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Greenman|Greenman]] I think you're also looking for [[Special:Log/review]]. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:32, 16 July 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks, those are helpful. [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] ([[User talk:Greenman|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greenman|contribs]]) 15:04, 18 July 2026 (UTC) == Citing WikiBooks? == Wikipedia has a page for Citing Wikipedia, but I haven't found one here, so I have a few questions: # How would I cite Wikibooks in an essay? # Do I need to cite sources on Wikibooks? If so, how? [[User:BlazeFlames|BlazeFlames]] ([[User talk:BlazeFlames|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BlazeFlames|contribs]]) 22:48, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :# This should give you a good method: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/how-to-cite-wikipedia/ :# Generally, no. We have [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|no policy that requires or prohibits citing sources]] and we have a [[Help:Editing#References|help page on how to do it]], with a [[Wikibooks:Templates/Sources|number of templates]] to standardize the process. There is definitely value in citing sources, so I don't want to discourage it. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 09:10, 19 June 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|BlazeFlames}} As you can see in [[Special: Version#mw-version-ext|Special: Version § Installed Extensions]] this MediaWiki has the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Extension: CiteThisPage|CiteThisPage extension]] installed. On the English‑language edition of Wikibooks you can navigate to [[Special: CiteThisPage/Typewriting|Special: CiteThisPage/…]] even though it is not listed in the [[MediaWiki: Sidebar]] (but it’s listed in [[Special: SpecialPages#mw-specialpagesgroup-pagetools|Special: SpecialPages]]). However, on {{abbr|WB|Wikibooks}} I would link via the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Help: Page ID|page ID]] rather than the page title; replace <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>title=Booktitle</syntaxhighlight> with <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>curid=123456</syntaxhighlight>. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 15:09, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Images lost in Engineering Acoustics == Hello, I just made an updated PDF version of the wiki book on Engineering Acoustics. During this processes I realized that 19 Images are missing. I left the respective chapters out of the PDF version. You can find the missing files by opening https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics/Print_version in your web browser and search for the text File: . I am not sure why they were deleted. But possibly they were moved to Wikimedia Commons first and deleted after that. I could try to restore the from the 16 years old PDF version but I lack any authorship information so I think we need to redraw all of them. Furthermore I realized that some of the rest of the images in the wiki book have got a very poor resolution Yours 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} All media ([[:File: Acousticplanewave1.gif|A]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|B]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|C]][[:File: Acousticpressure1.gif|D]][[:File: Ra analogs.png|E]][[:File: Acoustic gen.png|F]][[:File: Enclosed Piston.png|G]][[:File: Equ1.jpg|H]][[:File: Equ3.gif|I]][[:File: Equ4.gif|K]][[:File: Comp.gif|L]][[:File: Example2holm1sol.JPG|M]][[:File: Exam2prob.JPG|N]][[:File: Exam2sol.JPG|O]][[:File: 1Dwave graph1.png|P]][[:File: String dwg.jpg|Q]][[:File: Equations1.jpg|R]][[:File: Equations2.jpg|S]]) except [[:File: Inductive law pass filter.jpg|Inductive law pass filter.jpg]] and [[:File: Open-twister.gif|Open-twister.gif]] were once deleted by [[User: Jguk|Jguk]] and [[User: Darklama|Darklame]] because after a grace period they still lacked copyright information. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:51, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ::Do we also need to delete the PDF then? It contains theses images. ::Yours [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 07:49, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} It depends on the images’ contents, whether they’re copyrightable. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 08:40, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] Well to me the look copyrightable. And further more its just the same images that were deleted from the wiki due to copyright issues [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 13:33, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} As far as I understand the issue was a formality. All files must bear license info, regardless whether they’re copyrightable or not. It is quite possible all deleted images don’t meet the threshold of originality, but still were deleted because of this formality. Images like [[:File: Equ1.jpg|File: Equ1.jpg]] ''presumably'' contain ''just'' some rasterized text formula and as such are not copyrightable. I have not had a look at them, so I can’t tell. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:30, 11 July 2026 (UTC) :::::: @[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] If its just a formality and the images don't meet the threshold to be copyrightable we could just restore the deleted images from the PDF. But keeping the PDF and not restoring the images surely is a contradiction. Furthermore there are quite a lot of books with the same problem. [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 17:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == July 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding Wikimedia governance and options for reform == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in July. Both sessions will focus on Wikimedia governance, including possible follow-ups to the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Movement_Charter Movement Charter] and options for reform. Participants may attend either or both Café sessions. This month, to deconflict the Café meetups from Wikimania, the meetups will be held one day later than usual. #'''26 July 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1785078000 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''27 July 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1785121200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 03:53, 13 July 2026 (UTC) == Request for comment (the future of Abstract Wikipedia) == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr" class="mw-content-ltr">You are invited to voice your opinions in a [[:m:Requests for comment/The future of Abstract Wikipedia|request for comment about the future of Abstract Wikipedia]]. {{Int:Feedback-thanks-title}} [[:m:User:Kowal2701|Kowal2701]] ([[:m:User talk:Kowal2701|talk]]) 12:24, 24 July 2026 (UTC)</bdi> <!-- Message sent by User:DreamRimmer@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> qbaxtf8194ghnpoms7g3bes899onhmd 0 485519 4671786 4671669 2026-09-22T13:35:07Z ~2026-51010-27 3626489 Test cases for Input validation task 4671786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Rfd}} I've created an account just to save this, I teach CS A-Level, and this site is a precious source of information and exercises to students and teachers without access to the paid-for resources one education publisher puts out every year. Could an editor please remove the delete tag?}} This is for the 2027 AQA A-level Computer Science Specification (7517). This is where suggestions can be made about what some of the questions might be and how we can solve them. '''Please be respectful and do not vandalise the page, as this may affect students' preparation for exams!'''<blockquote> This year Skeleton Program is called "Pile O' Tiles", a two player (arguably multiplayer, see below) version of the classic match-2 memory game.</blockquote> == From AQA's preliminary material document: == <blockquote>Piles O’ Tiles is a tile matching memory game. The board consists of a two-dimensional grid containing piles of tiles. The tiles are face-down so players cannot see what is on the tiles. Each tile has a symbol (an uppercase letter) and a points value. Players take it in turn to choose two piles. The top tile of those two piles is turned over so that all players can see what is on those tiles. If the two tiles have the same symbol on them then they are removed from the piles and the points for the two tiles are added to the player’s score. The two tiles are then added to a discard. If the two tiles do not have the same symbol on them then they are turned face-down again and put back on the piles they came from. When the game ends the player with the highest score is the winner. In the Skeleton Program the board is shown as a two-dimensional grid with x and y coordinates. Each pile is shown as an integer value that denotes the number of tiles currently in the pile.</blockquote> Then a diagram showing the game's display, with a 6x6 board, rendered as a grid with the origin in the bottom left, row numbers on the left, and column numbers on the bottom<blockquote>In the Skeleton Program there is a default version of the game that uses a 6×6 grid. It is also possible to load a game from a file. The Data File game1.txt contains a game that can be loaded instead of using the default game. </blockquote>The AQA doc has the content of game1.txt, but we can do better. == Annotated game1.txt == 16 # Grid size in Nsquares - the grid is the a square of side sqrt of that 2,A,1,E,1,H,3,J,2 # Those are piles (of tiles) 0,E,1,Q,4,K,4,J,2,J,2 # arranged linearly (here, 16 of them) 0,O,1,E,1,H,3 # the first element is the bonus for the tile, 0,O,1,E,1,H,3 # then pairs of letters, score 0,A,1,E,1,H,3 0,A,1,H,1,H,3 0,E,1,E,1,H,3 0,A,1,Q,4,F,3 0,U,1,E,1,H,3 0,A,1,E,1,H,3 4,U,5,E,1,K,4 2,A,1,K,4,H,3 0,A,1,E,1,K,1 0,R,1,K,3,H,3 0,R,1,F,3,K,7 0,A,1,E,1,H,3 2 # Number of players Boris,0 # player name, score Poppy,0 # Discard, in pairs of letters, score - here it's empty 15 # max score 0 # whose turn it is (0 is player 1, Boris) 0 # turns since the the last winning move (matching tiles) by any player # Gamefiles are saves of the gamestate, but here this is the start of a game. ## From [[github:WBgrok/AQA-SKCD-2027/tree/main|https://github.com/WBgrok/AQA-SKCD-2027]] ## Courtesy of [https://www.youtube.com/@MrBerard MrBerard] - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4n29LNaFdsE 😎👉👉 == Annotated Skeleton Code == 👉https://github.com/WBgrok/AQA-SKCD-2027/blob/main/Annotated.py == Section D mark distribution comparison == Mark distribution for this year: '''- TK''' (please fill in if you have the EAD) These marks include the screen capture(s), so the marks for the coding will be 1-2 marks lower. * The 2026 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 5 mark, an 8 mark and two 12 mark questions. * The 2025 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 5 mark, a 6 mark and two 14 mark questions. * The 2024 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 5 mark, a 6 mark and two 14 mark questions. * The 2023 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 5 mark, a 9 mark, a 10 mark and one 13 mark question. * The 2022 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 5 mark, a 9 mark, a 11 mark and one 13 mark question. * The 2021 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 6 mark, an 8 mark, a 9 mark and one 14 mark question. * The 2020 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 6 mark, an 8 mark, a 11 mark and one 12 mark question. * The 2019 paper 1 contained 4 questions: a 5 mark, an 8 mark, a 9 mark and one 13 mark question. * The 2018 paper 1 contained 5 questions: a 2 mark, a 5 mark, two 9 mark and one 12 mark question. * The 2017 paper 1 contained 5 questions: a 5 mark, three 6 mark and one 12 mark question. == Section D practice / predicted tasks == === Input validation [high confidence] === Currently the player can enter data in response to __ChoosePile() (real exam question tell you where to intervene) that will break the game. 🌶️ - VALUES - Assume the user will enter an int, but keep on asking the coordinate until it is within the bounds. 🌶️🌶️ - TYPE - the user can't be trusted to not drool on the keyboard or smth. also check it's an int. If it isn't you should display an error message - feel free to make it very sarcastic, before asking the coordinate again ==== Test ==== VALUES: Press return for default game, then Player 1, enter your choice: T Enter x coordinate: -1 Enter x coordinate: 0 Enter x coordinate: 7 Enter x coordinate: 5 Enter y coordinate: 0 Enter y coordinate: 6 Enter x coordinate: 4 Enter y coordinate: 7 Enter y coordinate: 6 TYPE: Enter filename to load or just press Enter to play the default game: MENU B. Display the board D. Display the discard T. Take turn S. Display scores Player 1, enter your choice: T Enter x coordinate: foo an integer, please Enter x coordinate: 1 Enter y coordinate: bar an integer, please Enter y coordinate: 1 Enter x coordinate: 1 Enter y coordinate: 2 Player 1, you had two matching A tiles; your score has increased by 2 === The one that explains `from math import sqrt` [high confidence] === ⚠️The fact we go in with N piles, then need to import mths sqrt may indicate a task using sqrt. Given the setup, this has got to be distance between two piles. Hence: 🌶️🌶️🌶️Change the scoring of a matching pair by adding to the tile scores the distance between the two matched piles, rounded down to the nearest integer. === Pile clear bonus [high confidence] === The game supports ''almost'' everything so that when a player match empties a pile, they get a bonus score. The one thing that's missing is in the scoring. 🌶️🌶️ Change the scoring so that if a match empties a pile, the bonus for the pile is awarded to the player. You'll need to add a getter for Pile._Bonus. ==== Test ==== Two cases, as it's possible to empty one or both piles with a match. -game1.txt tells you which piles have the same sequence, that will give you a match that should score both bonus - there's a test sequence to be found that will have one of the player score a single match. === Saving [med-high confidence] === If you've read the code closely, you'll have noticed the game1.txt is not just a description of game ''configuration'' - it is in fact a game ''save.'' If you've just run the game, you won't have noticed, because game1 is a save at the very start of the game. So they've given you a ''load'' function. Do you see what's coming over the horizon? ==== 👉Add a new menu item "S Save game". This should then call a new method on the Game class, which asks the user for a savename, and writes the game to a file, appending .txt, in the format of game1.txt - here too, you'll need a Pile.GetBonus(). ==== === Making the game both more and less boring [low, but good practice] === At the moment -certainly in the early game, the default game can be a bit boring, because every pile is the same: an A-tile, for one point a B tile for 2, another A,1. We can make the game less boring, but also longer, and long-term excitement turns out quite boring: 👉 Instead of the default game have all the same piles, keep the same proportion (that's 72 A,1, 36 B,2), but build the pile at random. Basic: If you use a random draw, the game might end up not being endable by zero tiles, but no one gets that far anyway. Fancy: actually draw 72 A1 and 36 B2, as if from a pile of tile, to randomly make the board === Party mode [low-mid confidence] === The architecture of the game, and what's visible in game1.txt means the game can support an arbitrary number of players. It is just that both the hard-coded default mode and the save file happen to have two players It's lucky, because although any player can hit the maximum score at which the game ends, the winner is always whoever between player 1 and 2 has the highest score, which is enough to run a 6-player AQA skeleton code gaming night like many Y13 enjoy. So you'll need to fix that. 🌶️🌶️🌶️ When starting a default game, it should default to a 6x6 board, and whatever basic pile o' tiles layout we're running (see 'making the game both more and less boring'), but then ask for number of players (validate for an int >0), then, for each, their names (no validation). You will need to fix the scoring bug, although testing that would require engineering a three-way game that ends with a win of the third one. === Streak === Add an attribute to the Player class storing the number of consecutive wins initalising at zero , with a getter, as well as an increment() and reset() method. Add the value of the streak to the player score when scoring, we should increment if it was a win. If the turn was not a match, call reset() the streak counter to zero. === PSYCH! === * extend the Player class to store last_move, a [(x,y) (x,y)] list of tuples, and a WasMatch boolean, initialising to False * Also getters and setters for both * On every move, set the last_move record and the boolean accordingly. * Here's the psych: if the last move was a miss, AND in the current move the player has selected one of the same piles has their last failed move, ''swap the tiles'' of the last move, before turning them over, with a 10% chance, maybe 50% to test it - you'll need to import random either way. arefqwtpdweb51pev0gqe65y6r2lm4h 0 485676 4671945 4671593 2026-09-23T11:41:04Z Bautsch 630029 /* The mathematical core */ lambda for linear shell mass density 4671945 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{Chapter navigation|Gravitational redshift|Conclusion}} </noinclude> == Cosmology of retarded interaction == Modern astrophysics is based on the general theory of relativity (GR) because it has been confirmed by experiments such as the perihelion precession of Mercury or the detection of gravitational waves. A new model must prove that it also correctly describes all the effects that the general theory of relativity explains geometrically. To devise a disruptive cosmology that relies solely on classical, relativistic, and retarded gravitational potentials and dispenses with all ad hoc and a priori hypotheses – such as the equivalence principle of general relativity, cosmological constants, dark matter, dark energy, homogeneity, or isotropy – we must return to a dynamic field approach. To this end, the differential geometry required for general relativity can be replaced by a model that relies on pseudo-Euclidean geometry in Minkowski space. The central challenge is that classical Newtonian gravity acts instantaneously. To construct a consistent cosmology, retarded gravitational potentials can be introduced. This leads to an inherent time dependence and dynamics of the universe without the need to postulate an expansion of spacetime. In what follows, a draft of the '''cosmology of retarded interaction (CRI)''' is outlined. === The axioms of retarded interaction === Established physics is based on three pillars, which are used to build the cosmology of retarded interaction: # '''Classical mechanics:''' The force <math display="inline">F = m \cdot a</math> as the basis of the acceleration <math display="inline">a</math> of a mass <math display="inline">m</math> . # '''Relativistic kinematics:''' time dilation and length contraction according to the special theory of relativity, but without the curvature of spacetime. # '''Retarded gravitation:''' The gravitational effect propagates at the speed of light <math display="inline">c</math>. The potential <math display="inline">\Phi</math> at a point <math display="inline">\mathbf {r}</math> at time <math display="inline">t</math> depends on the state of the source at time <math display="inline">t - \Delta t</math>, where <math display="inline">\Delta t = \frac {r} {c}</math>. === The mathematical core === For the mathematical formulation, the gravitational potential can be substituted into the wave equation: :<math>\square \Phi = \left( \frac {1} {c^2} \frac {\partial^2} {\partial t^2} - \nabla^2 \right) \Phi = 4\pi G \rho (\vec {r}, t)</math> To calculate the gravitational potential at a given location <math>\vec {r}</math> at a specific time <math>t</math>, one must not use the current mass distribution <math>\rho (\vec {r}, t)</math>; rather, the mass distribution must be considered at a retarded time <math>t_{ret}</math>: :<math>t_{ret} = t - \frac {|\vec {r} - \vec {r}'|} {c}</math> The solution to this wave equation is the retarded potential: :<math>\Phi (\vec {r}, t) = -G \iiint \frac {\rho (\vec {r}', t_{ret})} {|\vec {r} - \vec {r}'|} d^3r'</math> In a universe with massive objects, gravity never acts instantaneously but always depends on the mass’s past position. This creates a phase shift between mass and force, as well as an attenuation of the retarded gravitational potentials. Since the particle horizon of a spherical kinematic universe expands at the speed of light in a vacuum, the density depends heavily on the distance from the observer. Observers at the centre see the edges as they were in the past, when the universe was still smaller and denser. For observers in the centre (<math>\vec {r} = 0</math>) of a mass distribution within a sphere with the radius <math>R</math> the integral above can be simplified with the linear shell mass densities <math>\lambda (r', t)</math> (in kilogram per metre) at their surfaces <math>A'</math>: :<math>\rho (r', t) = A' \cdot \lambda (r', t) = 4 \pi \cdot r'^2 \cdot \lambda (r', t)</math> :<math>\Phi (0, t) = -G \iiint \frac {\rho (\vec {r}', t_{ret})} {\vec {r}'} d^3r' = -4\pi G \int\limits_{0}^{R} \frac {\lambda (\vec {r}', t_{ret})} {\vec {r}'} r'^2 dr' = -4\pi G \int\limits_{0}^{R} \lambda (r', t_{ret}) \, r' dr'</math> The retarded radius <math>R_{ret}</math> of the surface of a sphere at the retarded time <math>t_{ret}</math> that moves away with the speed <math>v</math> is given by: :<math>R_{ret} (v) = c \cdot t_{ret} = v \left( t - \frac {R_{ret} (v)} {c} \right) = \frac {v \cdot t} {1 + \frac {v} {c}}</math> The maximum radius <math>R_{obs}</math> that can be experienced by an observer in the centre of the universe is the observable horizon at the retarded time <math>t_{ret}</math> that moved away with speed of light. It is given by the following limit: :<math>R_{obs} = \lim_{v \to c} R_{ret} (v) = \frac {c \cdot t} {2}</math> At a certain point in time <math>t_0</math> with a homogeneous mass distribution <math>\rho_0</math>, the retarded mass density <math>\rho_{ret}</math> is given by: :<math>\rho_{ret} = \rho (r', t_{ret}) = \rho \left( t - \frac {r'} {c} \right) = \rho_0 \cdot \left( \frac {t_0} {t - \frac {r'} {c}}\right)^3</math> Due to the effect of the retarded potentials the mass distribution becomes increasingly inhomogeneous over time. The gravitational potential in the centre at <math>r \approx 0</math> bocomes more and more flat, and the mass density in the out regions at <math>r \lessapprox R_{obs}</math> becomes higher and higher over time. Furthermore, the the radial velocity component <math>v (r, t)</math> of all mass points is increasing over time as well: :<math>0 \le v(r, t) \le v(r, t + \Delta t) < c</math> with <math>\Delta t \ge 0</math> This leads to an accelerated expansion with the acceleration <math>a(r, t)</math>: :<math>0 \le a(r, t) \le a(r, t + \Delta t)</math> An time-dependent inhomogenous mass distribution can be expressed by the dimensionless function <math>f (\xi, t_{ret})</math> with the dimensionless parameter <math>\xi</math>: :<math>\xi = \frac {r'} {c \cdot t_{ret}}</math> with <math>0 \le r' \le R_{ret}</math> and <math>0 \le \xi \le 1</math> With: :<math>t_{ret} = \frac {r'} {c \cdot \xi}</math> The Lorentz factor <math>\gamma</math> can also be taken into account. In special relativity it describes the increased relativistic mass <math>m_{rel} (v)</math> of a particle with the velocity <math>v</math> and the rest mass <math>m_0</math> as well as the increased mass density <math>\rho_{rel} (v)</math> of an appropriate space element with the rest mass density <math>\rho_0</math>: :<math>\gamma = \frac 1 {\sqrt{1 - \left( \frac{v}{c} \right) ^2}}</math> :<math>m_{rel} = \gamma \cdot m_0</math> :<math>\rho_{rel} = \gamma^2 \cdot \rho_0</math> Then the relativistic and retarded mass density distribution <math>\rho_{ret,rel}</math> is given by the initial shell mass density <math>\lambda_0</math> at the radius <math>r'_0</math> at the time <math>t_0</math>: :<math>\rho_{ret,rel} = \rho (r', t_{ret}, v) = 4 \pi \cdot {r'}^2 \cdot \lambda (r', t_{ret}, v) = \gamma^2 \cdot 4 \pi \cdot {r'_0}^2 \cdot \lambda_0 \cdot \left( \frac {t_0} {t_{ret}}\right)^3 \cdot f (\xi, t_{ret})</math> === Cosmological mechanisms === ==== The apparent expansion ==== In general relativity, redshift is a stretching of spacetime. In the cosmology of retarded interaction, it is the result of a dynamic retardation in both time and space. Since the gravitational effect arrives retarded, the force of mass lags behind. In a system consisting of many particles, this leads to a continuous kinematic shift in their trajectories. When we receive light from distant sources, we do not observe an expansion of spacetime, but rather the cumulative effect of the net gravitational potentials on the propagation of light (gravitational redshift) and the relativistic potentials due to the motion of the source (Doppler redshift). ==== A replacement for dark matter ==== In the standard model of cosmology respectively the Lambda cold dark matter model (Lambda-CDM model or ΛCDM model), the flat rotation curves of galaxies are explained by dark matter which is even changing over time. In the cosmology of retarded interaction, they result from the retarded effect of the baryonic matter accreted by the galaxies. The stars in the outer regions of a galaxy respond to the gravitational potential of the center as it was millions of years ago. The force does not decrease as <math display="inline">1 / r^2</math> because the time delay generates an additional force component, similar to the Liénard–Wiechert potentials in electrodynamics. ==== A replacement for dark energy ==== In the cosmology of retarded interaction, accelerated expansion is interpreted as a cosmic phenomenon. The retarded gravitational potentials of homogeneously distributed masses – located in a spherical shell outside the sphere’s surface on which a moving test mass rests – lead to an net outward acceleration of the test mass, since masses in front of the test mass cause stronger retarded forces than opposing masses that reach the test mass with attenuated retarded forces. Consequently, all mass points moving in the universe drift apart at an accelerating rate because the net acting forces, due to the retardation, cause a radially outward acceleration force. As a result, matter in the outer regions of the universe becomes increasingly dense, creating an inhomogeneous mass distribution (black shell) that continuously amplifies the effect of the retarded potentials. The cosmology of retarded interaction therefore does not align with metric expansion, it only presupposes a static pseudo-Euclidean space. If spacetime itself were expanding, this would call into question or modify the speed of light <math display="inline">c</math> as a constant parameter for the retardation <math display="inline">\Delta t = r/c</math>. The cosmology of retarded interaction would thus actively dispute the thesis of metric expansion and interpret it as an optical illusion. In the cosmology of retarded interaction, expansion is not necessarily linked to an event such as the Big Bang, but is rather a dynamic process. The retardation of gravity gives rise to inhomogeneity. When moving masses are far enough apart that the time delay <math display="inline">\Delta t</math> effectively weakens and phase-shifts the effect of gravity, the objects begin to drift due to their kinetic motion. The farther they drift, the larger <math display="inline">\Delta t</math> becomes, and the weaker the retarded forces from the opposite side from the universe become the expansion accelerates without the need for dark energy. ==== The universe as a black hole ==== In general relativity, a black hole is a region of extreme spatial curvature. However, since cosmology of retarded interaction rejects spatial curvature and replaces it with retarded potentials, the concept of a black hole would have to be radically redefined. In cosmology of retarded interaction, a black hole would not be a geometric point, but rather a region of high mass density in which the gravitational potentials are so strong that the escape velocity <math display="inline">v_e \geq c</math> is reached. If our universe were the interior of such an object, we would find ourselves in a region where the retarded potentials are dominated by a massive external source which is located in the out regions of the universe. This region can be interpreted as a black shell. Since cosmology of retarded interaction is based on classical potentials, there is no mathematical necessity for a singularity. The retarded effect smooths out extreme gradients over time. A universe-black-hole in cosmology of retarded interaction would thus be more like a gigantic cluster of baryonic matter, within which we find ourselves. The observed physics would then be the superposition of the local forces and the global, retarded pull of the surrounding mass in the black shell. === Comparison with the standard model of cosmology === [[File:Gravitational.field.in.cosmology.of.retarded.interaction.png|thumb|upright=2|Gravitational field in the '''cosmology of retarded interaction''' within a '''spherical black shell''' of an expanding universe with retarded gravitational potentials:<br/>'''Vector field''' showing the direction of gravitational forces by {{blue|'''blue arrows'''}}.<br/>Corresponding '''scalar potential field''' indicating equipotential lines by {{red|'''red circles'''}}.]] The cosmology of retarded interaction does not rely on a priori hypotheses or ad hoc assumptions, which are taken for granted in the standard model of cosmology. {| class="wikitable" |+ Comparision standard model of cosmology (ΛCDM) and cosmology of retarded interaction (CRI) |- ! Concept !! Standard model of cosmology (GR / ΛCDM) !! Cosmology of retarded interaction (CRI) |- | Principle of equivalence || Hypothesis (general theory of relativity) confirmed on earth within the margins of measurement accuracy || No, gravitation has a scalar potential and its gradient is a force |- | Homogeneity || Ad hoc assumption (cosmological principle) || No homogeneity, higher mass and energy densities in outer regions of a kinematic universe |- | Isotropy || Ad hoc assumption (cosmological principle) || Only from the centre of a kinematic universe |- | Copernican principle || Ad hoc assumption || Milky Way in Local Group near the centre of a kinematic universe |- | Dark matter || Ad hoc assumption (non-baryonic particles) || Effect of retarded gravitational potentials |- | Dark energy || Ad hoc assumption (cosmological constant Λ) || Effect of retarded gravitational potentials |- | Rotation curves of spiral galaxies || Ad hoc assumption (dark matter) || Retarded gravitational potentials of accreted baryonic matter |- | High-redshift objects || Ad hoc assumption (cosmological redshift by expanding spacetime) || Gravitational redshift due to baryonic matter in black shell |- | Geometry || Dynamic differential geometry|| Static pseudo-Euclidean geometry |- | Spacetime || Curved spacetime || Minkowski spacetime |- | Spatial evolution of particle horizon || Accelerated expansion with superluminal speed || Expansion with speed of light |- | Spatial evolution of event horizon || Accelerated expansion with superluminal speed || Expansion of inner surface of massive mass shell with sub-light speed |- | Gravitational potential within universe || Constant || Increasing decrease as the distance from the center increases |- | Singularities || Points with infinite mass and energy density, event horizonts with infinite gravitational redshift || None |} === Summary === The universe is not expanding, and it is not curved. It is a system of masses distributed in flat space, whose mutual attraction is so time-delayed that the resulting trajectories and light signals create the illusion of an expanding geometry that is explained by dark matter and dark energy in the standard model of cosmology. The cosmology of retarded interaction consistently adheres to physical axioms (classical, relativistic, and retarded potentials). It dispenses with the geometric interpretation (no spatial curvature, no event horizon in the sense of general relativity) and regards everything as the result of forces, masses, and time delays. The dark components and spatial curvature are merely mathematical artifacts that arise when one attempts to describe the retarded force action using differential geometry. The universe is not viewed as a geometric black hole in the sense of general relativity, but rather as a massive and inhomogeneous system whose internal dynamics are governed by retarded potentials. Cosmology of retarded interaction is based solely on the view that the universe is a classical mechanical system with retardation. By introducing differential-geometric paradigms such as the curvature or stretching of spacetime, one departs from the disruptive paradigm of cosmology of retarded interaction and returns to general relativity. nje1g0h0qgpj7zfpihgsqc7zhdk0m4t 0 485690 4671901 4670902 2026-09-23T07:08:07Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671901 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Delete|example=false|Encyclopedic articles belong at [[w:|Wikipedia]]}}</noinclude> == Overview == A '''smart city''' is an urban area that uses digital technology, data, and connected infrastructure to improve how services are delivered while making the city more livable, efficient, and sustainable. It represents the strategic use of technology and modernized infrastructure to ensure that a city operates more efficiently, sustainably, and remains livable for its residents. Increasingly, the measure of an intelligent city is how effectively technology, infrastructure and public services improve everyday life for residents. By 2050, nearly 70 percent of the world's population will live in urban areas, placing enormous pressure on roads, power grids, and other urban systems, which is why smart city approaches have gained global attention. == Definition == One well-accepted definition describes a smart city as a city that connects the physical infrastructure, the information-technology infrastructure, the social infrastructure and the business infrastructure to leverage the collective intelligence of the city. More simply, a smart city can be understood as an urban center with technologies that use digital data to deliver better public services and more effective uses of resources. It focuses on efficiency, sustainability, and connectivity through integrated digital solutions. A smart city leverages advanced technologies and data-driven solutions to manage resources, services, and infrastructure efficiently. == Core Concepts == A smart city is comprised of several interconnected layers that work together. The Physical Layer includes the hard infrastructure such as roads, pipes, and buildings, but retrofitted with intelligence, involving smart meters for real-time power usage and automated waste collection systems. The Digital Layer acts as the nervous system of the city, consisting of sensors, cameras, and connectivity such as 4G, 5G, and fiber that collect and transmit data. The Service Layer is where the citizen interacts with the city, including online portals for government services that reduce the need for physical queues, and apps that provide real-time bus locations or allow reporting of broken streetlights. The Cognitive Layer involves the Integrated Command and Control Centers which are the brains where data from various departments is synthesized to make real-time decisions, such as adjusting traffic signal timings based on current congestion levels. Other key characteristics of a smart city include the use of the Internet of Things, big data, and artificial intelligence, which play a significant role in organizing urban infrastructure and managing resources. A smart city consists of six major components including smart governance, smart economy, smart citizens, smart mobility, smart environment, and smart living. It leverages interconnected devices and intelligent systems to enhance efficiency, promote sustainability, and address complex urban challenges effectively. == Examples == Singapore's Smart Nation Initiative represents one of the most comprehensive national-level smart city programs, integrating digital technologies across government services, transportation, healthcare, and urban planning. Songdo in the Republic of Korea serves as a purpose-built smart city where autonomous urban systems manage services with minimal human intervention. Valencia in Spain has implemented AI-driven autonomous urban systems for traffic management, public safety, and environmental monitoring. Shenzhen in China has developed autonomous public transportation systems including self-driving buses and smart traffic management. Dubai has launched a self-driving transport strategy aiming to make 25 percent of all trips autonomous by 2030. In India, Guna in Madhya Pradesh is on a journey towards becoming an autonomous city with integrated smart infrastructure. Beijing and Shanghai feature extensive networks of smart traffic lights adjusted based on real-time traffic, electronic toll systems, and AI-powered ride-hailing services. Zurich consistently ranks among the smartest cities in the world for infrastructure, technology, governance and quality of life. [[Category:Smart city]] 82ffi88qbthppabnozl4f3ymrjrpajo 2 485699 4671809 4670708 2026-09-22T20:24:43Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 Restoring revision 4670668 by [[Special:Contributions/Samah2025|Samah2025]]: Inappropriate to edit someone else's sandbox 4671809 wikitext text/x-wiki == A YOUNG GIRL'S GUIDE TO MENSTRUAL HEALTH AND WELLBEING. == '''Subtitle:''' ''Understanding Your Body, Caring for Yourself, and Growing with Confidence.'' == Book Topic == '''Main topic:''' Menstrual Health and Well-Being The book will introduce young girls to menstruation, puberty, menstrual hygiene, body changes, emotional wellbeing, healthy lifestyle practices, and menstrual health concerns. It will also address common myths and misconceptions surrounding menstruation and encourage girls to talk openly with trusted adults and healthcare professionals when they have questions or concerns. == Target Reading Level == '''Primary reading level:''' Upper primary to secondary school level. '''Target age:''' Approximately '''10–19 years''' '''Primary audience:''' * Girls approaching puberty * Girls who have recently started menstruating * Adolescent girls seeking more information about their bodies '''Secondary audience:''' * Parents and caregivers * Teachers * Girls' club mentors * Youth workers * Health educators === Language preference === The book should use: * Simple and clear English * Short explanations * Age-appropriate medical terminology * Illustrations and diagrams * Questions and activities * "Myth vs Fact" sections The tone should be '''warm, encouraging, respectful, and non-judgmental''', so that a girl feels like she is learning from a trusted mentor rather than reading a medical textbook. === Book Summary === ''A Young Girl’s Guide to Menstrual Health and Well-Being'' is an informative, practical, and empowering guide designed to help young girls understand menstruation and the changes that happen to their bodies during puberty. It provides simple and age-appropriate information about the menstrual cycle, menstrual hygiene, menstrual products, period pain, nutrition, physical activity, emotional wellbeing, and common menstrual health concerns. The book also addresses common myths, misconceptions, embarrassment, and stigma surrounding menstruation. Through practical advice, relatable examples, activities, reflection questions, and myth-versus-fact sections, girls are encouraged to understand their bodies, practice healthy menstrual hygiene, ask questions, and seek support when needed. It also highlights the important role of parents, teachers, mentors, and communities in creating safe and supportive environments where girls can manage their periods with dignity and confidence. Ultimately, the book aims to help every girl understand that menstruation is a normal part of growing up and that having a period should not prevent her from going to school, participating in activities, pursuing her dreams, or feeling confident about herself. = Book Form = === Suggested chapter format === Each chapter can contain: '''1. Let's Talk About It''' – a short relatable story or situation '''2. What You Need to Know''' – the main lesson '''3. Did You Know?''' – interesting fact '''4. Myth or Fact?''' – address misconceptions '''5. Try This''' – practical activity '''6. Think About It''' – reflection questions '''7. Key Takeaways''' – 3–5 important point == Chapter Book Structure == === Chapter 1: Understanding My Body and Puberty === * What is puberty? * Changes in the body * Emotional changes * Why bodies develop differently * Understanding and accepting my changing body === Chapter 2: Understanding Menstruation and the Menstrual Cycle === * What is menstruation? * Why do girls have periods? * The menstrual cycle explained * When periods usually begin * Tracking your menstrual cycle * What is normal? === Chapter 3: Menstrual Hygiene and Choosing Menstrual Products === * Personal hygiene during menstruation * Sanitary pads and reusable pads * Tampons, menstrual cups, and period underwear * Changing and caring for menstrual products * Safe disposal * Creating a personal period kit === Chapter 4: Caring for Myself During My Period === * Nutrition and iron-rich foods * Drinking water * Exercise and physical activity * Sleep and rest * Managing period pain * General self-care === Chapter 5: Periods, Emotions and Self-Confidence === * Mood changes and hormones * Stress and anxiety * Body image * Feeling embarrassed about periods * Building self-esteem * Loving and respecting my body === Chapter 6: When My Period Doesn't Feel Normal === * Irregular periods * Heavy bleeding * Severe period pain * Missed periods * Anaemia * Endometriosis and PCOS * When to seek medical help === Chapter 7: Menstrual Health at School and Home === * Managing periods at school * What to do when your period starts unexpectedly * Talking to parents and caregivers * Talking to teachers and mentors * Dealing with teasing and bullying * Creating supportive environments === Chapter 8: Breaking the Silence—Myths, Stigma and Menstrual Dignity === * Common menstrual myths * Facts about menstruation * Cultural beliefs and misconceptions * Period stigma * Why menstruation is not dirty or shameful * Speaking openly and respectfully about periods === Chapter 9: My Body, My Voice, My Future === * Body awareness and personal boundaries * Dignity and self-respect * Making informed decisions * Speaking up about health needs * Supporting other girls * Becoming a menstrual health champion === Chapter 10: My Menstrual Health Journey === * My period tracking calendar * My personal hygiene plan * My period emergency plan * My menstrual health goals * Questions I can ask a healthcare provider * My personal commitment to caring for myself === Supporting Sections === * '''Period Diary''' * '''Myth vs. Fact''' * '''Frequently Asked Questions''' * '''Menstrual Health Checklist''' * '''Menstrual Health Glossary''' * '''Helpful Resources and References''' == Conclusion == Menstruation is a normal part of growing up, and every girl deserves to understand her body and care for herself with confidence. Never be ashamed to ask questions or seek help when you need it. Remember, your period should never stop you from learning, dreaming, and achieving your goals. dbn3jdptqqo36l9y80bmtk54w8wrh2b 0 485710 4671887 4671155 2026-09-23T06:21:32Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671887 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == [[File:Indian railways 18 star logo.jpg|thumb|'''''Credit: Mainaksinghabarma.''''' The Indian Railways 18-star logo. ]] '''Indian Railways''' is the state-owned railway company of India. It owns and operates the country's rail transport system. Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. The first passenger train ran on 16th April 1853 between Boribunder and Thane. Since then, Indian Railways has been growing continuously. After independence in 1947, India inherited a weak rail network. About 40 per cent of the railway lines were in the newly created Pakistan. Many lines had to be rerouted through Indian territory. New lines had to be constructed to connect important cities such as Jammu. At the time of independence, there were 42 separate railway systems. This included 32 lines owned by the former Indian princely states. These systems spanned a total of 55,000 km. In 1951, these systems were nationalized as one unit called Indian Railways. In 1952, it was decided to replace the existing rail networks by zones. A total of six zones came into being in 1952. On 6 September 2003, six further zones were made from existing zones for administration purpose. One more zone was added in 2006. The Indian Railways now has 17 zonal Railways. Indian Railways is also one of the world's largest rail networks. It has 64,015 route kilometers of route lengths. As on 31st March 2009, the route length of Indian Railways covered 64,015 kms with running track length of 86,937 kms. The total trackage including yards and sidings stood at 113,115 kms. Indian Railways is the fourth-largest network in the world. It spans over 1.2 lakh km across the country. Administratively, the Indian Railways have been divided into sixteen zones. Each zone is headed by a General Manager. These zones are further sub-divided into divisions. Each division is headed by a Divisional Railway Manager. == Locomotives == [[File:Pratham - India's First WDP-4D Locomotive.jpg|thumb|270x270px|'''Credit: Kishlay RF.''' This locomotive is named 'Pratham'. It is India's first WDP-4D locomotive. ]] Indian Railways primarily operate a fleet of electric and diesel locomotives. Steam locomotives are operated on mountain railways and on heritage trains. As of February 2026, Indian Railways had 13,569 electric and 4,169 diesel locomotives. Indian Railways uses three prime classes of locomotives. These are Electric, Diesel and Steam locomotives. They are built at CLW (Chittaranjan), DLW/DMW (Varanasi/Patiala) and preserved at heritage sheds. Post-2020, the national transporter has switched to 100 per cent electric traction on broad gauge routes as part of Mission Net-Zero. The locomotives have a naming system. Most of the diesel locomotives operating on broad gauge are 'WDM-2' series. Here 'W' stands for Broad Gauge, 'D' stands for Diesel, and 'M' stands for 'Mixed' service. The naming system includes codes like WDM for Wide diesel mixed, WDP for Wide diesel passenger, WDG for Wide diesel goods, and WDS for Wide diesel shunter. Starting in 2002, for diesel passenger, goods, and mixed locomotives, the series digit identifies the horsepower range of the locomotive. The digit '3' is for locomotives with over 3000hp but less than 4000hp. The digit '5' is for locomotives over 5000hp but less than 6000hp. == Passenger Trains == [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|331x331px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' An ICF Utkrisht passenger rake. (Belagavi - Mysuru - Bagalkot)]] Indian Railways runs many types of passenger trains. These include local trains, express trains, and premium trains. The locomotives and coaches determine the type of service. Electric locomotives are used for most passenger services now. The WAP series locomotives are mainly used for passenger trains. The WAP-4, WAP-5, and WAP-7 are common passenger locomotives. The WAP-4 has 5,000 bhp and was in production from 1994 to 2015. The railway network connects all parts of India. It carries millions of passengers every day. It also transports goods across the country. The system has grown from the first train in 1853 to a vast network today. The first section from Hathras Road to Mathura Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October 1875. By 1880 the Indian Railway system had a route mileage of about 9000 miles. {{Navigation|next=Indian Railways/History}} {{BookCat}} alo14lbd2mtmv6sl817u7q1rdiefc6a 4671888 4671887 2026-09-23T06:21:55Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671888 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == [[File:Indian railways 18 star logo.jpg|thumb|'''''Credit: Mainaksinghabarma.''''' The Indian Railways 18-star logo. ]] '''Indian Railways''' is the state-owned railway company of India. It owns and operates the country's rail transport system. Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. The first passenger train ran on 16th April 1853 between Boribunder and Thane. Since then, Indian Railways has been growing continuously. After independence in 1947, India inherited a weak rail network. About 40 per cent of the railway lines were in the newly created Pakistan. Many lines had to be rerouted through Indian territory. New lines had to be constructed to connect important cities such as Jammu. At the time of independence, there were 42 separate railway systems. This included 32 lines owned by the former Indian princely states. These systems spanned a total of 55,000 km. In 1951, these systems were nationalized as one unit called Indian Railways. In 1952, it was decided to replace the existing rail networks by zones. A total of six zones came into being in 1952. On 6 September 2003, six further zones were made from existing zones for administration purpose. One more zone was added in 2006. The Indian Railways now has 17 zonal Railways. Indian Railways is also one of the world's largest rail networks. It has 64,015 route kilometers of route lengths. As on 31st March 2009, the route length of Indian Railways covered 64,015 kms with running track length of 86,937 kms. The total trackage including yards and sidings stood at 113,115 kms. Indian Railways is the fourth-largest network in the world. It spans over 1.2 lakh km across the country. Administratively, the Indian Railways have been divided into sixteen zones. Each zone is headed by a General Manager. These zones are further sub-divided into divisions. Each division is headed by a Divisional Railway Manager. == Locomotives == [[File:Pratham - India's First WDP-4D Locomotive.jpg|thumb|270x270px|'''Credit: Kishlay RF.''' This locomotive is named 'Pratham'. It is India's first WDP-4D locomotive. ]] Indian Railways primarily operate a fleet of electric and diesel locomotives. Steam locomotives are operated on mountain railways and on heritage trains. As of February 2026, Indian Railways had 13,569 electric and 4,169 diesel locomotives. Indian Railways uses three prime classes of locomotives. These are Electric, Diesel and Steam locomotives. They are built at CLW (Chittaranjan), DLW/DMW (Varanasi/Patiala) and preserved at heritage sheds. Post-2020, the national transporter has switched to 100 per cent electric traction on broad gauge routes as part of Mission Net-Zero. The locomotives have a naming system. Most of the diesel locomotives operating on broad gauge are 'WDM-2' series. Here 'W' stands for Broad Gauge, 'D' stands for Diesel, and 'M' stands for 'Mixed' service. The naming system includes codes like WDM for Wide diesel mixed, WDP for Wide diesel passenger, WDG for Wide diesel goods, and WDS for Wide diesel shunter. Starting in 2002, for diesel passenger, goods, and mixed locomotives, the series digit identifies the horsepower range of the locomotive. The digit '3' is for locomotives with over 3000hp but less than 4000hp. The digit '5' is for locomotives over 5000hp but less than 6000hp. == Passenger Trains == [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|331x331px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' An ICF Utkrisht passenger rake. (Belagavi - Mysuru - Bagalkot)]] Indian Railways runs many types of passenger trains. These include local trains, express trains, and premium trains. The locomotives and coaches determine the type of service. Electric locomotives are used for most passenger services now. The WAP series locomotives are mainly used for passenger trains. The WAP-4, WAP-5, and WAP-7 are common passenger locomotives. The WAP-4 has 5,000 bhp and was in production from 1994 to 2015. The railway network connects all parts of India. It carries millions of passengers every day. It also transports goods across the country. The system has grown from the first train in 1853 to a vast network today. The first section from Hathras Road to Mathura Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October 1875. By 1880 the Indian Railway system had a route mileage of about 9000 miles. {{Navigation|next=/History}} {{BookCat}} tt3omcd7ee2qflvqme7zithfokrq2lg 4671889 4671888 2026-09-23T06:22:57Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671889 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|next=History}} == Overview == [[File:Indian railways 18 star logo.jpg|thumb|'''''Credit: Mainaksinghabarma.''''' The Indian Railways 18-star logo. ]] '''Indian Railways''' is the state-owned railway company of India. It owns and operates the country's rail transport system. Railways were first introduced to India in 1853. The first passenger train ran on 16th April 1853 between Boribunder and Thane. Since then, Indian Railways has been growing continuously. After independence in 1947, India inherited a weak rail network. About 40 per cent of the railway lines were in the newly created Pakistan. Many lines had to be rerouted through Indian territory. New lines had to be constructed to connect important cities such as Jammu. At the time of independence, there were 42 separate railway systems. This included 32 lines owned by the former Indian princely states. These systems spanned a total of 55,000 km. In 1951, these systems were nationalized as one unit called Indian Railways. In 1952, it was decided to replace the existing rail networks by zones. A total of six zones came into being in 1952. On 6 September 2003, six further zones were made from existing zones for administration purpose. One more zone was added in 2006. The Indian Railways now has 17 zonal Railways. Indian Railways is also one of the world's largest rail networks. It has 64,015 route kilometers of route lengths. As on 31st March 2009, the route length of Indian Railways covered 64,015 kms with running track length of 86,937 kms. The total trackage including yards and sidings stood at 113,115 kms. Indian Railways is the fourth-largest network in the world. It spans over 1.2 lakh km across the country. Administratively, the Indian Railways have been divided into sixteen zones. Each zone is headed by a General Manager. These zones are further sub-divided into divisions. Each division is headed by a Divisional Railway Manager. == Locomotives == [[File:Pratham - India's First WDP-4D Locomotive.jpg|thumb|270x270px|'''Credit: Kishlay RF.''' This locomotive is named 'Pratham'. It is India's first WDP-4D locomotive. ]] Indian Railways primarily operate a fleet of electric and diesel locomotives. Steam locomotives are operated on mountain railways and on heritage trains. As of February 2026, Indian Railways had 13,569 electric and 4,169 diesel locomotives. Indian Railways uses three prime classes of locomotives. These are Electric, Diesel and Steam locomotives. They are built at CLW (Chittaranjan), DLW/DMW (Varanasi/Patiala) and preserved at heritage sheds. Post-2020, the national transporter has switched to 100 per cent electric traction on broad gauge routes as part of Mission Net-Zero. The locomotives have a naming system. Most of the diesel locomotives operating on broad gauge are 'WDM-2' series. Here 'W' stands for Broad Gauge, 'D' stands for Diesel, and 'M' stands for 'Mixed' service. The naming system includes codes like WDM for Wide diesel mixed, WDP for Wide diesel passenger, WDG for Wide diesel goods, and WDS for Wide diesel shunter. Starting in 2002, for diesel passenger, goods, and mixed locomotives, the series digit identifies the horsepower range of the locomotive. The digit '3' is for locomotives with over 3000hp but less than 4000hp. The digit '5' is for locomotives over 5000hp but less than 6000hp. == Passenger Trains == [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|331x331px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' An ICF Utkrisht passenger rake. (Belagavi - Mysuru - Bagalkot)]] Indian Railways runs many types of passenger trains. These include local trains, express trains, and premium trains. The locomotives and coaches determine the type of service. Electric locomotives are used for most passenger services now. The WAP series locomotives are mainly used for passenger trains. The WAP-4, WAP-5, and WAP-7 are common passenger locomotives. The WAP-4 has 5,000 bhp and was in production from 1994 to 2015. The railway network connects all parts of India. It carries millions of passengers every day. It also transports goods across the country. The system has grown from the first train in 1853 to a vast network today. The first section from Hathras Road to Mathura Cantonment was opened to traffic on 19th October 1875. By 1880 the Indian Railway system had a route mileage of about 9000 miles. {{BookCat}} 41zgf4r643gpll02t9b293wieub4wv6 0 485716 4671890 4671159 2026-09-23T06:24:38Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671890 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|next=Zonal Railways|previous=Overview}} == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' is one of the largest and oldest railway networks in the world. It is a very important part of life in India. Every day, millions of people use trains to travel for work, study, pilgrimage, and holidays. The railway network connects big cities, small towns, and even remote villages. Trains also carry goods like food, coal, cement, and machines from one part of the country to another. It plays a key role in the economy and daily life of the nation. The story of Indian Railways began more than 170 years ago. At that time, India was under British rule. The British wanted a better way to move troops, goods, and people across the country. The first passenger train ran in 1853 between Bombay and Thane. Since then, the railway system has grown and changed many times. It has seen wars, independence, nationalization, and modernization. ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rail_transport_in_India#History|Rail transport in India - History]]'' == Early Beginnings == [[File:The Queen in a somewhat dilapidated condition. Nevertheless, my tenth visit was of worth^^ - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|307x307px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' The '''Fairy Queen''' is one of the oldest locomotives in Indian Railways. (Made in 1855)]] The idea of building railways in India first came in the early 1830s. At that time, the British were ruling India. They needed a faster and cheaper way to move goods and people. In 1832, a proposal was made to build a railway line in Madras (now Chennai). This was the first formal suggestion for railways in India. Between 1836 and 1838, a small experimental line was built near Madras. This line was used to carry granite stones from a quarry to a road. The wagons on this line were pushed by hand. It was not a real passenger train, but it showed that railways could work in India. The first real passenger train in India ran on 16 April 1853. This date is now celebrated as Indian Railways Day. The train started from Bori Bunder station in Bombay (now Mumbai) and went to Thane. The distance was about 34 kilometers. The train had 14 carriages and carried around 400 passengers. It was pulled by three steam locomotives named Sahib, Sindh, and Sultan. These locomotives were imported from England. The journey took about one hour and fifteen minutes. There was a big celebration at both ends of the line. A 21-gun salute was fired to mark the occasion. This event marked the beginning of the Indian Railways as we know it today. After this first train, more lines were planned and built. In 1854, the first eastern railway line opened from Howrah to Hooghly near Calcutta (now Kolkata). In 1856, the first southern railway line was built. In 1859, a northern line connected Allahabad to Kanpur. These early lines were built by private companies. The British government gave these companies land and money to build the railways. Each company had its own name, like the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, the East Indian Railway, and the Madras Railway. These companies ran the trains and collected fares. The government made rules and supervised their work. == Expansion During British Rule == After the first train in 1853, the railway network grew quickly. The British saw railways as a useful tool for trade, travel, and control. They wanted to move raw materials from the interior of India to ports for export to Britain. They also wanted to bring British manufactured goods into India. Railways made this easier and cheaper. By 1860, there were about 1,300 miles of railway lines. By 1880, this had grown to about 9,000 miles. By 1905, the total length of railway lines in British India was nearly 27,000 kilometers. By 1930, there were more than 40,000 miles of railroads in India. About 98 percent of India's existing rail lines were built between 1870 and 1930. Many new lines were built in different parts of the country. In 1860, the line from Bombay (now Mumbai) to Poona (now Pune) was opened. In 1861, the line from Calcutta to Delhi was completed. In 1870, the Great Indian Peninsula Railway connected Bombay to Madras. This was a major achievement. It linked the western and southern parts of India by rail. In 1873, the first railway bridge over the Yamuna River was built near Delhi. In 1880, the line from Madras to Bangalore was opened. In 1890, the Assam Bengal Railway was started to carry tea and other goods from the northeast. Many other lines were built in the following decades. The railways were also used heavily during wars. During the First World War (1914–1918), trains carried troops and supplies to different parts of the country and to ports for shipment overseas. During the Second World War (1939–1945), the railways were used even more. Many tracks, bridges, and engines were damaged during this time. After the war, a lot of repair work was needed. Despite the damage, the railway system remained a key part of India's transport. It connected major cities, ports, and industrial areas. It also helped move troops and supplies during wars. === Social and Economic Impact === The railways changed life in India in many ways. They made travel faster and cheaper. Before railways, people travelled by bullock cart, horse, or on foot. These methods were slow and could not carry heavy loads. Trains could carry many passengers and large amounts of goods in a short time. People could now go to faraway places for work, study, or pilgrimage. Trains also carried goods like cotton, coal, and food grains. This helped trade and business grow. Markets in different parts of the country became more connected. Farmers could sell their produce in distant cities. Industrialists could get raw materials and send finished goods more easily. Studies have shown that railways had a big impact on the Indian economy. Between 1860 and 1913, railways were the most important driver of economic growth in India. They accounted for more than 60 percent of all per capita income growth in this period. Railways decreased trade costs and reduced price differences between regions. They increased both interregional and international trade. They also raised real income levels. One study found that railways raised real agricultural income by 16 percent. By 1930, goods could be shipped about 400 miles a day by train. This was much faster than before. However, the railways were built mainly to serve British interests. The main goal was to move raw materials from the interior to ports for export to Britain. Finished goods from Britain were then brought back to India. This system helped British industries but did not always benefit Indian workers. Many Indians worked on the railways in low-paying jobs. The fares for passengers were often high for ordinary people. Discriminatory tariff policies hindered Indian industry. There was also a drain of wealth to Britain. Still, over time, railways became a common way of travel for many. They helped spread new ideas and news across the country. Railways also enabled the movement of labor, contributing to the growth of urban centers. However, the commercialization of agriculture often led to exploitation of farmers and increased their dependence on moneylenders. == Independence (20th Century) == In 1947, India became independent from British rule. The country was divided into India and Pakistan. The railway system was also divided between the two new nations. Many routes and stations went to Pakistan, while the rest stayed with India. After independence, the Government of India took control of all railway lines. === Nationalization === In 1951, the railways were nationalized. This meant that all private railway companies were merged into one system under the government. Indian Railways became one of the largest railway networks in the world under a single management. In the same year, the railway system was reorganized into zones. The first zone, Southern Railway, was formed on 14 April 1951. It was created by merging the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway, the South Indian Railway, and the Mysore State Railway. Later in 1951, Central Railway and Western Railway were created. By 1952, there were six zones in total. These were Northern, North Eastern, Northeast Frontier, Eastern, South Eastern, and Southern. More zones were added in later years. In 1966, the number of zones increased to 11. In 2003, there were 16 zones. In 2010, a new zone was added, making it 17 zones. Today, Indian Railways has 18 zones. Each zone manages the railways in its own region. After nationalization, Indian Railways faced many challenges. The network was old and needed repair. Many tracks and bridges had been damaged during the wars. There were also different types of tracks with different gauges. Some lines were broad gauge, some were metre gauge, and some were narrow gauge. This made it difficult to run trains smoothly. Indian Railways began a program to unify the gauges called Project Unigauge. Many metre gauge and narrow-gauge lines were converted to broad gauge. This work continued for many decades. By 2012–13, about 19,100 kilometers of track had been converted from metre gauge or narrow gauge to broad gauge. === Modernization === After nationalization, Indian Railways began to modernize. One major change was the shift from steam engines to diesel and electric engines. Steam locomotives were slowly phased out. Electric trains are faster, cleaner, and more efficient. Electrification of railway lines began in a small way in the 1950s. The first electric trains ran on suburban lines in Bombay and Madras. At that time, only about 388 kilometers of track was electrified out of a total of about 55,000 kilometers. Over the decades, more and more lines were electrified. By the 2020s, about 80 percent of the broad-gauge network was electrified. Indian Railways aims to become fully electrified in the near future. Another important change was the introduction of new types of trains. In the 1960s and 1970s, faster passenger trains like the Rajdhani and Shatabdi were launched. These trains connected major cities and offered better comfort. The Rajdhani Express was introduced in 1969 to connect Delhi with other major cities. The Shatabdi Express was introduced in 1988 for short-distance high-speed travel. In the 1990s, new high-power electric locomotives were imported. The Konkan Railway, a difficult engineering project, was completed in 1998. It connected Mumbai to Mangalore through the Western Ghats. This line has many tunnels and bridges and is considered an engineering marvel. == Computerization == In the 1980s, Indian Railways began to use computers for its operations. Before this, all ticket booking was done manually. Clerks used ledgers and pens to record bookings. This system was slow and often led to errors. In 1982, Indian Railways set up a central organization called COFOIS to computerize freight operations. In 1985, a pilot project for computerized passenger reservation was launched at New Delhi station. This system was called IMPRESS (Integrated Multi-train Passenger Reservation System). It was developed by Indian Railways in association with Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) Limited. Initially, it covered only two trains, but it was a big step forward. In 1986, the Ministry of Railways established the Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS). This organization was created to handle all information technology-related activities on Indian Railways. CRIS developed a new system called CONCERT (Country-wide Network for Computerized Enhanced Reservation and Ticketing). This system linked the five regional databases of Indian Railways. Before this, each city could only sell tickets for trains it controlled. With CONCERT, a passenger in one part of the country could book a seat on any train anywhere in India. The full national network was commissioned in 1999. This was a major achievement. In 2002, Indian Railways launched online train reservations and ticketing over the Internet. This service was provided through IRCTC (Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation). People could now book tickets from their homes or offices. This made travel planning much easier. In 2013, Indian Railways introduced the e-ticketing system. Passengers could now show their tickets on their mobile phones instead of carrying paper tickets. In recent years, many other digital services have been added. These include online food ordering, Wi-Fi at stations, and real-time train tracking. Indian Railways has also introduced the UTS (Unreserved Ticketing System) app for buying local train tickets on mobile phones. == Growth and Challenges (21st Century) == Since the 1990s, Indian Railways has faced both growth and challenges. The economy of India grew rapidly, and so did the demand for rail transport. More people began to travel by train. More goods needed to be moved across the country. Indian Railways expanded its services and introduced new trains. It also improved safety measures and passenger facilities. Online ticket booking, e-catering, and Wi-Fi at stations are some of the new services. The railway network continues to be a lifeline for millions of Indians. However, there were still many challenges. Overcrowding is a common problem on many routes. During peak hours, trains are often full beyond capacity. Accidents and delays still happen, though safety has improved in recent years. The railway system needs constant maintenance and investment. Indian Railways is working on modernizing tracks, signals, and coaches. It is also trying to reduce losses and improve efficiency. One of the big problems is that passenger fares are kept low for social reasons, but this leads to losses. Freight traffic is used to cross-subsidize passenger traffic. This makes freight rates high and affects the competitiveness of Indian industries. Indian Railways is also working on environmental sustainability. It aims to become a net-zero carbon emitter by 2030. To achieve this, it is increasing electrification, using solar power at stations, and planting trees along tracks. It is also trying to reduce water consumption and waste. New stations are being developed with better facilities. Digital services are being expanded to make travel easier. The vision is to have a world-class railway system that meets the needs of a growing India. === Indian Railways Today and Future === [[File:Namo Green Rail.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Kshitij08.''''' India's first Hydrogen train. (Namo Green Rail initiative)]] Today, Indian Railways is a huge organization. It runs thousands of trains every day across more than 68,000 route kilometers. It employs over a million people, making it one of the largest employers in the world. It carries more than 20 million passengers daily and moves over a million tonnes of freight. The railway network connects remote villages to big cities. It plays a key role in the economy and daily life of the nation. Indian Railways is also working to become more environment-friendly by using more electric trains and solar power. In the future, Indian Railways plans to introduce more high-speed trains and modern coaches. It aims to complete full electrification and reduce its carbon footprint. New stations are being developed with better facilities. Digital services are being expanded to make travel easier. The vision is to have a world-class railway system that meets the needs of a growing India. The story of Indian Railways is one of continuous change and progress. From a small 34-kilometre line in 1853 to the 4th largest network today, it has come a long way. {{BookCat}} p4s7qizfyw6yj31dum9rbmemxywv9ol 0 485717 4671891 4671158 2026-09-23T06:26:00Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671891 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=History|next=Rolling Stock}} == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''', one of the world's largest railway networks, is organized into 19 operational geographical zones (as of 2026), each headed by a General Manager who reports to the Railway Board. These zones are semi-autonomous administrative units that manage train operations, infrastructure maintenance, and commercial activities within their respective territories. The zonal system allows for decentralized management of India's vast railway network, which spans over 68,000 route kilometers across the country. ''See also: [[wikipedia:Indian_Railways_organisational_structure#Zonal_management|Indian Railways Zones and Divisions]]'' == Historical Background == The evolution of Indian Railways' zonal structure reflects the country's journey from private railway companies to a unified national system. In 1944, the Government of India took over all existing railway companies that were operating across the subcontinent. This nationalization laid the groundwork for systematic reorganization of the railway administration. In December 1950, the Central Advisory Committee for Railways approved a plan to reorganize Indian Railways into six regional zones. This reorganization came into effect in 1951–1952, when the first six zones were created: Southern Railway (April 14, 1951), Central Railway (November 5, 1951), Western Railway (November 5, 1951), Eastern Railway (April 14, 1952), Northern Railway (April 14, 1952), and North Eastern Railway (April 14, 1952). The number of zones expanded gradually over subsequent decades. South Eastern Railway was formed on August 1, 1955, followed by Northeast Frontier Railway on January 15, 1958. South Central Railway was carved out from portions of Southern and Central Railways on October 2, 1965 (operational from 1966), to provide some dedicated administrative focus to the Andhra Pradesh corridor. The most significant expansion occurred in the early 2000s. On October 1, 2002, two new zones were created: North Western Railway and East Central Railway. Then, on April 1 and April 3, 2003, five additional zones began operations: West Central Railway, South East Central Railway, East Coast Railway, North Central Railway, and South Western Railway. This brought the total to 16 zones. Konkan Railway, which had been operating as a separate entity since 1990, was formally integrated as a zone. Metro Railway, Kolkata was declared the 17th zone on December 19, 2010 (operational from 2019), making it the newest zone at that time. The most recent addition is South Coast Railway, which was announced on February 17, 2019, and became operational on June 1, 2026, bringing the total to 19 zones. == Organizational Structure == Indian Railways operates under a matrix organization where functional branches are under dual control i.e., both zonal and central. The Railway Board, established in March 1905 under the Indian Railway Board Act, serves as the apex body overseeing all railway operations. The Board has undergone several reorganizations, most recently in December 2019 when its size was reduced from eight to five members. Each zonal railway is headed by a General Manager who reports directly to the Railway Board. Zones are further subdivided into divisions, each headed by a Divisional Railway Manager (DRM). As of 2024–2025, there are 68 to 69 operating divisions across all zones. Within each zone, functional departments are represented by Heads of Departments (HODs) responsible for specific functions such as engineering, mechanical, electrical, operations, commercial, personnel, medical, and security. These HODs include Principal Chief Engineer (PCE), Principal Chief Mechanical Engineer (PCME), Principal Chief Electrical Engineer (PCEE), Principal Chief Operations Manager (PCOM), Principal Chief Commercial Manager (PCCM), Principal Chief Personnel Officer (PCPO), and others. Divisional managers work alongside these functional heads. Staff are classified into gazetted (Groups A and B) and non-gazetted (Groups C) categories. Group A officers, who constitute about 1.5% of the workforce, are primarily recruited through the Indian Railways Management Service (IRMS) via the Civil Services Examination or Engineering Services Examination. Group B employees are promoted from Group C, while Group C staff are recruited through Railway Recruitment Control Board examinations. == The Zones of Indian Railways == [[File:Indian Railway zones.svg|thumb|270x270px|'''''Credit: Superbenjamin.''''' The 18 zones of Indian Railways on a map. (Metro Railway Kolkata zone isn't shown)]] Indian Railways currently comprises 19 operational zones, each serving specific geographical regions. The zones vary significantly in size, route length, and number of divisions. === The Six Main Zones === These were the first six zones to be created. ==== Northern Railway ==== Northern Railway, headquartered in Delhi, was established on April 14, 1952. It is one of the largest zones by route length, covering approximately 7,363 kilometers. The zone operates across Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. Northern Railway comprises six divisions: Ambala, Delhi, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad, and Jammu. The zone plays a critical role in connecting the national capital to northern and northwestern India. ==== Southern Railway ==== Southern Railway, headquartered in Chennai, was the first zone formed on April 14, 1951 (some sources say April 14, 1950). It covers Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Puducherry, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, with a route length of 5,093 kilometers. The zone has six divisions: Chennai, Madurai, Palakkad, Salem, Thiruvananthapuram, and Tiruchirappalli. SR is easily the oldest and most established zone, serving the southern peninsula. ==== Western Railway ==== Western Railway, headquartered at Mumbai Churchgate, was established on November 5, 1951. It covers Gujarat, parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan, with a route length of 6,156 kilometers. The zone has six divisions: Ahmedabad, Bhavnagar, Mumbai WR, Rajkot, Ratlam, and Vadodara. WR is one of the busiest zones, handling substantial suburban traffic in Mumbai and Ahmedabad, ==== Central Railway ==== Central Railway is headquartered at Mumbai CSMT (Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus) and was formed on November 5, 1951. It covers Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka, with a route length of 4,203 kilometers. The zone comprises five divisions: Bhusawal, Mumbai CR, Nagpur, Pune, and Solapur. CR serves as a critical link between western and central India and even has a Rajdhani named after it. (It is called CR Rajdhani) ==== Eastern Railway ==== Eastern Railway is headquartered in Kolkata and was formed on April 14, 1952. It covers West Bengal, Jharkhand, and parts of Odisha and Bihar, with a route length of 2,823 kilometers. The zone comprises four divisions: Asansol, Howrah, Malda, and Sealdah. ER serves the densely populated and industrialized regions of eastern India, including the Kolkata metropolitan area which contains both Howrah and Sealdah stations. ==== North Eastern Railway ==== North Eastern Railway is headquartered in Gorakhpur and was formed on April 14, 1952. It covers eastern Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar, with a route length of approximately 3,470 kilometers. The zone has three divisions: Izzatnagar, Lucknow, and Varanasi. NER serves important pilgrimage centers and agricultural regions in the Purvanchal area. It got cut in half because of the formation of the Northeast Frontier Railways zone. === The Other Main Zones === These were the other important zones created after the six main zones. ==== Northeast Frontier Railway ==== Northeast Frontier Railway, headquartered in Guwahati, was established on January 15, 1958. It serves the entire northeastern region of India, covering Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, and parts of West Bengal and Bihar. With a route length of 4,348 kilometers, NFR operates five divisions: Alipurduar, Katihar, Lumding, Rangiya, and Tinsukia. The zone faces unique operational challenges due to the region's difficult terrain and weather conditions and yet, it gains profit. ==== Southeastern Railway ==== South Eastern Railway, headquartered at Garden Reach in Kolkata, was established on August 1, 1955. It covers parts of West Bengal, Jharkhand, and Odisha, with a route length of 2,758 kilometers. The zone has four divisions: Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur, and Ranchi. SER is known for its mineral-rich territory, handling significant freight traffic related to coal and iron ore along the Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFC). ==== South Central Railway ==== South Central Railway is headquartered in Secunderabad and was formed on October 2, 1965 (operational from 1966). It serves Telangana, parts of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka, with a route length of 3,572 kilometers. The zone comprises three divisions: Secunderabad, Hyderabad, and Nanded. SCR was carved out from Southern and Central Railways to provide focused administration to the Andhra region. ==== East Central Railway ==== East Central Railway is headquartered in Hajipur and was formed on October 1, 2002. It covers Bihar and Jharkhand, with a route length of 4,238 kilometers. The zone comprises five divisions: Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai, Samastipur, and Sonpur. ECR was carved out from Eastern and North Eastern Railways to better serve Bihar. It was one of the most important zonal expansions. ==== North Western Railway ==== North Western Railway is headquartered in Jaipur and was formed on October 1, 2002. It covers Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana, with a route length of 5,705 kilometers. The zone comprises of four divisions: Ajmer, Bikaner, Jaipur, and Jodhpur. NWR was carved out from Northern and Western Railways to better serve the Rajasthan region. === The Extra Zones === These were zones which were made as an extra addition to the zonal expansion. ==== South Western Railway ==== South Western Railway, which is headquartered in Hubballi, was established on April 3, 2003. It covers Karnataka and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, with a route length of 3,692 kilometers. The zone has three divisions: Bengaluru, Hubballi, and Mysuru. SWR was created to provide focused administration to Karnataka's railway network as there is lots of traffic in Bengaluru and Hubballi junctions. ==== West Central Railway ==== West Central Railway is headquartered in Jabalpur and was formed on April 3, 2003. It covers Madhya Pradesh and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan, with a route length of 3,060 kilometers. The zone comprises three divisions: Bhopal, Jabalpur, and Kota. WCR was carved out from Central and Western Railways for more coordinated administration across Madhya Pradesh. ==== North Central Railway ==== North Central Railway, headquartered in Prayagraj (formerly Allahabad), was established on April 3, 2003. It covers Uttar Pradesh and parts of Madhya Pradesh, with a route length of 3,522 kilometers. The zone has three divisions: Agra, Jhansi, and Prayagraj. NCR was formed from portions of Northern and Central Railways for administration and expansion purposes. ==== South East Central Railway ==== South East Central Railway is headquartered in Bilaspur and was formed on April 1, 2003. It covers Chhattisgarh and parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Jharkhand, with a route length of 2,396 kilometers. The zone comprises three divisions: Bilaspur, Nagpur, and Raipur. SECR was carved out from South Eastern and Central Railways to serve the mineral-rich Chhattisgarh region. ==== East Coast Railway ==== East Coast Railway, headquartered in Bhubaneswar, was established on April 3, 2003. It covers Odisha and parts of Andhra Pradesh, with a route length of 2,701 kilometers. The zone has three divisions: Khurda Road, Sambalpur, and Rayagada. ECoR was formed from portions of South Eastern and South Central Railways. It is one of the only three coastal railway zones. === The Most Recently Added Zones === These were added recently to the Zonal Railways of India. (Top 3) ==== Konkan Railway ==== Konkan Railway, headquartered in Navi Mumbai (CBD Belapur), was formally integrated as a zone on July 19, 1990. It covers the Konkan coastal region of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka, with a route length of 756 kilometers. The zone has two divisions: Ratnagiri and Karwar. Konkan Railway is known for its engineering marvels, including numerous bridges and tunnels through the Western Ghats. ==== South Coast Railway ==== South Coast Railway (SCoR) is the newest and 18th operational zone of Indian Railways (often referred to as Zone 17 in some counting systems that exclude Metro Railway or Konkan Railway). The zone was officially constituted and began operations on June 1, 2026, with its headquarters in Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh. SCoR was carved from three different railway zones to manage Andhra Pradesh. ==== Metro Railway, Kolkata ==== [[File:Kolkata Metro CRRC Dalian rake 5.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: ArnabSaha.''''' A Kolkata Metro CRRC Dalian rake. ]] Metro Railway, Kolkata, headquartered in Kolkata, was declared the 17th zone on December 19, 2010 (operational from 2019). KMRC operates the Kolkata Metro network, with a route length of 73.2 kilometers and 58 stations. The zone has no divisions and operates five metro lines (Blue, Green, Purple, Orange, and Yellow) with both broad gauge and standard gauge tracks. Metro Railway handles urban rapid transit in the Kolkata metropolitan area. It is the smallest railway zone in India that just so happens to be a metro network too. == Divisions of Indian Railways == As of 2025–2026, there are 68 to 69 operating divisions across 19 zones, each headed by a Divisional Railway Manager (DRM) who is responsible for day-to-day operations, maintenance, and administration within their division. This divisional structure enables decentralized management while maintaining coordination through zonal and central authorities. === Organizational Structure === Each zonal railway is headed by a General Manager who reports directly to the Railway Board. Zones are further subdivided into divisions, each headed by a Divisional Railway Manager (DRM). The DRM serves as the chief executive of a railway division and is responsible for managing and administering a particular geographical area. Key responsibilities include ensuring punctuality and safety of all passenger and freight trains passing through or originating within the division, monitoring train movements, managing line capacity, and resolving disruptions. DRMs oversee efficient movement of wagons and coaches, ensuring optimal utilization of rolling stock, and managing yard operations. They coordinate maintenance of tracks, bridges, stations, and other fixed assets through various engineering departments. Commercial operations including passenger ticketing, freight booking, fare collection, and customer service also fall under their purview. DRMs ensure safety of train operations and security of railway material, passengers, and belongings, while managing personnel matters, discipline, and welfare of divisional staff. Within each division, functional departments are represented by senior divisional officers who report both to the DRM and to their respective zonal Heads of Departments (HODs). These include the Senior Divisional Engineer (DEN), responsible for maintenance of fixed assets including tracks, bridges, and buildings; the Senior Divisional Mechanical Engineer (DMME), who oversees maintenance of diesel locomotives, carriage, and wagon fleets; the Senior Divisional Electrical Engineer (DEE), managing station lighting, power supply, overhead equipment, and electric rolling stock; the Senior Divisional Signal & Telecommunication Engineer (DSTE), handling signalling and telecommunication infrastructure; the Senior Divisional Operations Manager (DOM), managing train operations and traffic control; the Senior Divisional Finance Manager (DFM), managing accounting and financial matters; the Senior Divisional Commercial Manager (DCM), handling passenger and freight commercial operations; the Senior Divisional Personnel Officer (DPO), managing human resources; the Senior Divisional Safety Officer (DSO), ensuring operational safety; the Senior Divisional Material Manager (DMM), managing material stores; the Chief Medical Superintendent (CMS), providing healthcare facilities; and the Senior Divisional Security Commissioner (DSC), handling security matters. This framework ensures that divisions have operational autonomy while maintaining technical and functional coordination with zonal and central authorities. === List of Divisions === The following is a list of all railway divisions of Indian Railways, organized by zone. ==== Central Railway (CR) ==== * Mumbai CR Division * Bhusaval Division * Nagpur Division * Solapur Division * Pune Division ==== Eastern Railway (ER) ==== * Asansol Division * Howrah Division * Malda Division * Sealdah Division * Kolkata Division ==== East Central Railway (ECR) ==== * Sonpur Division * Samastipur Division * Danapur Division * Dhanbad Division * Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Division (formerly Mughalsarai) * Hajipur Division ==== East Coast Railway (ECoR) ==== * Khurda Road Division * Sambalpur Division * Rayagada Division * Bhubaneshwar Division ==== Northern Railway (NR) ==== * Ambala Division * New Delhi Division * Lucknow Division * Moradabad Division * Firozpur Division * Jammu Division ==== North Central Railway (NCR) – Prayagraj ==== * Prayagraj Division * Agra Division * Jhansi Division ==== North Eastern Railway (NER) ==== * Lucknow Division * Izzatnagar Division * Varanasi Division * Gorakhpur Division ==== Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) ==== * Alipurduar Division * Katihar Division * Lumding Division * Rangiya Division * Tinsukia Division * Guwahati Division ==== North Western Railway (NWR) ==== * Ajmer Division * Bikaner Division * Jaipur Division * Jodhpur Division ==== Southern Railway (SR) ==== * Chennai Division * Madurai Division * Palakkad Division * Tiruchchirappalli Division * Thiruvananthapuram Division * Salem Division ==== South Central Railway (SCR) ==== * Hyderabad Division * Nanded Division * Secunderabad Division ==== South Coast Railway (SCoR) ==== * Visakhapatnam Division (formerly Waltair) * Vijayawada Division * Guntur Division * Guntakal Division ==== South Eastern Railway (SER) ==== * Adra Division * Chakradharpur Division * Kharagpur Division * Ranchi Division ==== South East Central Railway (SECR) ==== * Raipur Division * Nagpur Division * Bilaspur Division ==== South Western Railway (SWR) ==== * Bengaluru Division * Hubballi Division * Mysuru Division ==== Western Railway (WR) ==== * Mumbai Central Division * Vadodara Division * Ratlam Division * Ahmedabad Division * Rajkot Division * Bhavnagar Division ==== West Central Railway (WCR) ==== * Bhopal Division * Jabalpur Division * Kota Division ==== Konkan Railway (KR) ==== * Ratnagiri Division * Karwar Division * Navi Mumbai Division ==== Metro Railway, Kolkata (KMRC) ==== * (No divisions. It operates as a single integrated urban transit network) This divisional framework enables Indian Railways to manage its vast network efficiently through decentralized administration while actually maintaining coordination through zonal and central oversight. {{BookCat}} 5j3p7iagsi5axflyeiy3thg1hjg1tyg 0 485721 4671892 4671157 2026-09-23T06:27:28Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671892 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=Zonal Railways|next=Railway Infrastructure}} == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' has a rolling stock. Rolling stock is the general name for the railway vehicles that move on railway tracks. It includes vehicles that carry their own source of power and vehicles that must be hauled by another vehicle. In Indian Railways, rolling stock includes locomotives, coaches, wagons, electric multiple units, diesel multiple units, mainline electric multiple units, trainsets, tower cars, power cars, inspection vehicles, shunting vehicles, track inspection vehicles, and other special-purpose vehicles. Indian Railways uses rolling stock for two main purposes. Passenger rolling stock transports people and their luggage, while freight rolling stock transports goods such as coal, iron ore, cement, food grains, petroleum products, containers, automobiles, and other materials. Locomotives and self-propelled train units provide the power needed to move these vehicles. The Indian Railway Rolling Stock Code defines rolling stock broadly to include coaches, wagons, locomotives, electric multiple units, diesel multiple units, trainsets, mainline electric multiple units, tower cars, power cars, special-purpose coaches and wagons, and other railway vehicles. Rolling stock is designed according to its purpose. A high-speed passenger coach requires different construction, suspension, braking, and interior arrangements from a coal wagon. A shunting locomotive needs good low-speed pulling power, while a passenger locomotive may need high speed and rapid acceleration. ''See also: [[wikipedia:Indian_Railways_coaching_stock|Indian railway coaching stock]]'' == Types of Rolling Stocks == === Self-Propelled and Non-Self-Propelled Stocks === [[File:38436 (Panskaru-Howrah) EMU local.jpg|thumb|268x268px|'''''Credit: Smeet Chowdhury.''''' This is an EMU (Electric multiple unit) which is a self-propelled vehicle for intercity routes. (Train No. 38436) ]] Rolling stock can be divided into self-propelled and non-self-propelled vehicles. A self-propelled vehicle has its own equipment for producing or receiving motive power. Examples include locomotives, electric multiple units, diesel multiple units, railcars, battery vehicles, and some maintenance vehicles. A non-self-propelled vehicle cannot normally move independently over the railway. It must be hauled or pushed by a locomotive or another powered unit. Passenger coaches, freight wagons, parcel vans, brake vans, and many inspection vehicles belong to this group. The word “stock” refers to a vehicle or group of vehicles available for railway service (here). A passenger train may contain a locomotive, several coaches, a pantry car, luggage or brake vans, and sometimes a power car. A freight train may contain a locomotive or multiple locomotives and a large group of wagons. === Locomotives, Coaches and Special Stocks === [[File:An EF-12K at Kodigehalli Halt, Bengaluru.jpg|thumb|335x335px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' This is an EF12K. It is a locomotive which is just two older WAG-9 locomotives combined. ]] The principal groups of Indian railway rolling stock are locomotives, coaching stock, freight stock, multiple-unit stock, maintenance vehicles, and emergency or special-purpose vehicles. Locomotives provide the main hauling power for conventional trains. They may use diesel engines, electric traction equipment, batteries, or, in heritage service, steam engines. Coaching stock is used mainly for passengers. It includes sleeping coaches, sitting coaches, air-conditioned coaches, general coaches, chair cars, first-class coaches, pantry cars, luggage vans, brake vans, generator cars, parcel vans, postal vans, and special coaches. Freight stock consists mainly of wagons. Different wagons are designed for bulk goods, liquids, containers, automobiles, livestock, military equipment, cement, coal, grain, steel, and other commodities. Multiple-unit stock consists of vehicles in which traction equipment is distributed among one or more coaches. Electric multiple units, mainline electric multiple units, diesel multiple units, and modern trainsets can operate without a separate locomotive in the usual way. Maintenance and special-purpose stock supports the railway itself. This group includes track machines, overhead-equipment inspection cars, tower cars, breakdown cranes, accident-relief vehicles, medical vans, inspection carriages, engineering vehicles, and departmental wagons. == Locomotives == A locomotive is a powered railway vehicle designed mainly to haul or move other railway vehicles. It normally does not carry passengers, although some locomotives may contain limited crew accommodation. Locomotives are attached to coaches or wagons using couplers. A locomotive may pull a train, push it, or move vehicles inside a yard. A locomotive used for moving vehicles short distances in a station or yard is called a shunter or switching locomotive. A locomotive used on the main line is designed for longer distances and higher speeds. Locomotives are classified according to their power source, gauge, intended duty, transmission system, axle arrangement, and power rating. Indian locomotive codes traditionally provide information about several of these features. The first letter generally identifies the gauge, the second identifies the motive power, and the third identifies the service or traffic role. === Steam Locomotives === [[File:883 IndiaGorakhpur 19931228.jpg|thumb|302x302px|'''''Credit: Nigel Tout.''''' This is a YP (Y for narrow gauge, P for passenger traffic) steam locomotive from 1993 at its retirement. ]] Steam locomotives use a boiler to produce steam. The steam drives pistons or turbines, which turn the driving wheels. Coal, oil, or another fuel is burned to heat water inside the boiler. They were historically important in India. They hauled passenger and freight trains for many decades before diesel and electric traction became dominant. Steam locomotives required regular attention to their boilers, water supply, fuel, lubrication, and mechanical parts. Steam locomotives are no longer the normal source of power for Indian Railways. A small number are preserved for heritage operation, special excursions, museums, or ceremonial use. They are valuable because they demonstrate an earlier stage of railway technology. The main advantages of steam locomotives were their ability to operate without external electrical infrastructure and their relatively simple fuel supply arrangements in the early railway era. Their disadvantages included heavy maintenance, low thermal efficiency, smoke, the need for frequent water and fuel stops, and the labor required to operate them. === Diesel Locomotives === Diesel locomotives use a diesel engine as their prime mover. In most large Indian diesel locomotives, the diesel engine drives an electric generator or alternator. The electricity then powers traction motors mounted on the locomotive’s axles. This arrangement is known as diesel-electric transmission. [[File:ERS WDP-4D Locomotive..jpg|thumb|266x266px|'''Credit: Kishlay RF.''' This is a WDP-4D (W for broad gauge, D for diesel power and P for passenger traffic) locomotive in Kochi. ]] A diesel-electric locomotive is not usually driven mechanically like a road vehicle. The diesel engine produces electrical power, while traction motors provide the turning force at the wheels. This allows the locomotive to produce high tractive effort and to control wheel rotation effectively. Diesel locomotives were introduced widely because they required less routine servicing than steam locomotives and could operate on routes without electric overhead equipment. They were especially useful during the transition from steam to electric traction. Diesel locomotives have been progressively replaced on many main lines by electric locomotives. They remain useful on non-electrified routes, in yards, for shunting, during maintenance work, and in situations where independent power is required. Indian diesel locomotive families have included passenger, freight, mixed-traffic, shunting, and dual-mode types. Examples of familiar Indian classifications include WDM locomotives for broad-gauge diesel mixed traffic, WDP locomotives for passenger service, WDG locomotives for freight service, and WDS locomotives for shunting. === Electric Locomotives === Electric locomotives receive electrical energy from an external supply system. On most electrified broad-gauge routes in India, electricity is supplied through overhead equipment. A pantograph on the locomotive touches the overhead wire and transfers electricity to the locomotive’s traction system. [[File:Indian Railways WAP-4 class electric locomotive..JPG|thumb|292x292px|'''Credit: Indian Railways.''' This is a very popular image of a WAP-4 (W for broad gauge, A for AC current and P for passenger traffic) locomotive with ICF Blue. ]] The locomotive converts the incoming electrical energy into mechanical power through traction motors. Modern electric locomotives use power electronics, transformers, converters, control systems, and regenerative or dynamic braking equipment. Electric locomotives have several important advantages. They can provide high power, strong acceleration, and high tractive effort. They do not carry fuel tanks or large diesel engines, and they produce no exhaust emissions at the point of use. Electric traction is particularly suitable for heavily used routes and long freight trains. Electric traction also requires substantial fixed infrastructure. The railway must provide overhead equipment, substations, switching systems, protection systems, maintenance facilities, and reliable electricity. Electric locomotives cannot normally operate independently on a route without compatible electrical equipment. Indian electric locomotives include passenger, freight, mixed-traffic, and shunting types. Common classifications include WAP for broad-gauge electric passenger locomotives, WAG for broad-gauge electric goods locomotives, and WAM for electric mixed-traffic locomotives. === Alternative-Powered Locomotives === Battery-powered railway vehicles store electrical energy in onboard batteries. They may be used for inspection, shunting, maintenance, station service, or other limited duties. Their use depends on battery capacity, charging facilities, vehicle weight, operating range, and local requirements. [[File:WDAP-5.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Suvadeep Saha56.''''' This is a WDAP-5 locomotive (W for broad gauge, D for diesel locomotive, A for AC Current and P for passenger traffic). It is the only dual-mode locomotive in India. ]] Hybrid and dual-mode vehicles can use more than one source of power. A dual-mode locomotive may use electric power under overhead wires and diesel power where electrification is unavailable. Such vehicles can reduce the need to change locomotives at the boundary between electrified and non-electrified routes. Alternative-power railway technology may also include fuel-cell, hydrogen, or other low-emission systems in experimental or limited applications. The suitability of each technology depends on energy supply, infrastructure, cost, maintenance, and safety. == Passenger Coaches == A passenger coach is a railway vehicle designed to carry people. It may provide seats, sleeping berths, toilets, luggage space, heating, cooling, lighting, electrical outlets, food-service facilities, or accessibility features. Passenger coaches are built in different forms. Some are intended for short suburban journeys, while others are designed for overnight travel. Some provide air-conditioned accommodation, while others have open windows and simpler interiors. A coach may be self-generating or end-on-generating. In a self-generating coach, an alternator and axle-driven equipment produce electrical power as the coach moves. In an end-on-generation system, one or more power cars supply electricity to the entire rake through an electrical train line. Passenger coaches may be connected by vestibules. A vestibule is an enclosed passage between coaches that allows passengers and staff to move safely from one coach to another while the train is in motion. === ICF Coaches === ICF coaches were developed around the integral-coach design associated with the Integral Coach Factory. They became one of the most widely used passenger-coach designs in India. An ICF coach generally has a conventional body and bogie arrangement. It may use coil springs, air brakes, and other systems depending on its construction and later modifications. [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|310x310px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' These are ICF Uthkrisht coaches powered by a WDP-4 locomotive. ]] ICF coaches have been produced in many forms, including general coaches, sleeper coaches, air-conditioned coaches, chair cars, pantry cars, luggage vans, generator cars, and special-purpose vehicles. The ICF design served Indian Railways for a long period because it could be manufactured and maintained in large numbers. Many coaches received upgrades during their service lives, including improved braking, suspension, lighting, toilets, electrical systems, and interiors. === LHB Coaches === LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, the name associated with the coach design developed in Germany and later produced for Indian Railways. LHB coaches use a different design from older ICF coaches. LHB coaches generally have stainless-steel bodies, FIAT-type bogies, disc brakes, improved suspension, and centre-buffer couplers. Their design provides improved crashworthiness and ride characteristics compared with older coach designs. [[File:Sangam Express with LHB coaches.jpg|thumb|253x253px|'''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''' LHB coaches of Sangam Express at some railway station. ]] LHB coaches are available in several passenger configurations. These include air-conditioned first class, air-conditioned two-tier sleeper, air-conditioned three-tier sleeper, air-conditioned chair car, executive chair car, non-air-conditioned chair car, sleeper, general seating, pantry, power, luggage, and brake-van variants. The exact capacity of a coach depends on its layout, seat or berth design, toilet arrangement, accessibility provisions, and production version. For example, commonly cited LHB configurations include approximately 52 berths for some air-conditioned two-tier coaches, 72 berths for some air-conditioned three-tier coaches, 78 seats for some chair cars, and 56 seats for some executive chair cars. These figures can vary by design and refurbishment. LHB coaches are often associated with higher-speed passenger services, but the actual permitted speed of a train depends on the coach type, locomotive, track, signalling, route conditions, maintenance status, and operating rules. == Freight Wagons == A freight wagon is a railway vehicle used to carry goods. Wagons are designed according to the physical properties, weight, volume, loading method, unloading method, and safety requirements of their cargo. A wagon must support its load, withstand pulling and braking forces, remain stable on curves, and operate safely at the permitted speed. It must also be compatible with loading terminals and unloading equipment. Freight wagons may be open, covered, tank-type, flat, hopper-type, container-carrying, automobile-carrying, or specially designed for a particular commodity. Indian Railways uses many wagon types because the country transports a wide range of bulk and manufactured goods. The wagon fleet has changed over time as freight patterns, axle loads, loading technology, and logistics systems have developed. === Open and Covered Wagons === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Open_wagon|Open wagon]]'' Open wagons have no permanent roof. They are suitable for goods that are not easily damaged by weather or can be protected by tarpaulins. [[File:28126 WAG-7 loco with empty freight rakes at Simhachalam 02.jpg|thumb|'''''Credit: Adityamadhav83.''''' Two open wagon goods trains (both coal trains) and one is pulled by a WAG-7. ]] They are widely used for bulk materials such as coal, minerals, stone, scrap, and other commodities. Some open wagons have doors, bottom discharge equipment, or special side arrangements. Open wagons can be loaded by conveyor, shovel, loader, hopper, or other mechanical systems. Their unloading method depends on the design and the receiving facility. Open wagons are also one of the most common freight wagons used in Indian Railways. They are mostly coal trains but other freight trains such as wood, paper, scrap and metal trains. Covered wagons have a roof and enclosed sides. They protect goods from rain, dust, sunlight, and some forms of contamination. They are suitable for food grains, bagged cement, fertilizers, manufactured goods, paper, packaged products, and other materials requiring protection. Covered wagons may have sliding doors, roller doors, end doors, or special loading openings. Their internal fittings may be adapted to prevent movement or damage to the cargo. Covered wagons are also one of the most common types of freight wagons found in India along with open wagons. === Hopper and Tank Wagons === Hopper wagons have sloping internal surfaces and discharge openings. They are designed to release bulk materials through gravity. Coal, ballast, ore, grain, and other materials can be handled efficiently using hopper wagons. Discharge may occur through bottom doors, side doors, or controlled outlet systems. The receiving terminal must have suitable tracks, pits, conveyors, hoppers, or unloading equipment. Hopper wagon design and terminal design therefore work together. Tank wagons carry liquids, gases, powders, or other materials in a tank mounted on a railway underframe. Different tank wagons are designed for petroleum products, chemicals, water, liquefied gases, edible oils, and other substances. The tank material, pressure rating, valves, insulation, safety fittings, and labelling depend on the cargo. Tank wagon operations require strict attention to loading limits, pressure, leakage prevention, earthing, fire protection, brake equipment, and emergency procedures. Tank wagons are the third most common freight wagons in Indian Railways as they can carry milk, oil and water. == Multiple Unit Trains == A multiple-unit train is formed from several connected vehicles that operate together. Traction equipment is placed in one or more vehicles, and the train is controlled from a driving cab. Multiple-unit operation allows the driver to control all powered vehicles from one cab. This is useful for frequent-stop services because the train can accelerate quickly and does not need a separate locomotive at each end. Indian Railways operates electric multiple units, mainline electric multiple units, diesel multiple units, and trainsets. Their designs differ in power source, interior arrangement, speed, range, and operating environment. === Electric Multiple Units (EMU) and Mainline Electric Multiple Units (MEMU) === An electric multiple unit receives power from an external electrical system and distributes traction equipment among several cars. EMU trains are widely used in suburban and regional services. They typically have many doors, high standing capacity, rapid boarding and alighting, and strong acceleration. An EMU formation may contain motor coaches, trailer coaches, driving coaches, or combinations of these. The exact formation depends on the electrical system and train design. EMU braking may combine air brakes with electrical braking. Regenerative braking can return energy to the electrical system when conditions permit. [[File:Delhi emu and memu.JPG|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: WillaMissionary.''''' To the left, (the green and yellow one), we have a MEMU from Delhi's suburban rail. To the right, (the red, blue and yellow one), we have an intercity EMU from Delhi. ]] A mainline electric multiple units is designed for longer-distance regional or intercity operation than a conventional suburban EMU. It may provide more seating, fewer doors, greater luggage capacity, toilets, air conditioning, or improved ride quality. Some mainline units are built as self-propelled passenger trains with driving cabs at both ends. The term MEMU is commonly used for mainline electric multiple units. MEMU services are useful on electrified routes where passengers require frequent regional connections without a locomotive-hauled formation. Many people however cannot differentiate between a MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) and an EMU (Electric Multiple Unit). One difference is that EMUs are used in the rest of the world too, while MEMUs are an Indian Railways exclusive. === Diesel Multiple Units (DMU) and Diesel Electric Multiple Units (DEMU) === A diesel multiple unit uses diesel engines distributed among one or more coaches. It does not require overhead electrical equipment. DMUs are suitable for non-electrified routes and regional passenger services. [[File:SC - MOB DEMU (23517623235).jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Belur Ashok.''''' A 9-year-old DEMU (Diesel Electric Multiple Unit) from Secunderabad to Manoharabad. ]] Diesel Multiple Units may have driving cabs, passenger coaches, power cars, and trailer cars in different combinations. DMUs can provide rapid acceleration and efficient service on lightly or moderately used routes. Their disadvantages include fuel consumption, exhaust emissions, engine noise, and the need for diesel maintenance facilities. A diesel electric multiple unit is a type of diesel multiple-unit train in which diesel engines generate electricity, and electric traction motors use that electricity to turn the wheels. It is therefore a specific type of DMU, not a completely separate category. Indian Railways describes DEMUs as self-propelled formations containing driving power cars and trailer cars. The diesel engine in a DEMU does not usually drive the wheels directly like DMUs. Instead, it drives an alternator or generator. The generator produces electrical energy, which passes through control equipment and traction converters to electric motors connected to the wheelsets. == Future == The future of Indian railway rolling stock is likely to involve greater electrification, more trainsets, improved passenger information systems, more energy-efficient equipment, better accessibility, stronger crashworthiness, and increased use of digital diagnostics. Freight wagons may become more specialised and may support higher axle loads, faster freight services, containerisation, automobile transport, and automated handling systems. Locomotives may receive improved traction converters, regenerative braking, remote diagnostics, energy monitoring. Maybe hybrid or dual-mode locomotives will become more popular. Maintenance is also becoming more data driven. Sensors and software can identify wheel defects, bearing temperature, vibration, brake conditions, electrical faults, and other problems before they lead to service failures. {{BookCat}} bsposce0la7cul4ktlvuizx7ecddf3z 0 485732 4671899 4671612 2026-09-23T06:36:25Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671899 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == {{Wikipedia|Indian Railways|Rail transport in India|Indian Railways coaching stock}} '''Indian Railways''' ''is the national railway system of India and one of the largest railway networks in the world. It operates under the administrative control of the Ministry of Railways, Government of India, and is responsible for the country’s rail transport infrastructure, rolling stock, and operations''. Since the first passenger train ran in 1853, Indian Railways has grown into a vast, complex system that connects urban centers, industrial hubs, and remote regions, serving as a main artery for India’s economy, mobility, and social integration. == Table of Contents == * [[Indian Railways/Overview|Overview]] * [[Indian Railways/History|History]] * [[Indian Railways/Zonal Railways|Zonal Railways]] * [[Indian Railways/Rolling Stock|Rolling Stock]] * [[Indian Railways/Railway Infrastructure|Railway Infrastructure]] * [[Indian Railways/Communications|Communications]] * [[Indian Railways/Railfanning|Railfanning]] * [[Indian Railways/Digital Technology|Digital Technology]] * [[Indian Railways/Trains and Manufacturers|Trains and Manufacturers]] ====== Hope you enjoy reading! ====== == About the Book == * The book was made by [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] (feat. '''Rishi Iyer''') * The book was made because Indian Railway books were not common and topics about [[Shelf:India|India]] barely exist in [[Wikibooks]]. * The book is just a hobby and ActStuffOGWiki's first book. '''Don't take anything in the book too seriously'''. * You can use this book for citations in [[Wikipedia]] and other self-published books. {{BookCat}} ga71jsy12s9i8mpta3iesawq646otpq 0 485734 4671893 4671197 2026-09-23T06:28:42Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671893 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=Rolling Stock|next=Communications}} == Introduction == In '''Indian Railways''', railway infrastructure is the collection of physical facilities, engineering systems, buildings, machines, communication networks, and operating arrangements that allow trains to run safely and efficiently. In India, railway infrastructure supports passenger travel, freight transport, suburban services, military movement, industrial supply chains, tourism, and regional development. Since Indian Railways is one of the world’s largest railway systems and its infrastructure has developed over more than 160 years, it includes lots of railway tracks, bridges, tunnels, stations, yards, depots, workshops, signalling systems, electric power systems, maintenance facilities, level crossings, staff facilities, and information technology networks. Railway infrastructure is not limited to the visible railway line. A passenger usually sees a train, a platform, and perhaps a footbridge. Behind these facilities are control offices, signalling equipment, electrical substations, inspection vehicles, workshops, water-supply systems, drainage structures, track machines, and maintenance teams. == Basic Infrastructure of a Railway System == === Railway Network === A railway network is a connected system of routes over which trains operate. A route may have one track or several tracks. It may serve passenger trains, freight trains, suburban trains, or a combination of these. The main railway routes in India use broad gauge. Broad gauge has a distance of 1,676 millimeters between the inner faces of the rails. It became the dominant gauge because it can support relatively large and heavy trains and is suitable for long-distance transport. [[File:Railway network map of India - Schematic.svg|thumb|275x275px|'''''Credit: PlaneMad.''''' A schematic map of the railway network in Indian Railways (as of 2022). ]] India also has some metre-gauge and narrow-gauge lines. Many such lines have been converted to broad gauge, but narrow-gauge routes continue to exist in certain heritage, mountain, and special railway systems. Examples include the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, Kalka–Shimla Railway, Nilgiri Mountain Railway, and some heritage lines. A railway route is normally described by route kilometers or track kilometers. Route kilometers measure the length of the railway route itself. Track kilometers measure the total length of all tracks. A double-track route therefore has approximately twice as many track kilometers as route kilometers, excluding sidings and other additional lines. The railway network connects large cities, ports, industrial centers, agricultural regions, mining areas, border regions, and smaller towns. Some routes are heavily used by both passenger and freight trains. These routes require more tracks, stronger bridges, improved signalling, and carefully planned timetables. Railway routes are also classified according to their importance, traffic density, speed, and engineering requirements. A busy route may require shunting, automatic signalling, high-capacity electrical systems, longer platforms, and additional yards. === Railway Tracks === A railway track provides the path on which a train moves. It must carry the weight of locomotives, coaches, and wagons while maintaining a safe and reasonably smooth route. The main parts of a conventional railway track are rails, sleepers, fastenings, ballast, and formation. The rails are the steel members that directly guide and support the wheels. Sleepers hold the rails at the correct distance from each other and transfer the load to the ballast. Fastenings connect the rails to the sleepers. Ballast is the layer of crushed stone beneath and around the sleepers. The ground beneath the ballast is called the formation or subgrade. It must be strong enough to support the track and resist water damage. In areas with weak soil, engineers may use improved earthwork, soil stabilization, geotextiles, drainage layers, or special foundations. [[File:Railway Track India.jpg|thumb|330x330px|'''''Credit: Dr. Chinchu C.''''' A railway track in Indian Railways. ]] Indian Railways uses long welded rails on many routes. In a long-welded rail arrangement, rail sections are joined into long lengths using welding. This reduces the number of joints and can improve riding comfort. It also reduces maintenance associated with older short rail sections. Rails are manufactured in different weights and profiles. Heavier rails can carry higher axle loads and are generally used on routes with heavy traffic or heavy freight trains. The choice depends on traffic, speed, curvature, bridge strength, and other engineering conditions. Sleepers may be made of prestressed concrete, steel, timber, or other materials. Prestressed concrete sleepers are widely used because they are strong, durable, and suitable for modern track systems. Special sleepers are used at turnouts, bridges, level crossings, and other locations. Ballast must be hard, durable, angular, and resistant to crushing. Its rough shape helps it interlock and hold the sleepers in position. Ballast also permits water to drain away from the track. Track geometry refers to the shape and alignment of the track. Important features include gauge, alignment, gradient, curvature, cross-level, twist, and vertical profile. Track-maintenance machines measure these characteristics and help railway engineers identify defects. === Points and Crossings === Points and crossings allow trains to move from one track to another. A point, or turnout, contains movable rails that guide the train toward a selected route. The crossing portion allows wheel flanges to pass through the intersection of two rails. A set of points may be operated manually, mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically. In modern installations, point machines are usually controlled from a signalling system or an electronic interlocking. A crossover connects two parallel tracks. It allows a train to change from one line to another. Crossovers are found at stations, yards, junctions, terminal approaches, and locations where trains may need to be diverted. Points are sensitive parts of the track because they contain moving components and discontinuities in the rail path. They require regular inspection, lubrication, adjustment, cleaning, and testing. === Railway Station === A railway station is a place where trains stop for passenger service, loading, unloading, crew changes, train regulation, or operational purposes. Some stations are small halts, while others are large complexes with many platforms, yards, offices, and passenger facilities. [[File:Dhariwal Railway Station, Punjab, India IMG20260705172241 06.jpg|thumb|330x330px|'''''Credit: Rohitjahnavi.''''' This is Dhariwal Railway Station in Punjab. Two trains are passing by each other. ]] A station usually contains platforms, tracks, a station building, ticketing facilities, passenger circulation areas, signalling equipment, public information systems, lighting, water supply, sanitation, and security arrangements. The size of a station depends on the number of trains, passenger demand, local geography, train lengths, interchange requirements, and the role of the station in the railway network. Stations may be classified informally as terminal stations, through stations, junction stations, suburban stations, halt stations, or interchange stations. A terminal station is located at the end of a route or operating section. A through station lies on a route where trains can continue in both directions. A junction station connects two or more routes. A station may also handle freight operations. In that case, it may have goods sheds, loading platforms, sidings, weighbridges, cranes, warehouses, road-access facilities and others. === Station Platform and Building === A platform provides a safe raised area from which passengers board and leave trains. Platforms may be located beside a track or between two tracks. A side platform serves trains on one side. An island platform is located between tracks and may serve trains on both sides. Stations can have several platforms connected by foot overbridges, subways, concourses, or accessible ramps. Platform height is selected to suit the trains that use the station. Platform edges usually contain tactile or visual warning features and may have markings that indicate a safe distance from the edge. Platforms require drainage, lighting, shelter, seating, signage, public-address systems, drinking water, waste bins, and sanitation facilities. At busy stations, crowd movement must be managed so that passengers do not gather dangerously near the edge. Longer platforms may be needed for longer trains. Platform extension projects often require changes to signalling, station buildings, footbridges, lighting, drainage, and approach roads. [[File:Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (Victoria Terminus).jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Joe Ravi.''''' This is CSMT (Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminal) in Mumbai. It has one the best station buildings and architecture in India. ]] The station building contains facilities for passengers and railway staff. It may include ticket counters, reservation offices, waiting halls, enquiry offices, toilets, refreshment areas, retiring rooms, cloakrooms, offices, and electrical rooms. Older station buildings may reflect local architectural traditions or colonial-era design. Newer buildings may use standardized designs, prefabricated components, modern materials, and energy-efficient systems. The station building must connect conveniently with platforms and external transport. A well-planned station provides clear paths between roads, parking areas, bus stops, autorickshaw stands, pedestrian entrances, ticketing areas, and platforms. Stations may be upgraded with lifts, escalators, ramps, improved lighting, better signage, digital displays, wider concourses, and more accessible toilets. The Annual Report and Accounts for 2023–24 recorded the provision of passenger lifts, escalators, water coolers, and other station improvements during the year. === Signalling === Signalling is the system used to control train movements. It includes signals, interlocking, track circuits, axle counters, point machines, block instruments, communication systems, and operating rules. A railway block is a section of track in which train movements are controlled. The basic principle is that trains are separated so that one train does not enter an occupied section without proper authority. Track circuits detect whether a section of track is occupied by a train. They work by using the rails as part of an electrical circuit. When train wheels and axles connect the rails, the system detects occupation. Axle counters detect the number of axles entering and leaving a section. If the numbers match, the system may determine that the section is clear, subject to the rules and equipment design. Signals communicate instructions to train drivers. Color-light signals are widely used. A signal aspect may tell the driver to stop, proceed, proceed with caution, or follow a speed restriction, depending on the signalling system. Automatic block signalling divides a route into multiple sections and allows following trains to move more closely while maintaining safety. The capacity benefit depends on train length, braking distance, signalling design, speed, and operating conditions. Station signalling controls train movements through platforms, points, loops, and junctions. It prevents conflicting movements and helps trains enter or leave a station safely. An interlocking system ensures that signals and points work in a safe sequence. A route cannot normally be cleared for a train if a conflicting route is already set. Interlocking may be mechanical, electro-mechanical, relay-based, electronic, or computer-based. Modern electronic interlocking systems can control many routes and provide detailed status information to operators. Station control may be handled from a signal cabin, a panel room, an electronic interlocking room, or a centralized control centre. The exact arrangement varies with the size and complexity of the station. == Railway Yards == A railway yard is an arrangement of tracks used to receive, sort, store, inspect, assemble, divide, or dispatch trains and vehicles. Yards are essential because trains cannot always operate directly from one route to another without being rearranged. [[File:Trains at railway yard in India.jpg|thumb|299x299px|'''''Credit: Aditidutttyagi10.''''' A passenger coach yard (2015) containing lots of ICF Blue coaches. ]] A yard may contain arrival lines, departure lines, reception lines, classification lines, engine lines, carriage sidings, wagon repair lines, washing lines, and stabling lines. An arrival line receives a train entering the yard. A departure line holds a train after preparation and before it enters the main route. A stabling line temporarily stores coaches, wagons, locomotives, or maintenance vehicles. A classification yard sorts freight wagons according to destination, train formation, commodity, or operating plan. Wagons may be moved between tracks using locomotives, shunting engines, gravity, or specialized yard systems. Yards occupy large areas of land and contain many points and crossings. Their signalling and interlocking systems are often more complex than those of ordinary stations. === Freight Yards === Freight wagon yards handle goods trains and individual wagons. They may receive wagons from mines, factories, ports, warehouses, container terminals, or other railway yards. Freight operations include loading, unloading, weighing, inspection, documentation, shunting, brake testing, and train formation. A freight yard may specialize in coal, cement, food grains, petroleum products, containers, automobiles, fertilizers, steel, or general merchandise. The infrastructure depends on the commodity. Bulk goods often require conveyors, hoppers, loading gantries, pipelines, silos, cranes, or dumpers. Container yards require gantry cranes, reach stackers, paved storage areas, customs facilities where applicable, and road connections. Freight yards need good road access because goods usually move between the railway and trucks. They also require dust control, drainage, lighting, fire protection, and environmental management. === Passenger Yards === Passenger coach yards prepare coaches for service. Activities may include cleaning, watering, toilet servicing, minor repairs, charging, linen handling, safety checks, and coach formation. A terminating train may enter a coach yard after passengers leave. Staff clean the interiors, inspect equipment, replenish water, remove waste, and check doors, brakes, lights, fans, air-conditioning systems, and other components. Passenger yards may contain washing plants, examination pits, carriage watering systems, electrical charging equipment, waste-treatment facilities, stores, and staff rooms. The time available between arrival and departure is known as the turnaround period. A short turnaround requires carefully coordinated work and clear responsibility among several departments. === Marshalling Yards === A marshalling yard rearranges freight wagons into trains. It may receive wagons from different directions and sort them according to destination. In a flat yard, locomotives push and pull wagons through points to place them on different tracks. In a hump yard, wagons are pushed up a small artificial hill and then allowed to roll down into classification tracks under controlled conditions. Hump yards may use retarders, wagon detectors, automatic points, computer control, and speed-control systems. The objective is to place each wagon on the correct track without excessive impact. Marshalling yards have declined in importance on some routes because block freight trains and dedicated commodity flows reduce the need for individual wagon sorting. Nevertheless, many yards remain important for regional freight operations. === Railway Depots === A depot is a facility where railway vehicles or equipment receive routine attention and are prepared for service. Depots are generally smaller than major workshops but may cover a wide range of activities. Passenger train depots may inspect coaches, clean interiors, replenish water, service toilets, repair minor defects, and prepare rakes for departure. Locomotive depots may carry out fueling, inspection, sanding, lubrication, fault diagnosis, and minor repairs. Electric locomotive depots also inspect pantographs, traction equipment, circuit breakers, and high-voltage systems. Maintenance depots may support track machines, overhead equipment vehicles, signal-maintenance vehicles, inspection cars, and road–rail vehicles. === Railway Workshops === A railway workshop is a large maintenance and manufacturing facility for locomotives, coaches, wagons, track machines, bridges, signalling equipment, or other railway assets. Workshops perform periodic overhauls that are more extensive than routine shed maintenance. A vehicle may be dismantled, cleaned, inspected, repaired, tested, painted, and reassembled. Locomotive workshops work on traction motors, engines, gearboxes, bogies, wheelsets, braking systems, electrical cabinets, control systems, and body structures. The exact work depends on whether the locomotive is electric, diesel, or another type. Carriage workshops maintain passenger coaches. They may repair body panels, doors, windows, seats, toilets, air-conditioning systems, electrical wiring, brake equipment, suspension components, and bogies. Wagon workshops maintain freight wagons used for coal, cement, grain, containers, petroleum products, steel, automobiles, and other goods. They inspect wagon bodies, doors, couplers, brake systems, wheels, and underframes. Railway workshops may also manufacture or repair track components, tools, signalling equipment, bridge parts, electrical equipment, and specialized machines. Official railway reporting has described signal workshops producing equipment such as point machines, block instruments, axle counters, relays, and related items. Workshops use cranes, lifting jacks, wheel lathes, milling machines, drilling machines, welding equipment, paint booths, hydraulic presses, testing rigs, electrical test benches, and computerized diagnostic systems. Railway workshops need stores for spare parts, raw materials, lubricants, electrical components, fasteners, safety equipment, and consumables. Inventory management is important because both shortages and excessive stock can increase costs. == Heritage and Mountain Railways == Heritage railways preserve historic routes, stations, bridges, locomotives, coaches, workshops, and operating practices. Some heritage lines continue to provide regular services, while others focus on tourism and education. [[File:Nilgiri Mountain Railways, Hillgrove Station, India.jpg|thumb|253x253px|'''Credit: Arindambasu2.''' This is the Nilgiri Mountain Railways of India. This is Hillgrove station. ]] Mountain railways often use steep gradients, sharp curves, special bridges, tunnels, zigzags, loops, and unique engineering arrangements. Their infrastructure may require specialized maintenance because of age, terrain, and limited space. Heritage conservation must balance historical authenticity with modern safety requirements. Some structures may be repaired using traditional methods, while hidden components may be strengthened with modern materials. == Railway Construction == Railway construction begins with planning, surveys, alignment selection, land acquisition, environmental assessment, design, and approvals. Construction then proceeds through earthwork, bridges, track formation, track laying, electrification, signalling, station building, testing, and commissioning. Survey teams study terrain, soil, drainage, existing roads, settlements, rivers, utilities, and environmental features. Modern surveys may use satellite imagery, drones, geographic information systems, and digital terrain models. Earthwork forms the base for the railway. It includes embankments, cuttings, soil improvement, slope protection, and drainage. After the formation is ready, bridges, culverts, retaining structures, and other civil works are completed. Track workers then lay sleepers, rails, ballast, points, crossings, and related components. Electrification and signalling are installed after or alongside track construction. Testing verifies track geometry, electrical clearances, signal logic, communication, points, brakes, and emergency arrangements. A new line or upgraded route is opened only after inspections, trials, authorizations, and safety procedures have been completed. === Railway Interoperability === Interoperability means that different railway components and organizations can work together. A locomotive must be compatible with track, overhead equipment, signalling, platforms, loading gauges, couplers, brakes, and operating rules. Interoperability is also important when trains cross zone boundaries or use infrastructure managed by different authorities. Standardized equipment and procedures reduce delays and simplify maintenance. Problems can occur when older and newer systems coexist. For example, a route may contain different signalling technologies, platform arrangements, electrification equipment, or communication systems. Railway planners must manage these interfaces carefully. == Extra Parts of Railway Systems == === Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC) === A dedicated freight corridor is a railway route designed mainly for freight traffic. It may have higher axle-load capacity, longer loops, larger loading clearances, modern signalling, and fewer conflicts with passenger trains. Separating freight and passenger traffic can increase capacity on existing routes. Freight trains may operate with longer formations and heavier loads than on older mixed-traffic routes, subject to the corridor’s design. Dedicated freight corridors require new track, bridges, tunnels, stations or crossing facilities, electric traction, signalling, maintenance bases, control centers, and logistics terminals. Their effectiveness depends not only on the railway line but also on connecting routes, ports, industrial sidings, warehouses, road networks, and cargo demand. === Suburban Railway Systems === Suburban railway systems carry large numbers of passengers over short and medium distances. They require frequent services, high platform capacity, rapid boarding, reliable signalling, and efficient passenger circulation. Suburban stations often have multiple platforms, footbridges, ticketing gates, escalators, lifts, shelters, and large pedestrian approaches. Some have separate areas for different directions or services. Suburban infrastructure may include dedicated tracks, fast and slow lines, stabling yards, maintenance depots, automatic signalling, traction substations, and centralized control. Peak-hour demand creates special challenges. Platforms and footbridges must manage very high passenger volumes, while train schedules must maintain short intervals without compromising safety. === Metro Systems === [[File:A metro train entering Baranagar Metro station in Kolkata, India.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' A metro from the Kolkata Metro System enters Baranagar metro station. ]] Metro systems and regional railways may connect with Indian Railways at interchange stations. They can have different rolling stock, signalling systems, fare systems, platform heights, electrification arrangements, and operating authorities. An interchange station must allow passengers to transfer easily. Ideally, the connection includes short walking paths, clear signs, weather protection, lifts, escalators, integrated ticketing where available, and coordination between train schedules. Poorly designed transfers can make a journey difficult even when the railway and metro lines themselves operate well. Integration therefore includes both physical infrastructure and passenger information. == Railway Siding == A siding is a track connected to a main line or station track but used for a special purpose. Sidings may serve factories, mines, ports, warehouses, military facilities, construction sites, and passenger terminals. Private sidings connect customer facilities to the railway network. The customer may build and maintain parts of the siding, while railway authorities regulate its connection and operation. A loading siding may contain platforms, conveyors, cranes, hoppers, weighbridges, and storage areas. An industrial siding may allow raw materials to arrive and finished products to leave by rail. Sidings reduce congestion on the main line by allowing loading, unloading, stabling, or shunting to occur away from through traffic. == Future == Future railway infrastructure in India is likely to focus on capacity, safety, electrification, freight efficiency, station redevelopment, urban integration, digital systems, and improved maintenance. High-capacity routes may receive additional tracks, faster signalling, stronger bridges, longer platforms, improved junctions, and better terminals. Freight infrastructure may expand through dedicated corridors, logistics parks, container terminals, private sidings, and multimodal connections. Passenger facilities may become more accessible and integrated with buses, metro systems, taxis, cycling facilities, and pedestrian networks. Future projects will also need to address climate resilience. More intense rainfall, flooding, heat, coastal risks, landslides, and changing weather patterns can affect track, bridges, stations, electrical systems, and communication networks. [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] b4n813tdzjj02jgzkyvnz24w52i2acb 0 485736 4671894 4671307 2026-09-23T06:29:45Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671894 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=Railway Infrastructure|next=Railfanning}} == Introduction == In '''Indian Railways''', railway communication refers to the systems, technologies, and organizational structures that enable the exchange of information required for the safe, efficient, and coordinated operation of Indian Railways. It encompasses both signaling systems that control train movements and telecommunication systems that support operational, administrative, and passenger-facing services across one of the world's largest railway networks. The Signaling and Telecommunication (S&T) Department of Indian Railways is responsible for the design, installation, maintenance, and standardization of these systems. Its work covers everything from trackside signals and interlocking equipment to optical fibre networks, radio systems, and IT applications that run reservations, freight operations, and crew management. == Historical Development == Railway communication in India evolved alongside the expansion of the rail network from the mid-19th century. Early systems relied on mechanical signalling, such as semaphore signals operated by levers in signal cabins, and basic telegraph and telephone lines for train control and administrative messaging. These systems required significant human intervention and were limited in speed, capacity, and reliability. From the late 20th century, Indian Railways began a systematic modernization programme. Mechanical signalling was progressively replaced by electrical signalling with Multiple Aspect Color Light (MACL) signals, which offer better visibility, faster operation, and lower maintenance. Parallel to this, the Railway Reforms Committee (1983) recommended that Indian Railways develop its own independent telecommunication network rather than relying solely on the public telecom operator, leading to the large-scale laying of optical fibre cable (OFC) from 1988 onwards and the creation of RailTel in 2000 to manage and commercially exploit surplus capacity. == Organizational Structure == The Signaling and Telecommunication function is organized as a dedicated department within Indian Railways, with responsibilities divided between headquarters, zonal railways, divisions, and field units. At the apex, the Signal and Telecommunication Directorate on the Railway Board handles policy, design, development, and standardization of S&T systems for the entire network. On the ground, the Open Line Organization of the S&T Department is responsible for the day-to-day upkeep of signalling and telecommunication assets along running lines, at stations, in yards, and in control offices. Signal and Telecom workshops, such as the one at Byculla on Central Railway, carry out repairs, overhauling, and testing of equipment. This hierarchical structure ensures that technical standards are uniformly applied while allowing zonal and divisional units to adapt maintenance and implementation to local conditions. == Railway Signaling == Signaling systems form the safety-critical core of railway communication, governing how trains are authorized to move along sections of track and through stations. Indian Railways has progressively replaced outdated multi-cabin mechanical signalling with advanced systems such as Route Relay Interlocking (RRI), Panel Interlocking (PI), and Electronic Interlocking (EI), often integrated with Multi Aspect Color Light signals. These systems reduce human error, increase route-setting speed, and allow higher line capacity. [[File:Railway signal at Tiruchirappalli Junction railway station 13.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: PJeganathan.''''' Some railway signals which are part of the Tiruchirappalli Junction. ]] Track circuits and axle counters are used to detect the presence of trains on specific sections of track, feeding this information to interlocking systems and control panels. Southern Railway, for example, introduced Audio Frequency Track Circuits in the mid-1990s, improving detection reliability under diverse track conditions. More recently, advanced train protection systems such as Train Protection and Warning System (TPWS), Indian Railways’ own Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS, also called Kavach), and elements of the European Train Control System (ETCS) have been introduced or piloted to further enhance safety. == Telecommunication Infrastructure == The telecommunication infrastructure of Indian Railways provides the backbone for both safety-related operational communication and administrative and passenger information systems. Optical Fibre Cable (OFC) forms the core of this network, creating a high-capacity, nation-wide backbone that carries voice, data, and control traffic. By the early 2010s, Indian Railways had already deployed over 42,000 route kilometers of OFC, carrying tens of gigabits of traffic, and had shifted most control communication onto this fibre network. This OFC-based network supports the Railways Information Network (RAILNET), which interconnects offices, control centers, and stations across the country. It also underpins key IT applications such as the Passenger Reservation System (PRS), Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS), Freight Operation Information System (FOIS), Crew Management System (CMS), and Coaching Operating Information System (COIS). In parallel, the Unified Telecom Backbone is being upgraded using Internet Protocol Multi-Protocol Label Switching (IP MPLS) technology to meet growing bandwidth needs; by 2025–26, IP MPLS had been commissioned at well over a thousand stations. === Train Operational Communication Systems === Train control and operational communication refer to the systems that enable real-time coordination between drivers, guards, station masters, and control offices to manage train movements safely and efficiently. Traditionally, Indian Railways has used a “Driver–Guard–Station–Controller” system, often called the Control Communication System, based on Very High Frequency (VHF) wireless handsets for communication between drivers, guards, and station masters, and landline telephones for station-to-control office links. To improve reliability, coverage, and functionality, Indian Railways has been transitioning to Mobile Train Radio Communication (MTRC) based on GSM-R (Global System for Mobile Communications – Railway) technology. GSM-R provides dedicated railway radio channels, supports voice and data services, and is designed to meet the stringent safety and performance requirements of modern rail operations. This shift is part of a broader effort to integrate voice communication with signalling and train control systems, enabling features such as direct driver–controller communication and enhanced emergency handling. === Passenger and Freight Information Systems === Railway communication in India also includes systems that directly serve passengers and freight customers. The Passenger Reservation System (PRS) and Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS) rely on the railway telecom network to connect booking counters, online portals, and mobile applications to central databases, enabling real-time seat availability, ticket issuance, and cancellations across the country. These systems are integral to the user experience and depend on robust, low-latency communication links. For freight operations, the Freight Operation Information System (FOIS) and Parcel Management System (PMS) provide end-to-end visibility of consignments, wagon positions, and terminal operations. Crew Management Systems (CMS) and Coaching Operating Information Systems (COIS) further support operational planning by tracking crew duties and coaching stock movements. All these applications run over the same OFC and IP-based backbone that supports safety-critical traffic, illustrating how railway communication in India blends operational and commercial functions on a single integrated network. === Safety and Emergency Communication Systems === Safety and emergency communication is a specialized subset of railway communication designed to respond rapidly to accidents, disruptions, and other emergencies. In the event of an accident, the S&T Department is responsible for establishing communication between the accident site and divisional headquarters using emergency control circuits, administrative lines connected through emergency sockets, or alternative links such as BSNL, GSM (railway), or satellite connections. At the accident site itself, VHF radio systems are used to coordinate between the on-site workforce, rescue teams, and officers in charge. Some zones also maintain provisions for accident-site communication via satellite, ensuring connectivity even in remote or disaster-affected areas where terrestrial networks may be damaged. These arrangements are regularly tested and integrated with overall disaster management protocols to minimize response times and support coordinated rescue and relief operations. == Digital Initiatives == In recent years, Indian Railways has pursued a range of modernization and digital initiatives to strengthen its communication capabilities. A major focus has been the enhancement of the Unified Telecom Backbone through IP MPLS technology, which provides a high-capacity, scalable network capable of supporting present and future mission-critical applications. This upgrade is being rolled out across zones and divisions, with thousands of stations already commissioned on the new platform by 2025–26. Another significant development is the expansion of Tunnel Communication Systems, particularly on strategically important projects such as the Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) in Jammu and Kashmir. These systems ensure continuous radio and data coverage inside long tunnels, which is essential for both normal operations and emergency response. Alongside infrastructure upgrades, Indian Railways continues to adopt advanced signalling and train protection technologies, integrate IT applications more deeply with communication networks, and explore newer standards to improve safety, capacity, and passenger experience. == Future Directions and Challenges == Despite substantial progress, railway communication in India faces several challenges. The sheer size and diversity of the network mean that upgrading legacy systems, especially in older sections with mechanical or early electrical signalling, is a long-term endeavor requiring significant investment and careful planning. Maintaining uniform standards across zones, while accommodating local operational realities, also poses organizational and technical difficulties. In the future, key directions include the continued migration to GSM-R-based train radio, wider deployment of advanced train protection systems such as Kavach/TCAS and ETCS components, and further consolidation of all communication and IT applications onto a robust, IP-based backbone. Integration of real-time data from signalling, rolling stock, and infrastructure into central analytics platforms, along with improved cybersecurity measures, will be crucial as the network becomes more digital and interconnected. Over time, these developments aim to make railway communication in India safer, more efficient, and better aligned with global best practices while supporting the growing demands of passengers and freight customers. {{BookCat}} 59opd8pxcjsri1lkkzo06h4ogcrre9z 3 485743 4671875 4671284 2026-09-23T05:04:13Z TechVindicator 3626296 Welcoming user with {{Cookwelcome}} 4671875 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome!== Welcome, FeralHogs30-50! {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Getting started]] with Wikibooks |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. 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Feel free to let me know if you need any help or have any questions! {{#ifeq: |||<br>'''Additional details:''' }} | small = | smallimage = | smallimageright = | smalltext = }} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 05:04, 23 September 2026 (UTC) bcnzb4rf6lcq9axtq9qjp9801z311f0 0 485748 4671896 4671324 2026-09-23T06:32:04Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671896 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=Railfanning|next=Trains and Manufacturers}} == Introduction == Digital technologies in '''Indian Railways''' refer to the computer-based systems, software applications, communication networks, and data-driven tools that support the planning, operation, management, and customer services of one of the world’s largest railway networks. These technologies span passenger ticketing and enquiry, freight logistics, crew and rolling stock management, safety systems, and enterprise-wide information management. The adoption of digital technologies has been driven by the need to handle very large transaction volumes, improve operational efficiency, enhance safety, and provide better services to passengers and freight customers. Over time, Indian Railways has moved from isolated, legacy systems to integrated, networked platforms that rely on high-capacity telecom backbones, modern data centers, and increasingly on artificial intelligence and analytics. == Digital Technologies of Indian Railways == === CRIS and RDSO === The Centre for Railway Information Systems (CRIS) is the primary organization responsible for designing, developing, implementing, and maintaining the information technology systems of Indian Railways. Established in 1986, CRIS evolved from an earlier effort to computerize freight operations and now serves as the ICT arm of the Railways, building and managing most of its major digital applications. CRIS develops software, provides ICT infrastructure, and supports field implementation across zonal railways and business units. Alongside CRIS, the Research Designs and Standards Organization (RDSO) plays a key role in the development and standardization of safety-critical digital systems, particularly in signalling and train protection. RDSO has led the design of indigenous Automatic Train Protection systems such as Kavach (earlier known as TCAS), working with Indian industry partners to create solutions tailored to Indian operating conditions. Together, CRIS and RDSO form the core institutional framework for digital technologies in Indian Railways, with CRIS focusing on information systems and RDSO on safety and engineering standards. === PRS and UTS === The Passenger Reservation System (PRS) is the computerized platform that manages reserved ticketing across Indian Railways. Introduced in the mid-1980s, PRS replaced manual reservation processes and enabled centralized management of seat allocation, waitlists, Reservation Against Cancellation (RAC), and reservation charts. Passengers access PRS through reservation counters, the IRCTC website, and mobile applications, allowing booking, modification, and cancellation of tickets from multiple channels. In parallel, the Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS) supports paperless and mobile ticketing for unreserved travel, including suburban and short-distance journeys. UTS enables passengers to buy general-class and platform tickets through mobile apps and automatic ticket vending machines, reducing queues and improving convenience. Both PRS and UTS run on the railway’s telecom and data infrastructure managed by CRIS and are among the most heavily used digital services in the country. ==== Modernization of PRS ==== Recognizing the limitations of legacy systems, Indian Railways has undertaken a major modernization of its ticketing platforms. The existing PRS, which originally ran on older software architectures, is being replaced by a new system designed to be agile, scalable, and capable of handling significantly higher loads. The upgraded PRS is expected to support over 125,000 ticket bookings per minute, a substantial increase from earlier capacities, and to handle millions of enquiries per minute. The new PRS is being built on open-source platforms, including enterprise Linux environments, to reduce dependence on single vendors and improve flexibility. It introduces features such as seat choice, fare calendars, and integrated support for categories like Divyangjan (persons with disabilities), students, and patients. A separate upgrade of UTS is also underway, while a dedicated Railway Information Security Operations Centre (IR-SOC) is being established to strengthen cybersecurity for these critical systems. === FOIS (Freight Operations Information System) === The Freight Operations Information System (FOIS) is a comprehensive digital platform for managing freight operations on Indian Railways. Conceived in the mid-1980s and implemented through CRIS, FOIS was initially designed to track and monitor the movement of wagons, locomotives, and unit trains. Over time, it has evolved into a full management module covering rake management, terminal handling, billing, revenue collection, and customer interaction, though not rolling stock maintenance. FOIS includes subsystems such as the Rake Management System (RMS) and Terminal Management System (TMS), which support planning, tracking, and optimization of freight trains and terminals. Customer-facing portals enable rake allotment, consignment tracking, and business development services, while management information systems provide real-time and historical data for decision-making. Tools like FOISMapView use geographic information systems (GIS) to visualize freight train movements across the network, aiding traffic planning and resource optimization. === CMS (Crew Management System) === Digital technologies also support the management of crew and rolling stock, which are critical for efficient railway operations. The Crew Management System (CMS) streamlines crew scheduling, deployment, and monitoring, ensuring that loco pilots, guards, and other staff are assigned appropriately and that duty-hour regulations are followed. By maintaining digital records of crew rosters, rest hours, and training, CMS helps improve workforce utilization and safety compliance. Similarly, systems for rolling stock management track the location, status, and maintenance schedules of locomotives, coaches, and wagons. Technologies such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) have been used to tag and track rolling stock, while GPS-based solutions enable real-time monitoring of train movements. These systems feed into broader platforms like FOIS and coaching operation systems, providing data for operational control, maintenance planning, and customer information services. === NTES and RailMadad === Train enquiry and passenger information services are among the most visible digital applications for railway users. The National Train Enquiry System (NTES) provides real-time information on train running status, expected arrival and departure times, and platform numbers at stations. Passengers access NTES through websites, mobile apps, and display boards at stations, helping them plan journeys and reduce uncertainty. RailMadad is another key digital platform, serving as a centralized grievance redressal and assistance system for passengers. It allows users to lodge complaints, seek help, and track the resolution of issues related to cleanliness, catering, security, and other aspects of travel. Integration of NTES and RailMadad with language technologies, such as automatic speech recognition and translation, is being explored to make these services more accessible in multiple Indian languages. === IRCTC and RailOne === [[File:IRCTC Humsafar Rakes..jpg|thumb|284x284px|'''''Credit: Kishlay RF.''''' This Humsafar rake actually belongs to IRCTC. ]] To provide a unified digital experience, Indian Railways has introduced integrated mobile applications that combine multiple services on a single platform. The RailOne app, for example, brings together reserved and unreserved ticketing, platform ticketing, train enquiry, PNR status, and RailMadad grievance services under one login. It supports credentials from existing systems like RailConnect and UTS, allowing passengers to access a wide range of services without switching between multiple apps. The IRCTC website and mobile applications remain central to online reserved ticketing, offering features such as seat selection, meal booking, and integration with payment gateways. Together, these apps represent a shift towards “super-app” style platforms where passengers can plan, book, travel, and seek support within a single digital ecosystem. This approach reduces friction for users and allows Indian Railways to gather integrated data on passenger behavior and service performance. === Kavach (TCAS) === Safety is a core focus of digital technologies in Indian Railways, with systems designed to prevent accidents and enhance operational reliability. Kavach, originally developed as the Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), is an indigenous Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system created by RDSO in collaboration with Indian industry. It is certified to Safety Integrity Level 4 (SIL-4), one of the highest global railway safety standards, and is designed to function reliably in Indian conditions, including fog and low visibility. Kavach works by creating a real-time communication network between trains, trackside equipment, signalling systems, and control stations. It provides cab signalling, warns drivers of signal aspects and speed restrictions, and can automatically apply brakes if the driver fails to respond appropriately. The system helps prevent head-on, rear-end, and side collisions under certain conditions, reduces the risk of Signal Passing at Danger (SPAD), and enforces section and locomotive-specific speed limits. Deployment is being prioritized on high-density routes, with plans to cover thousands of route kilometers in phases. === Data Analytics and AI === Indian Railways is increasingly using data analytics and artificial intelligence (AI) to improve decision-making, maintenance, and service quality. Dashboards such as eDrishti provide senior management with real-time views of key performance indicators, including punctuality, freight loading, and asset utilization. These tools aggregate data from multiple systems to support monitoring and rapid intervention where needed. Plans are underway to establish a Railway AI Centre of Excellence to coordinate and accelerate the use of AI across the organization. Existing initiatives include machine learning models for predictive maintenance, computer vision for inspection tasks, natural language processing for customer support, and robotics for specific operational functions. CRIS is also developing analytics capabilities to leverage the vast amounts of data generated by ticketing, freight, crew, and train operations systems, aiming to move from descriptive reporting to predictive and prescriptive insights. == Digital Security == === Cybersecurity === As digital systems become more central to railway operations, cybersecurity has emerged as a critical area of focus. Indian Railways handles millions of transactions daily across PRS, UTS, FOIS, and other platforms, making it an important target for cyber threats. In response, a dedicated Railway Information Security Operations Centre (IR-SOC) is being set up to monitor, detect, and respond to security incidents across the railway’s ICT infrastructure. Regular security audits, vulnerability assessments, and adherence to security standards are being implemented for new and existing digital services. Efforts include strengthening network security, securing data centers, improving identity and access management, and building incident response capabilities. These measures aim to protect sensitive passenger and operational data, ensure the availability of critical systems, and maintain trust in digital services. === Enterprise Systems and Digital Governance === Beyond customer-facing and operational systems, Indian Railways uses a range of enterprise applications to support governance, procurement, and internal management. The Aapoorti platform digitizes procurement and tender management processes, bringing transparency and efficiency to purchasing activities. Such systems integrate with financial and inventory modules to provide end-to-end visibility of expenditures and contracts. Digital governance is further supported by platforms that enable performance monitoring, compliance tracking, and reporting. Tools like eDrishti and other management information systems help track progress against targets, identify bottlenecks, and support evidence-based policy decisions. CRIS also provides IT applications to non-railway government and public sector organizations, extending the benefits of railway-developed digital solutions to wider public services. == Future == In the future, digital technologies in Indian Railways are expected to evolve along several key directions. The continued rollout of Kavach and other advanced train protection systems will deepen the integration of safety-critical digital controls with signalling and operations. Upgrades to PRS and UTS will enhance capacity, user experience, and security, while new mobile and web platforms will offer more personalized and multilingual services. Emerging technologies such as 5G, Internet of Things (IoT), and advanced analytics are likely to play a growing role. For example, newer versions of Kavach are exploring integration with 5G-LTE for improved communication between trains and infrastructure. IoT sensors on rolling stock and infrastructure can support condition-based maintenance, while AI-driven models can optimize timetables, rake utilization, and freight routing. Together, these developments aim to create a more efficient, and user-centric railway system, which are aligned with broader national digital initiatives such as Digital India. [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] 2in5a5vwoskzihua4vr912zdc4s8xaf 0 485750 4671895 4671487 2026-09-23T06:30:49Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671895 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=Communications|next=Digital Technology}} == Introduction == Railfanning in '''Indian Railways''' (also called trainspotting in some countries), is a recreational activity where enthusiasts observe and document railway operations, locomotives, rolling stock, and infrastructure. In India, railfanning has grown from a niche pursuit into a widespread hobby supported by online communities, dedicated websites, and social media groups. The vast Indian Railways network, spanning over 68,000 route kilometers across diverse geographical and climatic zones, offers exceptional variety for railfans. The practice involves visiting railway stations, level crossings, bridges, and scenic locations to watch trains pass, photograph locomotives and consists, record train movements, and sometimes travel specifically to experience particular routes or locomotive classes. Railfanning differs from ordinary train travel in its focus on observation and documentation rather than transportation alone. Participants often develop specialized knowledge about locomotive types, train schedules, railway history, and operational patterns. Railfanning in India presents unique opportunities due to the coexistence of multiple traction types, diverse locomotive classes from different eras, varied geographical settings from Himalayan Mountain railways to coastal routes, and the sheer volume of train movements daily. However, it also requires careful attention to safety, legal compliance, and ethical behavior around railway property. ''See also: [[wikipedia:Railfan|Railfan]]'' == Legal Permissions == Railfanning in India operates within a legal framework defined primarily by the Railways Act, 1989. Section 147 of this Act addresses trespass, stating that any person entering railway property without lawful authority faces imprisonment up to six months, a fine up to one thousand rupees, or both. This provision makes unauthorized presence on tracks, in yards, on platforms after hours, or in restricted areas a punishable offence. Understanding these legal boundaries is essential for responsible railfanning. Photography and videography on railway premises may need permission from railway authorities. Official guidelines mandate obtaining prior permission from the Manager or In-charge of concerned stations or premises before undertaking still or video photography. For extensive photography projects, permits may be obtained by writing to the Joint Director of Public Relations at Rail Bhavan in New Delhi, or to the Senior Public Relations Officer (PRO) of any regional division, or the Chief Public Relations Officer (CPRO) of a zonal railway. Applications should list intended stations and dates, and processing may take several weeks. In practice however, many railfans photograph trains from public areas adjacent to tracks, such as roads, bridges, or elevated positions outside railway boundaries, where no permission is required. However, using tripods, large lenses, or conspicuous equipment may attract attention from Railway Protection Force (RPF) or Government Railway Police (GRP) personnel. Discretion, small cameras, and avoiding flash photography help minimize confrontations. Some locations, particularly near security posts or sensitive infrastructure, should be avoided entirely. == Safety == Safety is the main concern in railfanning. The cardinal rule is maintaining a safe distance from all moving trains and railway infrastructure. Trains cannot stop quickly, may overhang tracks, and can approach silently, especially electric locomotives. Railway tracks are not pedestrian pathways; walking, sitting, or placing equipment on rails is both dangerous and illegal, but it is not well enforced. Railfans should remain at least 25 feet from tracks, even when taking quick photographs. This distance accounts for train overhang, debris, and unexpected movements. Elevated positions such as embankments, bridges, or hills provide safer vantage points while offering better compositional opportunities. Never stand between converging tracks, on bridges without proper barriers, or in tunnels where escape routes are limited. Respect warning signs, fences, and barriers marking railway property. Do not cross tracks except at designated crossings with clear visibility. Empty trains stabled on tracks may be shunted without warning; never enter stationary consists unless explicitly permitted. If confronted by railway staff or police, remain calm, explain your activity politely, and comply with instructions to leave, if asked. == Photo-Videography for Railfanning == === Photography Equipment === Successful railfanning requires appropriate equipment tailored to observation, photography, and documentation needs. The fundamental tool is a camera, ranging from smartphone cameras for casual documentation to DSLR or mirrorless cameras with telephoto lenses for serious photography. A focal length of 70-200mm is often ideal for capturing trains from safe distances without disrupting operations or requiring trespass. [[File:Three different generations of Indian railway locomotives.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''Credit: Piyush Sharma.''' A photographer taking a still picture of three different generations of locomotives in India. ]] For still photography with professional cameras, use shutter priority mode with speeds of at least 1/1000 second for trains traveling above 80 km/h, and 1/500 second for slower movements. ISO settings of 400-800 provide flexibility in varying light conditions while maintaining image quality. Continuous autofocus and high-speed drive modes help capture sharp images of fast-moving subjects. Compact point-and-shoot cameras offer discretion and portability, while larger SLRs with fast lenses enable higher-quality enlargements. A notebook or smartphone app for logging sightings, train numbers, and times supports documentation. Weather protection for equipment is essential, especially during monsoon seasons. Comfortable clothing, sturdy shoes, sun protection, water, and snacks support extended outdoor sessions. Some railfans carry printed or digital copies of train schedules, locomotive rosters, and maps to identify observed trains and plan sessions effectively. Mobile apps providing real-time train running information have become invaluable tools for modern railfans, though reliance on electronic devices should not compromise awareness. === Photography Techniques === Railfan photography combines technical camera skills with compositional awareness and safety considerations. The classic three-quarter "wedge" angle, approximately 30-45 degrees off the track with the locomotive front pointing toward the photographer, provides reliable composition showing both the front face and side of the engine while including the leading line of rails. Positioning relative to sunlight significantly affects image quality. Shooting with the sun behind you illuminates the train evenly, while side lighting creates dramatic shadows and texture. Dawn and dusk provide warm, soft light and often coincide with photogenic atmospheric conditions, though low-light situations require adjusted camera settings. Avoid shooting directly into sunlight unless silhouette effects are intended. Composition benefits from including environmental context: landscapes, bridges, stations, or urban settings that situate the train within its surroundings. Framing so geographic features dominate with the train as punctuation often produces more compelling images than isolating the locomotive against blank backgrounds. Avoid distracting elements such as white walls, garbage piles, or cluttered foregrounds that draw attention from the subject. For locomotive identification shots, frame so the number plate is roughly central, as corner sharpness degrades even on quality lenses and digits are unforgiving of softness. Leave open space in the direction of travel to suggest motion rather than having the train appear to exit the frame immediately. == Railfanning Locations == India offers diverse railfanning locations ranging from bustling metropolitan stations to remote mountain passes. Major terminals like Mumbai Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus (CSMT), Howrah Junction in Kolkata, New Delhi Railway Station, and Chennai Central provide constant activity with varied locomotive types and frequent movements. These stations serve as hubs for multiple zones and divisions, ensuring diverse sightings throughout the day. [[File:Darjeeling railway station 02.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Bernard Gagnon.''''' This is the Darjeeling Mountain Railways in India. Two steam locomotives can be seen here. ]] Ghat sections present spectacular scenery combined with challenging operations. The Konkan Railway route between Maharashtra and Karnataka features numerous bridges, tunnels, and coastal views. The Western Ghats sections, including Pune-Lonavala-Khandala, Bengaluru-Karwar, and Palakkad Gap routes, offer dramatic gradients, banking operations, and scenic backdrops. The Nilgiri Mountain Railway's operations and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway's operations through hill stations attract photographers seeking heritage operations in mountainous terrain. Specific locations renowned among railfans include Igatpuri on the Mumbai-Nagpur route for banking operations, Vijayawada for its busy junction status, Mughal Sarai (now Pt. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Junction) for heavy freight movements, and Golden Rock near Tiruchchirappalli for diesel loco shed activities. Bridge locations such as the Godavari Arch Bridge near Rajahmundry, the Chenab Bridge in Jammu and Kashmir (once operational), and numerous viaducts on the Konkan Railway provide elevated vantage points and dramatic compositions. Urban locations with elevated tracks, such as sections in Mumbai, Delhi, and Bengaluru, allow safe observation from adjacent roads or buildings. Rural level crossings with open sightlines and minimal obstructions offer opportunities to photograph trains against agricultural or natural landscapes. Researching locations through railfan forums, photo galleries, and maps helps identify productive spots while understanding access routes and safety considerations. == Locomotive Classification == Indian Railways uses a systematic nomenclature for locomotive classification that railfans should understand. The code prefix, such as WAP-5 or WDM-2, denotes the locomotive type, followed by a serial number identifying the individual unit. The first letter indicates gauge: W for broad gauge (5 ft 6 in, called "Wide"), Y for metre gauge (3 ft 3 in, "Yard"), and Z for narrow gauge (2 ft 6 in or 2 ft). The second letter denotes motive power: A for AC electric traction, D for diesel traction, and historically M for DC electric or mixed traction in some contexts. The third letter indicates service type: P for passenger locomotives, G for goods (freight) locomotives, M for mixed traffic (suitable for both passenger and freight), and S for shunting duties. A fourth digit or letter may indicate a dual-mode locomotive or model variant. Common locomotive classes include WAP series (AC electric passenger): WAP-1 (3800 HP, first AC electric), WAP-4 (5350 HP, high-speed passenger), WAP-5 (6000 HP, 160 km/h capability, Bo-Bo axle arrangement), and WAP-7 (6350 HP, most powerful passenger locomotive, Co-Co). WAG series (AC electric freight) includes WAG-5, WAG-7 (5000 HP), WAG-9 (6120-9000 HP, modern freight), and WAG-12 (12000 HP, most powerful locomotive in India, twin-section). Diesel locomotives include WDM series (broad gauge diesel mixed): WDM-2 (2600 HP, most common), WDM-3A (3100 HP), and WDM-3D (3300 HP, modern variant). WDP series denotes diesel passenger locomotives, while WDG series indicates diesel freight locomotives. Understanding these classifications helps railfans identify locomotives quickly, anticipate characteristics, and appreciate technological evolution. == Planning Sessions == Effective railfanning requires planning around train schedules to maximize sightings of desired locomotives, train types, or specific movements. Indian Railways publishes official timetables available online and through mobile applications, providing departure and arrival times at stations along each route. Real-time train running information apps show current locations, delays, and expected arrival times at specific stations, enabling railfans to time their visits precisely. Planning sessions involves identifying target trains based on locomotive allocation, route, and timing. Premium trains like Rajdhani Express, Shatabdi Express, and Vande Bharat Express often feature modern locomotives or self-propelled trainsets and maintain relatively punctual schedules. Freight trains, while less predictable, offer opportunities to observe powerful WAG and WDG class locomotives, sometimes in multiple-unit operations. Consider operational patterns when planning: morning and evening hours typically see concentrated passenger train movements, while freight traffic may peak during night hours on certain routes. Junction stations experience varied traffic as trains from multiple directions converge and diverge. Banking operations, where additional locomotives assist trains climbing steep gradients, occur at specific locations like Igatpuri, Khandala, and Ghat sections, creating opportunities to observe multiple locomotives per train. == Heritage Railways == Indian Railways maintains significant heritage assets reflecting its 170-year history. Approximately 230 steam locomotives are preserved at museums, heritage parks, and prominent locations across India, alongside 110 vintage coaches and wagons. The National Rail Museum in New Delhi houses an extensive collection including life-size exhibits of vintage steam, diesel, and electric locomotives, coaches, saloons, wagons, and cranes dating back to 1862. About 16 steam locomotives are maintained as working heritage, capable of hauling tourist trains and ceremonial runs despite not being in regular service. The Rewari Steam Centre maintains six broad gauge and four metre gauge working steam locomotives, including the iconic Fairy Queen from 1855, recognized by Guinness World Records as the oldest working locomotive globally. Other preserved locomotives like Akbar have appeared in Bollywood films, demonstrating continued cultural relevance. [[File:Train at Summer Hill railway station on the Kalka–Shimla Railway,1.jpg|thumb|302x302px|'''''Credit: Rajani Gairshail.''''' A heritage train arriving at Summer Hill railway station on the Kalka-Shimla Railway. ]] Heritage routes operating with steam or vintage equipment include the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway (narrow gauge, rack-assisted sections), Nilgiri Mountain Railway (metre gauge, rack-and-pinion), Kalka-Shimla Railway (narrow gauge), and Matheran Hill Railway (narrow gauge). These mountain railways offer railfans opportunities to experience historical operations in scenic settings. Special heritage tours and rail cruise services occasionally operate using preserved locomotives and vintage coaches, providing unique experiences for enthusiasts willing to travel and book in advance. Many preserved locomotives represent specific design phases: pre-1905 non-standard designs, 1905-1928 BESA standardized designs, 1928-1939 IRS designs, wartime adaptations, and post-war IRS designs until steam production ceased around 1970. Recognizing these lineages helps railfans appreciate technological evolution and the diversity of locomotive types that once operated across India. == Railfan Communities == === Indian Railways Fan Club Association (IRFCA) === The Indian Railways Fan Club Association (IRFCA) represents the primary organized community for railfans in India, operating for 30 years. Originally established as an electronic mailing list, IRFCA has evolved into an online forum and discussion group connecting railfans across India and internationally. The organization facilitates information exchange, photo sharing, trip coordination, and preservation of railway knowledge. IRFCA maintains lots of online resources including photo galleries, articles on technical topics, locomotive nomenclature guides, safety guidelines, and FAQs addressing common railfanning questions. The photo gallery hosts thousands of images documenting locomotives, trains, stations, and operations across India, serving both as inspiration and reference material for railfans. Submission guidelines emphasize proper framing, clear visibility of subjects, and avoidance of excessive shadows or distracting elements. === Other Communities === Beyond IRFCA, numerous informal railfan groups operate on social media platforms, messaging applications, and regional forums. These communities share real-time information about unusual sightings, special trains, locomotive movements, and optimal railfanning conditions. Online platforms like India Rail Info provide crowd-sourced train running information, station details, and discussion forums where railfans exchange knowledge and experiences. Community participation enhances railfanning through shared knowledge, group outings, mentorship for newcomers, and collective advocacy for responsible practices. Experienced railfans often guide newcomers on safety, legal compliance, photography techniques, and productive locations. Engaging with communities also provides accountability, encouraging adherence to ethical standards and safety practices that protect both individuals and the hobby's reputation. == Railfan Ethics == Ethical railfanning respects railway property, personnel, and the public while minimizing negative impacts on operations and communities. Trespassing on railway property without authorization violates the Railways Act and endangers both railfans and railway workers. Even when legal consequences seem unlikely, unauthorized presence creates liability concerns and may disrupt operations if staff must intervene. Respect for railway personnel includes avoiding interference with duties, maintaining distance from crew during operations, and complying promptly when asked to move or stop photographing. Railway employees manage complex, safety operations; distractions or confrontations over photography permissions can compromise their focus. Polite, brief explanations of activities and willingness to relocate when requested demonstrate respect and reduce friction. Consider impacts on local communities near railfanning locations. Avoid blocking roads, pathways, or access points while setting up equipment. Do not trample crops, damage fences, or leave litter at rural locations. The "leave no trace" principle applies here. Pack out all trash, avoid damaging vegetation, and leave locations as found or better. Respect private property adjacent to tracks; seek permission before entering fields or compounds for vantage points. Photography ethics extend to subjects captured. Avoid images that could reveal security vulnerabilities, show sensitive infrastructure in detail, or compromise operational security. Be considerate of fellow railfans and the public. Don't monopolize prime positions or create hazards with equipment. Share knowledge generously with newcomers while emphasizing safety and legal compliance. Ethical practices protect the hobby's reputation and ensure continued access to productive locations. == Documentation == Systematic documentation transforms casual observation into meaningful railfanning records. Maintaining logs of sightings, including date, time, location, train number, locomotive number and class, consist details, and directional information, creates personal archives and contributes to collective knowledge. Digital spreadsheets, dedicated railfanning apps, or traditional notebooks serve this purpose effectively. Photographs serve as visual documentation, with metadata (date, time, GPS coordinates when available) embedded in digital files providing searchable records. Organizing photos by date, location, or locomotive class facilitates retrieval and analysis. Captioning images with train numbers, locomotive details, and contextual information preserves knowledge that might otherwise be forgotten. Consistent naming conventions and folder structures support long-term archive management. Advanced documentation may include tracking locomotive maintenance cycles, shed transfers, repaint schemes, or consist variations over time. Such detailed records support research into operational patterns, fleet evolution, and historical changes. Collaborative projects among railfans can compile comprehensive rosters, route guides, or historical analyses that benefit the broader community. === Railtours === Railfans may organize group outings or "railtours" to chase specific trains, visit multiple locations in a day, or experience particular routes from the passenger perspective. Coordinated efforts enable coverage of extended route sections, sharing of transportation costs, and collective documentation. Such events foster community bonds while creating comprehensive records of targeted operations. == Challenges and Future == === Challenges === Railfanning in India faces several challenges that enthusiasts must navigate carefully. Legal ambiguity around photography permissions creates uncertainty: while official guidelines require permits, enforcement varies widely across zones and divisions. Some railway personnel permit discreet photography from public areas, while others may demand permits even for smartphone snapshots from outside railway boundaries. This inconsistency requires railfans to exercise judgment, respect local directives, and avoid confrontations. Overcrowding at popular stations and locations complicates safe railfanning. Platforms during peak hours, busy junctions, and scenic spots accessible to the public may become congested, increasing risks of accidents or conflicts. Railfans must prioritize safety over photographic opportunities, avoiding dangerous positions even when others disregard warnings. The visibility of reckless behavior by some individuals can tarnish the entire railfanning community's reputation, prompting stricter enforcement. Photographing crew members, passengers, or sensitive cargo without consent raises privacy concerns. Images revealing security vulnerabilities, signaling arrangements, or operational details could be potentially misused. Responsible railfans exercise discretion, avoiding publication of images that could compromise security or privacy while still documenting publicly visible railway operations. === Future === Railfanning in India evolves alongside technological, operational, and social changes affecting Indian Railways. Electrification of routes, introduction of advanced locomotive classes, and retirement of older equipment continuously transform the hobby's subject matter. The transition from diesel to electric locomotives, while environmentally beneficial, reduces diversity of sounds and appearances that characterized earlier eras. Preservation of representative examples of retiring classes becomes increasingly important for historical documentation. [[File:Bridge under construction.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''Credit: Satyadeo1993.''' A railway bridge under construction has caught the curiosity of a railfan. ]] Digital technology enhances railfanning through real-time information apps, high-quality smartphone cameras, GPS-enabled logging, and online community platforms. These tools lower barriers to entry, enabling more people to participate meaningfully. However, they also raise expectations for immediate information sharing and comprehensive documentation, potentially increasing pressure on popular locations and sensitive operations. Infrastructure development, including dedicated freight corridors, high-speed rail projects, and station redevelopment, creates new railfanning opportunities while potentially restricting access to traditional locations. Elevated tracks and modernized stations with controlled access, and enhanced security measures may limit close-range observation but offer new vantage points from public areas. Adaptive railfans identify productive locations within evolving constraints. [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] k3gogg3zwnrzpzkdebw5qn7zydl802i 10 485761 4671779 4671501 2026-09-22T12:36:56Z ShakespeareFan00 46022 4671779 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="Column/styles.css"/><div class="columns-start columns-{{{num|2}}} {{{class|}}}" {{#if:{{{bgcolor|}}}{{{width|}}}|style="{{#if:{{{bgcolor|}}}|background-color: {{{bgcolor}}};color:inherit;}} {{#if:{{{width|}}}|width: {{{width}}}}}"}}><div class="column"><noinclude> </div> </div> {{Documentation}} <!-- Add categories to the /doc subpage, interwikis to Wikidata, not here --> </noinclude> gh87911tzebtkhp71d0ckcfb2qupk3w 0 485768 4671824 4671611 2026-09-23T01:00:12Z JackBot 396820 Formatting, [[Special:UncategorizedPages]] 4671824 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == {{Wikipedia|India}} This shelf talks about the country of the '''Republic of India (also called India, Bharat or Hindustan)'''. ''[[wikipedia:India|India]] is a country in [[wikipedia:South_Asia|South Asia]]. It is the world's seventh-largest country by area. It is also the most populated country in the world. It has been the world's largest [[wikipedia:Democracy|democracy]] by number of people since 1947.'' [[File:Flag of India.svg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Government of India.''' The [[wikipedia:Flag_of_India|Flag of India]]. ]] Any [[Wikibooks:Categories|category]], shelf or book related to the country of India shall be found here. == Example Articles (Wikipedia) == * [[wikipedia:List_of_political_parties_in_India|List of political parties in India]] * [[wikipedia:Rail_transport_in_India|Rail transport in India]] * [[wikipedia:India|India]] {{DEFAULTSORT:Category:India}} {{shelves}} era68ztr729b9hylq414uzovsrtoiyo 0 485769 4671780 4671746 2026-09-22T12:37:07Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671780 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] m3gw9p0ollch9i3uhh3z8bkcwtdek45 4671781 4671780 2026-09-22T12:53:56Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671781 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] 7sai9tr3qsa1yc0ipntu7wwc3c14atn 4671850 4671781 2026-09-23T04:04:04Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671850 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] 96i9elvk54nkfwnsb2uln6gvct297x8 4671851 4671850 2026-09-23T04:10:02Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671851 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] 2pk1be56st7t0qzinqmm95amplrmjvh 4671853 4671851 2026-09-23T04:12:11Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671853 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] 8gty0wmwx282ckenyyypgm45a7qwuuo 4671854 4671853 2026-09-23T04:17:33Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671854 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] bvf2c8vadcc4nfaiqnxpg1e2wwo84hz 4671855 4671854 2026-09-23T04:24:06Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671855 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] kvhmln5ts56mj47tiol6ogr3pdljxc9 4671856 4671855 2026-09-23T04:34:48Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671856 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] f8xvngb7rsh383m0w3mbpj0p6ikr52f 4671857 4671856 2026-09-23T04:38:26Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671857 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] 523ueh3mjoitd34ax87rojuojuv1wpn 4671858 4671857 2026-09-23T04:41:33Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671858 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] gk88irczru9tb6uqlryt5giyh29wrze 4671859 4671858 2026-09-23T04:44:15Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671859 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] ciu53l6i4qn51if9p8rc4etz76bu8s1 4671861 4671859 2026-09-23T04:47:51Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671861 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] fv2erfbmx2e8v1dx48a4bwxl59bfojo 4671864 4671861 2026-09-23T04:49:17Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671864 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] m369have90wlhmpvv35ktyg1kx58qh8 4671865 4671864 2026-09-23T04:50:30Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671865 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Plant, Bela === Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs.{{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] ozcz03ahaagwnkppv4gmhmrlrrdrqai 4671867 4671865 2026-09-23T04:51:30Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671867 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] oh2hhugwi0sl81h0lyh8s4oy5w3fyqp 4671868 4671867 2026-09-23T04:53:01Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671868 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] ovqosfrk86lxwihdfq3qlnu2pq8gxi7 4671869 4671868 2026-09-23T04:54:38Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671869 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] t82r0qnaaxptcqzyl8vqzpq7f2rinct 4671870 4671869 2026-09-23T04:56:13Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671870 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. === Titagarh Rail Systems === Titagarh Rail Systems is a private-sector manufacturer associated with freight wagons, passenger coaches, metro vehicles and other rail systems. It has produced wagon types for bulk commodities, containers and other freight applications. Private-sector wagon manufacturers became increasingly important as Indian Railways expanded procurement and encouraged wider industrial participation. === Jupiter Wagons === Jupiter Wagons is a private-sector company associated with freight wagons, railway components and mobility products. Its work may include wagons for containers, automobiles, minerals and other cargo. Modern wagon manufacturing often involves not just steel fabrication but braking, bogies, couplers, suspension and commodity-specific loading arrangements. === Hindustan Engineering and Industries === Hindustan Engineering and Industries has been listed among wagon manufacturers serving the Indian railway sector. Companies in this group may manufacture complete wagons or participate in wagon-related fabrication and engineering. Government procurement records have historically identified both public-sector and private-sector wagon producers. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] net2fs3y6mbkg6d8r8al0biz3n2a1rl 4671871 4671870 2026-09-23T04:57:33Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671871 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. === Titagarh Rail Systems === Titagarh Rail Systems is a private-sector manufacturer associated with freight wagons, passenger coaches, metro vehicles and other rail systems. It has produced wagon types for bulk commodities, containers and other freight applications. Private-sector wagon manufacturers became increasingly important as Indian Railways expanded procurement and encouraged wider industrial participation. === Jupiter Wagons === Jupiter Wagons is a private-sector company associated with freight wagons, railway components and mobility products. Its work may include wagons for containers, automobiles, minerals and other cargo. Modern wagon manufacturing often involves not just steel fabrication but braking, bogies, couplers, suspension and commodity-specific loading arrangements. === Hindustan Engineering and Industries === Hindustan Engineering and Industries has been listed among wagon manufacturers serving the Indian railway sector. Companies in this group may manufacture complete wagons or participate in wagon-related fabrication and engineering. Government procurement records have historically identified both public-sector and private-sector wagon producers. === Other Suppliers === Many additional organizations supply railway equipment. These may include companies producing traction converters, motors, compressors, brakes, couplers, seats, doors, batteries, air-conditioning systems, signaling equipment, wheels, axles and inspection systems. Some railway projects are built through technology-transfer agreements or joint ventures. In these arrangements, one organization may provide design technology while another performs manufacturing, assembly or maintenance in India. == Wagon Codes == Wagon codes are compact descriptions. They are not always perfectly intuitive to a new learner because the letters may refer to construction, vehicle type, brake system, loading arrangement or historical classification. A common simplified interpretation is that “B” often indicates a bogie vehicle, “O” an open wagon, “C” a covered wagon, “F” a flat wagon and “T” a tank wagon. A code may contain additional letters indicating a special design or modification. The exact meaning of a letter can depend on the official wagon code system and the particular specification. Therefore, codes should be read as identification labels rather than translated word-for-word in every case. == Types of Wagons == {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] qgwtcypmndp1u3aeet5kz2rkg7c601v 4671873 4671871 2026-09-23T05:01:36Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671873 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. === Titagarh Rail Systems === Titagarh Rail Systems is a private-sector manufacturer associated with freight wagons, passenger coaches, metro vehicles and other rail systems. It has produced wagon types for bulk commodities, containers and other freight applications. Private-sector wagon manufacturers became increasingly important as Indian Railways expanded procurement and encouraged wider industrial participation. === Jupiter Wagons === Jupiter Wagons is a private-sector company associated with freight wagons, railway components and mobility products. Its work may include wagons for containers, automobiles, minerals and other cargo. Modern wagon manufacturing often involves not just steel fabrication but braking, bogies, couplers, suspension and commodity-specific loading arrangements. === Hindustan Engineering and Industries === Hindustan Engineering and Industries has been listed among wagon manufacturers serving the Indian railway sector. Companies in this group may manufacture complete wagons or participate in wagon-related fabrication and engineering. Government procurement records have historically identified both public-sector and private-sector wagon producers. === Other Suppliers === Many additional organizations supply railway equipment. These may include companies producing traction converters, motors, compressors, brakes, couplers, seats, doors, batteries, air-conditioning systems, signaling equipment, wheels, axles and inspection systems. Some railway projects are built through technology-transfer agreements or joint ventures. In these arrangements, one organization may provide design technology while another performs manufacturing, assembly or maintenance in India. == Wagon Codes == Wagon codes are compact descriptions. They are not always perfectly intuitive to a new learner because the letters may refer to construction, vehicle type, brake system, loading arrangement or historical classification. A common simplified interpretation is that “B” often indicates a bogie vehicle, “O” an open wagon, “C” a covered wagon, “F” a flat wagon and “T” a tank wagon. A code may contain additional letters indicating a special design or modification. The exact meaning of a letter can depend on the official wagon code system and the particular specification. Therefore, codes should be read as identification labels rather than translated word-for-word in every case. == Some Types of Wagons == === BOXN === BOXN is a bogie open wagon fitted with air brakes. It is one of the most recognizable Indian freight wagon types. BOXN wagons have commonly been used for coal and other bulk materials. Their open body allows loading from the top and unloading through suitable tipplers or bottom-door arrangements, depending on the specific design. Different BOXN variants may have different body materials, axle loads, bogies, speed capabilities and strengthening arrangements. === BOXNHS === BOXNHS is a higher-strength or higher-capacity variant within the BOXN family. The exact design details depend on the specification and sub-type. Such variants are intended to improve freight efficiency by carrying more cargo or supporting higher operating requirements while remaining compatible with railway infrastructure. === BOXNHL === BOXNHL is a later high-capacity open wagon family associated with heavy-haul freight. It may use improved structure, bogies and braking arrangements compared with earlier wagons. The “HL” designation is commonly associated with higher axle-load or heavy-load applications. Actual permissible load and speed depend on the approved railway specification. === BOXNAL and Related Variants === BOXNAL and related forms represent modified or specialized open wagons. Variants may differ in body shape, axle load, material, bogie, brake equipment and operating restrictions. Wagon numbering documents list multiple open-wagon categories, including BOXN, BOXNA, BOXNHS, BOXNC, BOXNLW, BOXNB, BOXNF, BOXNG, BOY and BOST. === BOBRN === BOBRN is a bottom-discharge or hopper-style wagon commonly associated with coal and other bulk materials. The wagon allows rapid unloading through bottom doors at suitable terminals. Rapid discharge is useful for power stations, mines, ports and industrial plants that handle large quantities of bulk cargo. === BOBYN and BOBYNHS === BOBYN and BOBYNHS are hopper-wagon families. The “HS” version indicates a modified or higher-strength design under the relevant specification. Hopper wagons are especially useful where unloading facilities are designed to receive material from the wagon bottom. They reduce the need for manual unloading. === BCN === BCN is a bogie covered wagon fitted with air brakes. It is commonly used for commodities that need protection from rain, dust or contamination. BCN wagons have been used for food grains, fertilizers, cement bags, paper, manufactured goods and other packaged cargo. The covered body and doors make them suitable for loading palletized or bagged commodities. === BCNA === BCNA is a covered wagon variant related to the BCN family. The suffix indicates a particular modified design, capacity or specification. Covered-wagon variants can differ in payload, body construction, door arrangement, bogies and braking components. They should not all be assumed to have identical dimensions. === BTPN === BTPN is a tank wagon family used for petroleum products. These wagons are designed for bulk liquid transport and are operated under safety and hazardous-material rules. A petroleum tank wagon requires suitable valves, pressure arrangements, protective fittings, grounding and inspection. Loading and unloading must take place at approved terminals. === BTCS and Other Tank Wagons === BTCS and similar codes identify specialized tank wagons. Some may be used for chemicals, gases, water or other liquids. The tank material, pressure rating and fittings depend on the cargo. A wagon suitable for one liquid cannot automatically be used for another. === BFKI and BFK === BFK-type vehicles are flat or container-related wagons designed for particular loading purposes. The exact interpretation depends on the specific code and railway classification. Flat wagons can carry containers, machinery, steel coils, rails and other loads. Securing systems are essential because cargo must not shift during acceleration, braking or curving. === BCL and BCLH === BCL and BCLH-type wagons are associated with container or special flat-wagon applications in some Indian railway classifications. Container wagons generally have fittings that hold standardized containers securely. Some are designed for double-stack or specialized container operations where clearance permits, though the particular wagon and route must be approved. === BOST === BOST is an open wagon family used for bulk cargo. It may be found in mineral or industrial freight operations. As with BOXN variants, BOST specifications can differ in body construction, capacity, axle load and unloading arrangements. === BRN === BRN is associated with a rail-carrying or flat-wagon design. Such wagons are used for long rails, steel products and track materials. Rail-carrying wagons require special supports and loading procedures. Long rails can project over considerable lengths, so loading must ensure stability and route clearance. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] da4rw69udpd1vaas83pqztjs3sxjr09 4671885 4671873 2026-09-23T06:15:55Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671885 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. === Titagarh Rail Systems === Titagarh Rail Systems is a private-sector manufacturer associated with freight wagons, passenger coaches, metro vehicles and other rail systems. It has produced wagon types for bulk commodities, containers and other freight applications. Private-sector wagon manufacturers became increasingly important as Indian Railways expanded procurement and encouraged wider industrial participation. === Jupiter Wagons === Jupiter Wagons is a private-sector company associated with freight wagons, railway components and mobility products. Its work may include wagons for containers, automobiles, minerals and other cargo. Modern wagon manufacturing often involves not just steel fabrication but braking, bogies, couplers, suspension and commodity-specific loading arrangements. === Hindustan Engineering and Industries === Hindustan Engineering and Industries has been listed among wagon manufacturers serving the Indian railway sector. Companies in this group may manufacture complete wagons or participate in wagon-related fabrication and engineering. Government procurement records have historically identified both public-sector and private-sector wagon producers. === Other Suppliers === Many additional organizations supply railway equipment. These may include companies producing traction converters, motors, compressors, brakes, couplers, seats, doors, batteries, air-conditioning systems, signaling equipment, wheels, axles and inspection systems. Some railway projects are built through technology-transfer agreements or joint ventures. In these arrangements, one organization may provide design technology while another performs manufacturing, assembly or maintenance in India. == Wagon Codes == Wagon codes are compact descriptions. They are not always perfectly intuitive to a new learner because the letters may refer to construction, vehicle type, brake system, loading arrangement or historical classification. A common simplified interpretation is that “B” often indicates a bogie vehicle, “O” an open wagon, “C” a covered wagon, “F” a flat wagon and “T” a tank wagon. A code may contain additional letters indicating a special design or modification. The exact meaning of a letter can depend on the official wagon code system and the particular specification. Therefore, codes should be read as identification labels rather than translated word-for-word in every case. == Some Types of Wagons == === BOXN === BOXN is a bogie open wagon fitted with air brakes. It is one of the most recognizable Indian freight wagon types. BOXN wagons have commonly been used for coal and other bulk materials. Their open body allows loading from the top and unloading through suitable tipplers or bottom-door arrangements, depending on the specific design. Different BOXN variants may have different body materials, axle loads, bogies, speed capabilities and strengthening arrangements. === BOXNHS === BOXNHS is a higher-strength or higher-capacity variant within the BOXN family. The exact design details depend on the specification and sub-type. Such variants are intended to improve freight efficiency by carrying more cargo or supporting higher operating requirements while remaining compatible with railway infrastructure. === BOXNHL === BOXNHL is a later high-capacity open wagon family associated with heavy-haul freight. It may use improved structure, bogies and braking arrangements compared with earlier wagons. The “HL” designation is commonly associated with higher axle-load or heavy-load applications. Actual permissible load and speed depend on the approved railway specification. === BOXNAL and Related Variants === BOXNAL and related forms represent modified or specialized open wagons. Variants may differ in body shape, axle load, material, bogie, brake equipment and operating restrictions. Wagon numbering documents list multiple open-wagon categories, including BOXN, BOXNA, BOXNHS, BOXNC, BOXNLW, BOXNB, BOXNF, BOXNG, BOY and BOST. === BOBRN === BOBRN is a bottom-discharge or hopper-style wagon commonly associated with coal and other bulk materials. The wagon allows rapid unloading through bottom doors at suitable terminals. Rapid discharge is useful for power stations, mines, ports and industrial plants that handle large quantities of bulk cargo. === BOBYN and BOBYNHS === BOBYN and BOBYNHS are hopper-wagon families. The “HS” version indicates a modified or higher-strength design under the relevant specification. Hopper wagons are especially useful where unloading facilities are designed to receive material from the wagon bottom. They reduce the need for manual unloading. === BCN === BCN is a bogie covered wagon fitted with air brakes. It is commonly used for commodities that need protection from rain, dust or contamination. BCN wagons have been used for food grains, fertilizers, cement bags, paper, manufactured goods and other packaged cargo. The covered body and doors make them suitable for loading palletized or bagged commodities. === BCNA === BCNA is a covered wagon variant related to the BCN family. The suffix indicates a particular modified design, capacity or specification. Covered-wagon variants can differ in payload, body construction, door arrangement, bogies and braking components. They should not all be assumed to have identical dimensions. === BTPN === BTPN is a tank wagon family used for petroleum products. These wagons are designed for bulk liquid transport and are operated under safety and hazardous-material rules. A petroleum tank wagon requires suitable valves, pressure arrangements, protective fittings, grounding and inspection. Loading and unloading must take place at approved terminals. === BTCS and Other Tank Wagons === BTCS and similar codes identify specialized tank wagons. Some may be used for chemicals, gases, water or other liquids. The tank material, pressure rating and fittings depend on the cargo. A wagon suitable for one liquid cannot automatically be used for another. === BFKI and BFK === BFK-type vehicles are flat or container-related wagons designed for particular loading purposes. The exact interpretation depends on the specific code and railway classification. Flat wagons can carry containers, machinery, steel coils, rails and other loads. Securing systems are essential because cargo must not shift during acceleration, braking or curving. === BCL and BCLH === BCL and BCLH-type wagons are associated with container or special flat-wagon applications in some Indian railway classifications. Container wagons generally have fittings that hold standardized containers securely. Some are designed for double-stack or specialized container operations where clearance permits, though the particular wagon and route must be approved. === BOST === BOST is an open wagon family used for bulk cargo. It may be found in mineral or industrial freight operations. As with BOXN variants, BOST specifications can differ in body construction, capacity, axle load and unloading arrangements. === BRN === BRN is associated with a rail-carrying or flat-wagon design. Such wagons are used for long rails, steel products and track materials. Rail-carrying wagons require special supports and loading procedures. Long rails can project over considerable lengths, so loading must ensure stability and route clearance. == Fun Facts == === Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC) === [[File:Map of dedicated freight corridors of India.jpg|thumb|310x310px|'''''Credit: [[c:User:Footy2000|Footy2000]].''''' A map of all Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) in India. ]] Indian Railways has traditionally moved freight over routes that also carry passenger trains. This creates competition for paths and can limit freight speed. Dedicated Freight Corridors are designed to separate a substantial portion of freight traffic from passenger traffic. They require suitable locomotives, higher axle-load wagons, longer trains, stronger track and specialized signaling. Wagon design for heavy-haul corridors must consider axle load, braking distance, coupler forces, wheel loads, track geometry and terminal capacity. Higher-capacity wagons can move more cargo per train, but the whole system must be upgraded. A high-capacity wagon is useful only if loading points, unloading points, bridges, track, locomotives and signaling can support it. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] fd0t5lhv9z70sv34nyzka2loxnmlnpo 4671886 4671885 2026-09-23T06:19:32Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671886 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. === Titagarh Rail Systems === Titagarh Rail Systems is a private-sector manufacturer associated with freight wagons, passenger coaches, metro vehicles and other rail systems. It has produced wagon types for bulk commodities, containers and other freight applications. Private-sector wagon manufacturers became increasingly important as Indian Railways expanded procurement and encouraged wider industrial participation. === Jupiter Wagons === Jupiter Wagons is a private-sector company associated with freight wagons, railway components and mobility products. Its work may include wagons for containers, automobiles, minerals and other cargo. Modern wagon manufacturing often involves not just steel fabrication but braking, bogies, couplers, suspension and commodity-specific loading arrangements. === Hindustan Engineering and Industries === Hindustan Engineering and Industries has been listed among wagon manufacturers serving the Indian railway sector. Companies in this group may manufacture complete wagons or participate in wagon-related fabrication and engineering. Government procurement records have historically identified both public-sector and private-sector wagon producers. === Other Suppliers === Many additional organizations supply railway equipment. These may include companies producing traction converters, motors, compressors, brakes, couplers, seats, doors, batteries, air-conditioning systems, signaling equipment, wheels, axles and inspection systems. Some railway projects are built through technology-transfer agreements or joint ventures. In these arrangements, one organization may provide design technology while another performs manufacturing, assembly or maintenance in India. == Wagon Codes == Wagon codes are compact descriptions. They are not always perfectly intuitive to a new learner because the letters may refer to construction, vehicle type, brake system, loading arrangement or historical classification. A common simplified interpretation is that “B” often indicates a bogie vehicle, “O” an open wagon, “C” a covered wagon, “F” a flat wagon and “T” a tank wagon. A code may contain additional letters indicating a special design or modification. The exact meaning of a letter can depend on the official wagon code system and the particular specification. Therefore, codes should be read as identification labels rather than translated word-for-word in every case. == Some Types of Wagons == === BOXN === BOXN is a bogie open wagon fitted with air brakes. It is one of the most recognizable Indian freight wagon types. BOXN wagons have commonly been used for coal and other bulk materials. Their open body allows loading from the top and unloading through suitable tipplers or bottom-door arrangements, depending on the specific design. Different BOXN variants may have different body materials, axle loads, bogies, speed capabilities and strengthening arrangements. === BOXNHS === BOXNHS is a higher-strength or higher-capacity variant within the BOXN family. The exact design details depend on the specification and sub-type. Such variants are intended to improve freight efficiency by carrying more cargo or supporting higher operating requirements while remaining compatible with railway infrastructure. === BOXNHL === BOXNHL is a later high-capacity open wagon family associated with heavy-haul freight. It may use improved structure, bogies and braking arrangements compared with earlier wagons. The “HL” designation is commonly associated with higher axle-load or heavy-load applications. Actual permissible load and speed depend on the approved railway specification. === BOXNAL and Related Variants === BOXNAL and related forms represent modified or specialized open wagons. Variants may differ in body shape, axle load, material, bogie, brake equipment and operating restrictions. Wagon numbering documents list multiple open-wagon categories, including BOXN, BOXNA, BOXNHS, BOXNC, BOXNLW, BOXNB, BOXNF, BOXNG, BOY and BOST. === BOBRN === BOBRN is a bottom-discharge or hopper-style wagon commonly associated with coal and other bulk materials. The wagon allows rapid unloading through bottom doors at suitable terminals. Rapid discharge is useful for power stations, mines, ports and industrial plants that handle large quantities of bulk cargo. === BOBYN and BOBYNHS === BOBYN and BOBYNHS are hopper-wagon families. The “HS” version indicates a modified or higher-strength design under the relevant specification. Hopper wagons are especially useful where unloading facilities are designed to receive material from the wagon bottom. They reduce the need for manual unloading. === BCN === BCN is a bogie covered wagon fitted with air brakes. It is commonly used for commodities that need protection from rain, dust or contamination. BCN wagons have been used for food grains, fertilizers, cement bags, paper, manufactured goods and other packaged cargo. The covered body and doors make them suitable for loading palletized or bagged commodities. === BCNA === BCNA is a covered wagon variant related to the BCN family. The suffix indicates a particular modified design, capacity or specification. Covered-wagon variants can differ in payload, body construction, door arrangement, bogies and braking components. They should not all be assumed to have identical dimensions. === BTPN === BTPN is a tank wagon family used for petroleum products. These wagons are designed for bulk liquid transport and are operated under safety and hazardous-material rules. A petroleum tank wagon requires suitable valves, pressure arrangements, protective fittings, grounding and inspection. Loading and unloading must take place at approved terminals. === BTCS and Other Tank Wagons === BTCS and similar codes identify specialized tank wagons. Some may be used for chemicals, gases, water or other liquids. The tank material, pressure rating and fittings depend on the cargo. A wagon suitable for one liquid cannot automatically be used for another. === BFKI and BFK === BFK-type vehicles are flat or container-related wagons designed for particular loading purposes. The exact interpretation depends on the specific code and railway classification. Flat wagons can carry containers, machinery, steel coils, rails and other loads. Securing systems are essential because cargo must not shift during acceleration, braking or curving. === BCL and BCLH === BCL and BCLH-type wagons are associated with container or special flat-wagon applications in some Indian railway classifications. Container wagons generally have fittings that hold standardized containers securely. Some are designed for double-stack or specialized container operations where clearance permits, though the particular wagon and route must be approved. === BOST === BOST is an open wagon family used for bulk cargo. It may be found in mineral or industrial freight operations. As with BOXN variants, BOST specifications can differ in body construction, capacity, axle load and unloading arrangements. === BRN === BRN is associated with a rail-carrying or flat-wagon design. Such wagons are used for long rails, steel products and track materials. Rail-carrying wagons require special supports and loading procedures. Long rails can project over considerable lengths, so loading must ensure stability and route clearance. == Fun Facts == === Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC) === [[File:Map of dedicated freight corridors of India.jpg|thumb|310x310px|'''''Credit: [[c:User:Footy2000|Footy2000]].''''' A map of all Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) in India. ]] Indian Railways has traditionally moved freight over routes that also carry passenger trains. This creates competition for paths and can limit freight speed. Dedicated Freight Corridors are designed to separate a substantial portion of freight traffic from passenger traffic. They require suitable locomotives, higher axle-load wagons, longer trains, stronger track and specialized signaling. Wagon design for heavy-haul corridors must consider axle load, braking distance, coupler forces, wheel loads, track geometry and terminal capacity. Higher-capacity wagons can move more cargo per train, but the whole system must be upgraded. A high-capacity wagon is useful only if loading points, unloading points, bridges, track, locomotives and signaling can support it. === Train Formation === A passenger train formation describes the order of vehicles. A simplified formation might contain a locomotive, luggage-cum-generator coach, air-conditioned coaches, sleeper coaches, general coaches and another luggage or generator vehicle. The actual formation depends on the service. Rajdhani trains, Shatabdi trains, Humsafar trains and ordinary Express trains may all have different classes and coach orders. Freight formations often begin with a locomotive or multiple locomotives, followed by a rake of similar wagons. Mixed freight rakes may also be used, but commodity-specific rakes are common because loading and unloading facilities are specialized. The number of wagons is determined by permissible train length, loop-line length, locomotive power, gradients, braking requirements, axle loads, terminal capacity and operating rules. === Train Mantainance === Passenger coaches receive routine cleaning and examination between trips. They also undergo periodic maintenance at coaching depots and major workshops. A locomotive receives inspections based on operating hours, distance, equipment condition and maintenance schedules. Technicians examine traction motors, pantographs, compressors, transformers, batteries, control systems and braking equipment. Wagons are inspected at terminals, yards and examination points. The focus includes wheel condition, brake rigging, couplers, doors, body damage, suspension and load security. Major overhauls involve dismantling a vehicle, inspecting structural and mechanical components, replacing worn parts, repairing defects, repainting and testing the vehicle before return to service. == Recapulation == '''Indian Railways''' uses a wide range of passenger trains, locomotives, coaches and wagons. Vande Bharat, Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Humsafar, Duronto, Garib Rath, Jan Shatabdi, Tejas, Antyodaya and Amrit Bharat represent different approaches to passenger service. The physical vehicles behind these services include trainsets, LHB coaches, EMUs, MEMUs, locomotives and specialized passenger cars. Freight operations depend on wagon families such as BOXN, BOY, BCN, BOBRN, BTPN, flat wagons, container wagons and departmental vehicles. Manufacturing is shared among Indian Railways production units, public-sector enterprises and private companies. CLW, BLW, PLW, ICF, RCF, MCF, MRCF, RWF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela form important parts of the railway manufacturing system, while organizations such as BHEL, BEML, Braithwaite, Titagarh Rail Systems, Jupiter Wagons and other suppliers contribute equipment and industrial capability. The railway system works because all these parts operate together. A locomotive must match the train. A coach must match the route and platform. A wagon must match its cargo. A wheel must match the rail. A production unit must support maintenance with spare parts and technical documentation. Understanding Indian Railways therefore requires studying not just famous train names, but also vehicle design, manufacturing, standards, operations, etc. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] k3ss0g5ouf47eap2q52eu3yzvi7a89x 4671897 4671886 2026-09-23T06:33:09Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4671897 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navigation|previous=Digital Technology}} == Introduction == '''Indian Railways''' uses several trains and several terms for them. Some names describe the service level, such as Rajdhani or Shatabdi. Other names describe the coach design, such as LHB or ICF. Freight vehicles are commonly identified by codes such as BOXN, BCN, BTPN and BOBRN. These codes provide useful information about the wagon’s basic design and purpose. Indian Railways also has lots of manufacturers such as CLW, BLW and BHEL that manufacture and assemble these trains. The railway system is continuously changing. Older locomotive-hauled trains still operate alongside modern trainsets, electric locomotives, LHB coaches, semi-high-speed services and specialized freight wagons. Production units of Indian Railways manufacture much of this equipment, while public-sector and private companies supply additional locomotives, coaches, wagons, components and systems. The Railway Board’s production-unit lists include manufacturers such as CLW, BLW, ICF, RCF, RWF, PLW, MCF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. A railway train is not a single type of vehicle. It is usually a group of vehicles designed for a particular purpose. A passenger train may contain coaches for seating, sleeping, catering, luggage and braking. A freight train may contain wagons designed for coal, minerals, grain, cement, vehicles or containers. Locomotives provide the tractive force, while coaches and wagons carry passengers or goods. == Terms to Know == The word “train” can mean either a service or a physical formation. A Rajdhani Express is a named passenger service. A rake is the actual group of coaches assigned to that service. A locomotive-hauled rake may have an electric locomotive at one end and passenger coaches behind it. A trainset, such as a Vande Bharat trainset, contains powered and unpowered coaches designed to work together. A "manufacturer" is an organization that produces railway equipment. A production unit is a railway-owned factory or workshop established for a particular manufacturing purpose. A private company may manufacture wagons or components under contracts, while a public-sector company may produce locomotives, coaches, wheels or wagons. Not every train name represents a completely different mechanical design. Two services with different names may use similar LHB coaches, while one service may use different coach types on different routes. Conversely, a service name may remain the same even when its coaches, locomotive or timetable changes. In reality, “popular trains” and “important trains” are not engineering categories. They refer to widely recognized passenger services and service families that have played an important role in Indian Railways. == Types of Passenger Train Expresses == === Vande Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_(Indian_Railways)|Train 18]] and [[wikipedia:Vande_Bharat_Express|Vande Bharat Express]]'' Vande Bharat Express is an indigenous electric trainset developed for faster intercity travel. It is designed as a self-propelled train rather than a conventional rake pulled by a separate locomotive. Traction equipment is distributed among several coaches, allowing the train to accelerate efficiently and avoid the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. [[File:Vande Bharat Express around Mumbai.jpg|thumb|309x309px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' A Vande Bharat Express (classic) near Mumbai CSMT. ]] Vande Bharat trains generally provide air-conditioned seating, automatic or semi-automatic doors, onboard information systems, modern toilets, improved interiors and a higher level of passenger convenience than ordinary day trains. Different versions may have different seating arrangements, coach numbers and operational features. The train is intended mainly for daytime intercity journeys. It is not normally a sleeping train. Its usefulness depends not only on maximum speed but also on track condition, signaling, station stops, traffic density, maintenance and timetable planning. Vande Bharat is important because it represents a shift from traditional locomotive-hauled passenger trains toward trainset operation. It also demonstrates the increasing role of Indian production units and domestic suppliers in train design and assembly. === Rajdhani Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express|Rajdhani Express]]'' Rajdhani Express services connect New Delhi with important state capitals and major cities. They are traditionally associated with long-distance overnight travel, high priority, air-conditioned accommodation and included catering in many arrangements. [[File:22222 Rajdhani Express.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Heyranjeet.''''' An iconic Rajdhani Express called CR Rajdhani (22222). It is the first and only push-pull Rajdhani Express in India. ]] Rajdhani trains usually use air-conditioned coaches, including sleeping accommodation in first AC, second AC and third AC. Some services may include pantry or catering arrangements. The exact composition can vary by route and operational requirement. Rajdhani services were created to provide fast connections between Delhi and major regional centers. Their schedules usually give them priority over many ordinary passenger services, although actual punctuality depends on congestion, maintenance, weather and operating conditions. For your information, the word “Rajdhani” identifies a service family, not one universal coach design. Older Rajdhani rakes used conventional designs, while many services have progressively adopted LHB coaches and newer interior systems. === Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Shatabdi_Express|Shatabdi Express]]'' Shatabdi Express trains are generally daytime intercity services. They commonly connect major cities with important regional centers and offer reserved sitting accommodation instead of sleeping berths. [[File:WAP5 ^30014 of Ghaziabad with 12004 Swarn Shatabdi - Flickr - Dr. Santulan Mahanta.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Santulan Mahanta.''''' A WAP-5 locomotive pulling Swarna Jayanti Shatabdi Express (12029). ]] Shatabdi coaches normally include air-conditioned chair cars, with executive chair car available on many services. Meals or refreshments may be provided depending on the service and ticket arrangement. Shatabdi trains are often valued for their convenient daytime schedules. They are particularly useful for journeys that are too long for ordinary commuter trains but short enough to complete during the day. Like other named services, a Shatabdi may use different coach generations over its history. The service name does not by itself specify whether a particular train uses an older coach, an LHB coach or another modern configuration. === Jan Shatabdi Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Jan_Shatabdi_Express|Jan Shatabdi Express]]'' [[File:12052 Dadar Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express at Madgaon Station.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Superfast1111.''''' A rare, ICF Jan Shatabdi rake of the Dadar to Madgaon Jan Shatabdi Express (12052). ]] Jan Shatabdi trains are generally lower-cost daytime intercity services related to the Shatabdi concept. They usually emphasize reserved sitting accommodation and wider accessibility. Many Jan Shatabdi services include air-conditioned chair cars along with non-air-conditioned sitting coaches. The composition depends on demand, route and railway planning. They are often useful for medium-distance journeys where passengers want a faster service than ordinary passenger trains but do not require a premium all-air-conditioned train. === Duronto Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Duronto_Express|Duronto Express]]'' [[File:Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto livery..jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Igobymanynames1.''''' A Duronto Express with Hybrid LHB coaches in Duronto Livery. ]] Duronto Express services were introduced as long-distance trains with limited intermediate stops. The name comes from a word associated with speed and nonstop movement. Duronto services may be fully air-conditioned or may include several classes, depending on the route. Some operate overnight with sleeping coaches, while others serve longer daytime or mixed travel patterns. The practical advantage of a Duronto service is reduced stopping time. However, its journey duration depends on the route, traffic conditions, locomotive changes, operational halts and timetable revisions. === Humsafar Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Humsafar_Express|Humsafar Express]]'' [[File:TPTY JAT Humsafar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Nikhil B.''''' Jammu Tawi Humsafar Express with full Humsafar livery leaving Kazipet Junction. ]] Humsafar Express services were introduced as air-conditioned sleeping trains. They are mainly associated with third AC accommodation and long-distance overnight travel. Humsafar coaches have features such as improved interiors, charging facilities and passenger information arrangements compared with many older conventional coaches. Some services may use specialized Humsafar coach formations, while the precise facilities can vary. Humsafar trains were intended to provide a modern air-conditioned option at a level positioned between ordinary sleeper services and more premium services. The actual fare and onboard arrangements depend on railway policy and the specific train. === Garib Rath Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Garib_Rath_Express|Garib Rath Express]]'' Garib Rath Express trains were introduced to provide air-conditioned travel at comparatively economical fares. They commonly use high-density seating or sleeping arrangements. [[File:First Garib Rath express.jpg|thumb|269x269px|'''''Credit: Sid Sharma5911.''''' An ICF Garib Rath Express. ]] A Garib Rath train may contain air-conditioned chair-car or sleeping accommodation depending on its design and route. The coach layout generally aims to carry more passengers than a conventional premium train. However, the name should not be interpreted as a statement about passenger status. It refers to the original policy objective of making air-conditioned travel more accessible. === Tejas Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Tejas_Express|Tejas Express]] and [[wikipedia:Rajdhani_Express#Tejas-Rajdhani_express|Tejas Rajdhani Express]]'' [[File:Rajendra B.Aklekar.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''Credit: Rajendra B. Aklekar.''' A Tejas Express at Mumbai CSMT station. ]] Tejas Express is associated with modern passenger amenities and faster intercity travel. Tejas services may be operated by Indian Railways or under arrangements involving the Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation, depending on the particular service. Typical features may include improved seats, passenger information systems, charging points, modern interiors and enhanced onboard service. The exact facilities differ among services. Tejas is a service brand rather than a guarantee of one identical coach design throughout the network. Some Tejas services use modern LHB-based coaches, while trainset-style services may use a different formation. === Antyodaya Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Antyodaya_Express|Antyodaya Express]]'' Antyodaya Express trains are intended for high-capacity unreserved travel. They generally use non-air-conditioned coaches and are designed to serve passengers who may not have reserved accommodation. Such trains may include features intended to improve passenger convenience, including improved seating arrangements, charging facilities and water-related amenities. Actual configurations can change. Antyodaya trains are important because Indian Railways must serve both premium reserved passengers and very large numbers of passengers who travel without reserved seats. === Amrit Bharat Express === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_Express|Amrit Bharat Express]] and [[wikipedia:Amrit_Bharat_(trainset)|Amrit Bharat (trainset)]]'' [[File:Amrit Bharat trainset.jpg|thumb|274x274px|'''''Credit: Harshul12345.''''' An Amrit Bharat Express on trials (before commercial use). ]] Amrit Bharat Express services are associated with long-distance travel using modern non-air-conditioned coaches, generally with sleeper and general accommodation. The concept focuses on improved passenger amenities while serving a wider affordability range. These services may use push-pull formations in which locomotives are placed at both ends, reducing the need for locomotive reversal at terminal stations. The exact arrangement depends on railway operations. Amrit Bharat services illustrate how Indian Railways is attempting to modernize ordinary long-distance travel rather than concentrating modernization only on premium air-conditioned trains. Railway production programs have included Amrit Bharat coaches. == Types of Passenger Train Services == === Mail and Express Trains === Mail and Express trains form the broad backbone of long-distance passenger transport. They connect large cities, towns and smaller stations across the railway network. The word “Mail” has historical origins connected with mail transport, while “Express” generally indicates fewer stops or a comparatively faster schedule than ordinary passenger services. In modern usage, the distinction is not always a simple technical classification. Mail and Express trains may contain general, sleeper, chair-car, third AC, second AC and first AC accommodation. Their formations are adjusted according to demand, route capacity, coach availability and railway policy. ==== Superfast Express Trains ==== A Superfast train is identified by a higher average speed over its route, subject to railway rules and fare structures. The term does not necessarily mean that the train travels at very high speed throughout the entire journey. A Superfast train may still have many stops and may share tracks with slower trains. Its average speed depends on acceleration, maximum permitted speed, station dwell time, route geometry, signaling and traffic. === Passenger and Suburban Express Trains === Passenger trains generally stop at many stations and provide basic connectivity. They may be hauled by locomotives or operated with electric multiple-unit or diesel multiple-unit equipment. Suburban trains are designed for high-frequency urban and metropolitan travel. They use rapid boarding and alighting arrangements and usually have large standing capacity. Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bengaluru and other urban regions have suburban or commuter rail operations, although the exact operating organizations and equipment differ. EMUs and MEMUs are especially important for commuter and short-distance services. ==== EMUs, MEMUs and DEMUs ==== ''See also: [[wikipedia:MEMU#|MEMU]]'' An EMU is an electric multiple unit. Its coaches contain traction motors or other electrical equipment distributed through the train. EMUs do not require a separate locomotive for every journey. [[File:RCF MEMU.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: Akashroy1998.''''' A new RCF MEMU (Mainline Electric Multiple Unit) waiting for an ICF train to pass. ]] A MEMU is a mainline electric multiple unit. It is designed for regional routes and typically serves towns and cities beyond the dense suburban area. A DEMU is a diesel electric multiple unit. It uses diesel engine-generator equipment to supply electrical power to traction motors. DEMUs have historically been useful on routes that were not electrified, although electrification has reduced the need for many diesel-operated services. Multiple-unit trains can accelerate and brake efficiently because their power is distributed through the formation. They also avoid some locomotive-hauled operating procedures. == Common Passenger Coach Designs == === ICF Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:ICF_coach|ICF coach]]'' [[File:WDP-4 passing through Kodigehalli Halt in 2019 with Pink Flowers.jpg|thumb|300x300px|'''''Credit: ActStuffOGWiki.''''' A WDP-4 locomotive pulling ICF Yellow or ICF Utkrisht coaches. ]] ICF-type coaches are named after Integral Coach Factory, but the term is also used more broadly for a traditional family of Indian passenger coach designs. These coaches were widely used for many decades. They commonly have an integral underframe and conventional bogies. Older examples may have features such as screw couplers, conventional braking systems or less crash-resistant construction than modern coaches, although many were upgraded during their service life. ICF-type coaches played a major role in expanding passenger transport. They remain important historically and may still appear in certain services, heritage operations or specialized roles. === LHB Coach === ''See also: [[wikipedia:LHB_coach|LHB coach]]'' [[File:LHB AC 3 tier coach of Golden Temple Mail.jpg|thumb|267x267px|'''''Credit: Ravi Dwivedi.''''' This is an LHB coach (AC 3 tier) of the Golden Temple Mail. ]] LHB means Linke Hofmann Busch, referring to the original design lineage. LHB coaches are longer and use modern bogies, improved suspension and a different underframe arrangement from traditional ICF coaches. LHB coaches are generally associated with higher permitted speeds, improved ride quality and enhanced crashworthiness. They use center buffer couplers, which reduce the risk of telescoping in certain collision conditions. LHB coaches can be built in many forms. These include first AC, second AC, third AC, sleeper, chair car, executive chair car, pantry, luggage, power car and generator car variants. The presence of LHB coaches does not automatically mean that a train is high-speed. The train’s actual speed remains limited by track, signaling, curves, bridges, maintenance and operating rules. == Uncommon Passenger Coach Designs == === Vistadome and Double-Decker Coach === Vistadome coaches have large windows and often transparent or panoramic roof sections. They are designed for routes where scenery is an important part of the journey. They may be used on mountain, coastal, forest or tourist routes. Their principal purpose is sightseeing rather than maximum passenger capacity. Double-decker coaches have two passenger levels and are intended to carry more seated passengers within a train of a given length. Indian Railways has operated double-decker chair-car services on selected routes. Double-decker coaches require suitable platform clearances, overhead clearances, loading arrangements and route compatibility. They are not suitable for every line. === Luggage Coaches and Power Cars === Passenger trains may include luggage vans, parcel vans and brake vans. These vehicles carry parcels, luggage, equipment or railway staff functions. Modern passenger formations may use specialized luggage-cum-generator or luggage-cum-brake-and-generator coaches. Their design combines several functions in one vehicle. A power car contains diesel generator sets or other equipment that supplies electricity for lighting, air conditioning, kitchen equipment and other hotel loads in a locomotive-hauled train. Some modern trains use electric head-end power supplied by the locomotive. In such cases, separate generator cars may be reduced or eliminated. The arrangement depends on the train design and available locomotive technology. == Government-Owned Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways has government-owned production units for locomotives, coaches, wheels and other railway equipment. The production units are different from operating zones. An operating zone runs trains and maintains routes, while a production unit manufactures equipment. The Railway Board’s official production-unit list includes Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW), Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW), Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Rail Coach Factory (RCF), Rail Wheel Factory, Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW), Modern Coach Factory (MCF) and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela. === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works (CLW) === Chittaranjan Locomotive Works, commonly called CLW, is located at Chittaranjan in West Bengal. It is one of India’s principal electric-locomotive manufacturing units. CLW has a long history. It began with locomotive production in the steam era and later moved through diesel and electric locomotive technologies. It is now strongly associated with electric locomotives for passenger and freight operations. CLW manufactures or assembles locomotives using systems supplied by a network of Indian and international technology partners. Its products have included major WAP and WAG families. CLW describes itself as a flagship locomotive production unit of Indian Railways. === Banaras Locomotive Works (BLW) === Banaras Locomotive Works, or BLW, is located in Varanasi. It was formerly known as Diesel Locomotive Works, or DLW. The factory historically produced diesel locomotives. As railway electrification expanded, its production focus changed toward electric locomotives, while it continued to support locomotive modernization, rebuilding and specialized projects. BLW is therefore an example of a railway production unit adapting to a major change in national transport policy. The Indian Railways Yearbook records BLW locomotive production as part of its industrial activity. === Patiala Locomotive Works (PLW) === ''See also: [[wikipedia:Patiala_Locomotive_Works|PLW]]'' Patiala Locomotive Works, or PLW, is located in Patiala, Punjab. It is associated with locomotive production, rebuilding, modernization and related engineering work. The unit has worked on diesel locomotive rebuilding and has also participated in modern locomotive programmes. Its role demonstrates that railway manufacturing includes not only new construction but also life extension and technological upgrading. === Integral Coach Factory (ICF) === [[File:Integral Coach Factory, Chennai aerial view.jpg|thumb|320x320px|'''''Credit: Saiphani02.''''' An aerial view of the Integral Coach Factory (ICF). ]] Integral Coach Factory, commonly known as ICF, is located in Chennai. It has historically been one of India’s most important passenger coach production units. ICF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, EMU and MEMU vehicles, trainsets, Vistadome coaches and other specialized passenger vehicles. It has also been associated with Vande Bharat trainset production. The factory manufactured 2,829 coaches in 2023–24 according to the Indian Railways annual report, including LHB coaches, trainset coaches, MEMU coaches and EMU coaches. === Rail Coach Factory (RCF) === Rail Coach Factory, or RCF, is located at Kapurthala in Punjab. It manufactures passenger coaches for different classes and services. RCF has produced conventional coaches, LHB coaches, specialized coaches and vehicles for modern passenger services. Its products can include air-conditioned, sleeper, chair-car, luggage, pantry and other variants. A coach factory does not manufacture only complete standard passenger coaches. It may also produce coaches with different layouts for special trains, inspection duties, tourist services and railway departments. === Modern Coach Factory (MCF) === Modern Coach Factory, or MCF, is located at Rae Bareli in Uttar Pradesh. It was established as a modern passenger coach manufacturing facility. MCF has focused on LHB and other modern coach production. It uses higher levels of mechanization and organized production processes compared with many traditional workshops. MCF is part of the wider modernization of Indian coach manufacturing. Its output contributes to the replacement of older coach designs and the expansion of safer, more comfortable passenger stock. === Rail Wheel Factory (RWF) === Rail Wheel Factory, or RWF, is located in Bengaluru. It produces railway wheels and related components. Wheels are safety-critical parts. They must meet strict requirements for metallurgy, dimensions, balance, heat treatment, fatigue strength and inspection. A wheel production unit supports locomotives, coaches and wagons. The wheel is not merely a circular steel part; its profile, flange, hardness, internal quality and compatibility with rails all influence safety and ride quality. ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela ==== Rail Wheel Plant, Bela, is another railway wheel production facility. It expands domestic wheel-making capacity and reduces dependence on external supply for important railway components. Wheel manufacturing requires melting, casting or forging, heat treatment, machining and testing. Quality control is essential because wheel defects can have serious consequences. === Other Railway Workshops and Units === Indian Railways also operates workshops that overhaul locomotives, coaches and wagons. A production unit builds new equipment, while a workshop may inspect, repair, rebuild or modernize equipment already in service. Workshops can undertake periodic overhauls, accident repairs, bogie work, brake-system work, electrical rewiring, interior refurbishment and structural repairs. == Public Sector and Private Production Units (Manufacturers) == Indian Railways does not obtain all equipment from its own production units. Public-sector enterprises, railway-owned companies, joint ventures and private firms manufacture locomotives, coaches, wagons, wheels, electrical equipment, signaling systems and components. A company may be a manufacturer of complete wagons, a supplier of bogies, a producer of traction motors or a contractor for maintenance. Therefore, the term “manufacturer” should be used precisely. === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) === Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, or BHEL, is a major public-sector engineering company. It has supplied railway electrical equipment and locomotives. BHEL has been associated with locomotive classes and traction technology, including electric locomotive equipment. Its work illustrates the importance of electrical engineering, power electronics and traction motors in railway manufacturing. === Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML) === BEML or Bharat Earth Movers Limited is a public-sector engineering company headquartered in Bengaluru. It has manufactured railway and metro equipment, including coaches, trainsets, rail buses, inspection vehicles and other specialized railway products. BEML’s railway work extends beyond conventional passenger coaches. It has also participated in metro rolling stock, track machines and other transport equipment. === Braithwaite and Company Limited (BCL) === Braithwaite and Company Limited, often abbreviated as BCL, is a public-sector enterprise associated with railway wagons, cranes, foundry products and heavy structures. The company operates manufacturing units in West Bengal and supplies wagons designed for railway freight requirements. Braithwaite identifies railway wagons as one of its important product areas. === Titagarh Rail Systems === Titagarh Rail Systems is a private-sector manufacturer associated with freight wagons, passenger coaches, metro vehicles and other rail systems. It has produced wagon types for bulk commodities, containers and other freight applications. Private-sector wagon manufacturers became increasingly important as Indian Railways expanded procurement and encouraged wider industrial participation. === Jupiter Wagons === Jupiter Wagons is a private-sector company associated with freight wagons, railway components and mobility products. Its work may include wagons for containers, automobiles, minerals and other cargo. Modern wagon manufacturing often involves not just steel fabrication but braking, bogies, couplers, suspension and commodity-specific loading arrangements. === Hindustan Engineering and Industries === Hindustan Engineering and Industries has been listed among wagon manufacturers serving the Indian railway sector. Companies in this group may manufacture complete wagons or participate in wagon-related fabrication and engineering. Government procurement records have historically identified both public-sector and private-sector wagon producers. === Other Suppliers === Many additional organizations supply railway equipment. These may include companies producing traction converters, motors, compressors, brakes, couplers, seats, doors, batteries, air-conditioning systems, signaling equipment, wheels, axles and inspection systems. Some railway projects are built through technology-transfer agreements or joint ventures. In these arrangements, one organization may provide design technology while another performs manufacturing, assembly or maintenance in India. == Wagon Codes == Wagon codes are compact descriptions. They are not always perfectly intuitive to a new learner because the letters may refer to construction, vehicle type, brake system, loading arrangement or historical classification. A common simplified interpretation is that “B” often indicates a bogie vehicle, “O” an open wagon, “C” a covered wagon, “F” a flat wagon and “T” a tank wagon. A code may contain additional letters indicating a special design or modification. The exact meaning of a letter can depend on the official wagon code system and the particular specification. Therefore, codes should be read as identification labels rather than translated word-for-word in every case. == Some Types of Wagons == === BOXN === BOXN is a bogie open wagon fitted with air brakes. It is one of the most recognizable Indian freight wagon types. BOXN wagons have commonly been used for coal and other bulk materials. Their open body allows loading from the top and unloading through suitable tipplers or bottom-door arrangements, depending on the specific design. Different BOXN variants may have different body materials, axle loads, bogies, speed capabilities and strengthening arrangements. === BOXNHS === BOXNHS is a higher-strength or higher-capacity variant within the BOXN family. The exact design details depend on the specification and sub-type. Such variants are intended to improve freight efficiency by carrying more cargo or supporting higher operating requirements while remaining compatible with railway infrastructure. === BOXNHL === BOXNHL is a later high-capacity open wagon family associated with heavy-haul freight. It may use improved structure, bogies and braking arrangements compared with earlier wagons. The “HL” designation is commonly associated with higher axle-load or heavy-load applications. Actual permissible load and speed depend on the approved railway specification. === BOXNAL and Related Variants === BOXNAL and related forms represent modified or specialized open wagons. Variants may differ in body shape, axle load, material, bogie, brake equipment and operating restrictions. Wagon numbering documents list multiple open-wagon categories, including BOXN, BOXNA, BOXNHS, BOXNC, BOXNLW, BOXNB, BOXNF, BOXNG, BOY and BOST. === BOBRN === BOBRN is a bottom-discharge or hopper-style wagon commonly associated with coal and other bulk materials. The wagon allows rapid unloading through bottom doors at suitable terminals. Rapid discharge is useful for power stations, mines, ports and industrial plants that handle large quantities of bulk cargo. === BOBYN and BOBYNHS === BOBYN and BOBYNHS are hopper-wagon families. The “HS” version indicates a modified or higher-strength design under the relevant specification. Hopper wagons are especially useful where unloading facilities are designed to receive material from the wagon bottom. They reduce the need for manual unloading. === BCN === BCN is a bogie covered wagon fitted with air brakes. It is commonly used for commodities that need protection from rain, dust or contamination. BCN wagons have been used for food grains, fertilizers, cement bags, paper, manufactured goods and other packaged cargo. The covered body and doors make them suitable for loading palletized or bagged commodities. === BCNA === BCNA is a covered wagon variant related to the BCN family. The suffix indicates a particular modified design, capacity or specification. Covered-wagon variants can differ in payload, body construction, door arrangement, bogies and braking components. They should not all be assumed to have identical dimensions. === BTPN === BTPN is a tank wagon family used for petroleum products. These wagons are designed for bulk liquid transport and are operated under safety and hazardous-material rules. A petroleum tank wagon requires suitable valves, pressure arrangements, protective fittings, grounding and inspection. Loading and unloading must take place at approved terminals. === BTCS and Other Tank Wagons === BTCS and similar codes identify specialized tank wagons. Some may be used for chemicals, gases, water or other liquids. The tank material, pressure rating and fittings depend on the cargo. A wagon suitable for one liquid cannot automatically be used for another. === BFKI and BFK === BFK-type vehicles are flat or container-related wagons designed for particular loading purposes. The exact interpretation depends on the specific code and railway classification. Flat wagons can carry containers, machinery, steel coils, rails and other loads. Securing systems are essential because cargo must not shift during acceleration, braking or curving. === BCL and BCLH === BCL and BCLH-type wagons are associated with container or special flat-wagon applications in some Indian railway classifications. Container wagons generally have fittings that hold standardized containers securely. Some are designed for double-stack or specialized container operations where clearance permits, though the particular wagon and route must be approved. === BOST === BOST is an open wagon family used for bulk cargo. It may be found in mineral or industrial freight operations. As with BOXN variants, BOST specifications can differ in body construction, capacity, axle load and unloading arrangements. === BRN === BRN is associated with a rail-carrying or flat-wagon design. Such wagons are used for long rails, steel products and track materials. Rail-carrying wagons require special supports and loading procedures. Long rails can project over considerable lengths, so loading must ensure stability and route clearance. == Fun Facts == === Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFC) === [[File:Map of dedicated freight corridors of India.jpg|thumb|310x310px|'''''Credit: [[c:User:Footy2000|Footy2000]].''''' A map of all Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) in India. ]] Indian Railways has traditionally moved freight over routes that also carry passenger trains. This creates competition for paths and can limit freight speed. Dedicated Freight Corridors are designed to separate a substantial portion of freight traffic from passenger traffic. They require suitable locomotives, higher axle-load wagons, longer trains, stronger track and specialized signaling. Wagon design for heavy-haul corridors must consider axle load, braking distance, coupler forces, wheel loads, track geometry and terminal capacity. Higher-capacity wagons can move more cargo per train, but the whole system must be upgraded. A high-capacity wagon is useful only if loading points, unloading points, bridges, track, locomotives and signaling can support it. === Train Formation === A passenger train formation describes the order of vehicles. A simplified formation might contain a locomotive, luggage-cum-generator coach, air-conditioned coaches, sleeper coaches, general coaches and another luggage or generator vehicle. The actual formation depends on the service. Rajdhani trains, Shatabdi trains, Humsafar trains and ordinary Express trains may all have different classes and coach orders. Freight formations often begin with a locomotive or multiple locomotives, followed by a rake of similar wagons. Mixed freight rakes may also be used, but commodity-specific rakes are common because loading and unloading facilities are specialized. The number of wagons is determined by permissible train length, loop-line length, locomotive power, gradients, braking requirements, axle loads, terminal capacity and operating rules. === Train Mantainance === Passenger coaches receive routine cleaning and examination between trips. They also undergo periodic maintenance at coaching depots and major workshops. A locomotive receives inspections based on operating hours, distance, equipment condition and maintenance schedules. Technicians examine traction motors, pantographs, compressors, transformers, batteries, control systems and braking equipment. Wagons are inspected at terminals, yards and examination points. The focus includes wheel condition, brake rigging, couplers, doors, body damage, suspension and load security. Major overhauls involve dismantling a vehicle, inspecting structural and mechanical components, replacing worn parts, repairing defects, repainting and testing the vehicle before return to service. == Recapulation == '''Indian Railways''' uses a wide range of passenger trains, locomotives, coaches and wagons. Vande Bharat, Rajdhani, Shatabdi, Humsafar, Duronto, Garib Rath, Jan Shatabdi, Tejas, Antyodaya and Amrit Bharat represent different approaches to passenger service. The physical vehicles behind these services include trainsets, LHB coaches, EMUs, MEMUs, locomotives and specialized passenger cars. Freight operations depend on wagon families such as BOXN, BOY, BCN, BOBRN, BTPN, flat wagons, container wagons and departmental vehicles. Manufacturing is shared among Indian Railways production units, public-sector enterprises and private companies. CLW, BLW, PLW, ICF, RCF, MCF, MRCF, RWF and Rail Wheel Plant, Bela form important parts of the railway manufacturing system, while organizations such as BHEL, BEML, Braithwaite, Titagarh Rail Systems, Jupiter Wagons and other suppliers contribute equipment and industrial capability. The railway system works because all these parts operate together. A locomotive must match the train. A coach must match the route and platform. A wagon must match its cargo. A wheel must match the rail. A production unit must support maintenance with spare parts and technical documentation. Understanding Indian Railways therefore requires studying not just famous train names, but also vehicle design, manufacturing, standards, operations, etc. {{BookCat}} [[Category:Book:Indian Railways]] gzbq9vq5g766n87i7yrugvozd0r0gso 2 485778 4671862 4671741 2026-09-23T04:48:52Z TechVindicator 3626296 +Luna 4671862 javascript text/javascript importScript('User:JJPMaster/luna.js'); // Backlink: [[User:JJPMaster/luna.js]] eexi16spqvom7co49p71wyfft541lpt 3 485780 4671810 4671759 2026-09-22T20:27:10Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Editing Other People's User Space */ new section 4671810 wikitext text/x-wiki == AI == Hello Sisterian, and welcome to Wikibooks. I just wanted to ask; when you made the '''AI For Beginners''' book, did you use ChatGPT or another AI? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 09:52, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :I have checked with AI checkers and it appears to have been made using AI. Did you use any AI when making it? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 11:52, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == Editing Other People's User Space == Hi @[[User:Sisterian|Sisterian]]—please do not edit materials in other people's user spaces, such as their sandbox, without explicit permission to do so. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:27, 22 September 2026 (UTC) kgh3yf4fpxx5u95mq13zeami9anke86 4671812 4671810 2026-09-22T20:42:41Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 4671812 wikitext text/x-wiki == AI == Hello Sisterian, and welcome to Wikibooks. I just wanted to ask; when you made the '''AI For Beginners''' book, did you use ChatGPT or another AI? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 09:52, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :I have checked with AI checkers and it appears to have been made using AI. Did you use any AI when making it? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 11:52, 22 September 2026 (UTC) {{ping|Sisterian}} Jumping in here. Automated checkers aside, there is clear evidence of you using genAI/LLMs to create your contributions—this is explicitly [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence|prohibited by Wikibooks policy]], and we will have to delete these works. Please feel free to continue your contributions to Wikibooks without using LLMs. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:42, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == Editing Other People's User Space == Hi @[[User:Sisterian|Sisterian]]—please do not edit materials in other people's user spaces, such as their sandbox, without explicit permission to do so. Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:27, 22 September 2026 (UTC) q4tnrys6yrdcoq857wxbleaglbvh90g 2 485783 4671847 4671758 2026-09-23T04:00:38Z MathXplore 3097823 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1c) 4671847 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|1=Broken redirect <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> #REDIRECT [[AI For Beginners]] aq9ww86fy4pxh996syxgtcj4nx4sihg 3 485785 4671765 2026-09-22T12:06:22Z TechVindicator 3626296 Created page with "{{Welcome-belated}} ~~~~" 4671765 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Welcome-belated}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:06, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ifd03r645i9slwkjdy7k77zja0hc2rj 3 485786 4671766 2026-09-22T12:06:42Z MathXplore 3097823 /* User messages.. */ move from [[User talk:MathXplore]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4671766 wikitext text/x-wiki == User messages.. == Could you have a another look at how these are formatted? Quite a lot of the misnesting Lint errors, appear to be from messages left on user talk pages? (Specifically a Strong tag that's has a line feed within it). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 19:33, 15 March 2026 (UTC) : The messages left on user talk pages are [[Template:Test]], [[Template:Test2]], but I'm not familiar enough with the misnesting Lint errors. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:21, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:~2026-16316-77&diff=prev&oldid=4622944 is what I refer to as example. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:27, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|Codename Noreste|JJPMaster}} Can you fix this Lint error? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:30, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : I know what to fix, what I don't know is which template substitution is responsible. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:34, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::This should be {{fixed}}. The template is [[User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :::[[File:Symbol watching blue lashes.svg|20px]] '''Courtesy ping'''{{#if:ShakespeareFan00|<nowiki>:</nowiki> {{U|ShakespeareFan00}}|}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::::I did also go back and retroactively fix these using my bot: [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AContributions%2FJJPMaster_%28bot%29&target=JJPMaster+%28bot%29&offset=20260316135259001&limit=322 322 edits]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:55, 16 March 2026 (UTC) osc8bmkevt2fy6cl9p31qqehts08uvd 14 485787 4671773 2026-09-22T12:32:33Z MathXplore 3097823 Created page with "{{book category header}}" 4671773 wikitext text/x-wiki {{book category header}} drhpcp9jwec04s7btc7g0ncqauz34hf 14 485788 4671775 2026-09-22T12:33:33Z MathXplore 3097823 Created page with "{{book category header}}" 4671775 wikitext text/x-wiki {{book category header}} drhpcp9jwec04s7btc7g0ncqauz34hf 14 485789 4671776 2026-09-22T12:34:12Z MathXplore 3097823 Created page with "{{book category header}}" 4671776 wikitext text/x-wiki {{book category header}} drhpcp9jwec04s7btc7g0ncqauz34hf 14 485790 4671777 2026-09-22T12:34:54Z MathXplore 3097823 Created page with "{{book category header}}" 4671777 wikitext text/x-wiki {{book category header}} drhpcp9jwec04s7btc7g0ncqauz34hf 0 485791 4671791 2026-09-22T13:51:12Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 Created page with "{{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} This VIN number decoding and designation system is used primarily for the North American Market. European and Asian markets use other decoding and designation systems. ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (2000 -)== ===Jaguar WMIs (2000-) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car (UK) * SAD - Jaguar SUV (UK & Europe) * L2C - Chery Jaguar Land Rover (China) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=..." 4671791 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} This VIN number decoding and designation system is used primarily for the North American Market. European and Asian markets use other decoding and designation systems. ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (2000 -)== ===Jaguar WMIs (2000-) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car (UK) * SAD - Jaguar SUV (UK & Europe) * L2C - Chery Jaguar Land Rover (China) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * A - Solihull, West Midlands, England, UK * - Halewood, Merseyside, England, UK ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999)== ===Jaguar WMIs (1981-1999) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car ===Model Line=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 4 !VIN code !Description |- |A |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('81-'87), XJ6 Vanden Plas ('82-'87) |- |B |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '81-'88) |- |D |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '89-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('88-'89, '93-'94) |- |F |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('90-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6 Sovereign]] ('90-'92) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] ('88-'94) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Majestic (1989–1992 – SWB; 1993–1994 – LWB)|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas Majestic]] ('89-'90, '92) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#XJ12 and Daimler Double Six (XJ81)|Jaguar XJ12]] ('94) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6L]] LWB [X330] ('97) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] SWB ('95) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] LWB [X330] ('96-'97) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] SWB ('95) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] LWB [X330] ('96) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJR (X306)|Jaguar XJR]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8]] ('98-'99) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8L]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ8 Vanden Plas]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#XJR|Jaguar XJR]] ('98-'99) |- |N |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] ('82-'91), XJ-SC ('86-'88), XJS ('92-'96) |- |T |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] Rouge Collection ('89-'90), Classic Collection ('90-'91) |- |S |[[w:Jaguar XJS#XJR-S|Jaguar XJR-S]] ('93) |- |G |[[w:Jaguar XK (X100)|Jaguar XK8]] ('97-'99) |} ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * C - Browns Lane plant, Coventry, West Midlands, England, UK bl86miitu91nq4lzyjirpxav9u9ytsm 4671817 4671791 2026-09-22T22:21:01Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999) */ 4671817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} This VIN number decoding and designation system is used primarily for the North American Market. European and Asian markets use other decoding and designation systems. ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (2000 -)== ===Jaguar WMIs (2000-) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car (UK) * SAD - Jaguar SUV (UK & Europe) * L2C - Chery Jaguar Land Rover (China) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * A - Solihull, West Midlands, England, UK * - Halewood, Merseyside, England, UK ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999)== ===Jaguar WMIs (1981-1999) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car ===Model Line=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 4 !VIN code !Description |- |A |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('81-'87), XJ6 Vanden Plas ('82-'87) |- |B |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '81-'88) |- |D |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '89-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('88-'89, '93-'94) |- |F |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('90-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6 Sovereign]] ('90-'92) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] ('88-'94) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Majestic (1989–1992 – SWB; 1993–1994 – LWB)|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas Majestic]] ('89-'90, '92) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#XJ12 and Daimler Double Six (XJ81)|Jaguar XJ12]] ('94) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6L]] LWB [X330] ('97) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] SWB ('95) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] LWB [X330] ('96-'97) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] SWB ('95) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] LWB [X330] ('96) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJR (X306)|Jaguar XJR]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8]] ('98-'99) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8L]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ8 Vanden Plas]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#XJR|Jaguar XJR]] ('98-'99) |- |N |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] ('82-'91), XJ-SC ('86-'88), XJS ('92-'96) |- |T |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] Rouge Collection ('89-'90), Classic Collection ('90-'91) |- |S |[[w:Jaguar XJS#XJR-S|Jaguar XJR-S]] ('93) |- |G |[[w:Jaguar XK (X100)|Jaguar XK8]] ('97-'99) |} ===Class (Regional Spec)/Restraint System (Position 5):=== * V = N. American-spec (Manual seat belts) * Z = California-spec * L = Canadian-spec * Y = XJ6 Vanden Plas [Series III] ('82-'87) * A = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '88-'89, XJ-SC '88) * Y = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '89, XJ sedan '89-'92) * W = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (US: XJ-S '90-'93, XJ6 '93, XJ12 Early '94) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (US: XJS '94-'96, XJ6 '94-'97, XJ12 '94-'96, XJR '95-'97, XK8 '97) * D = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '98-'99) * E = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XK8 '98-'99) * M = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (Canada) * N = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (Canada) * F = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (Canada: XJ8/XJR '98-'99) ===Body Style (Position 6):=== * 1 = 4-door sedan (XJ-series sedan '81-'99) * 2 = 2-door convertible w/2+2 seating (XJS convertible '94-'96, XK8 convertible '97-'99) * 3 = 2-door Cabriolet (XJ-SC '86-'88) * 4 = 2-door convertible w/2-psgr. seating (factory-built XJS convertible '89-'94, XJR-S convertible '93) * 5 = 2-door coupe (XJS coupe '82-'96, XJR-S coupe '93, XK8 coupe '97-'99) * 5 = 2-door coupe (Hess & Eisenhardt-built XJS convertible '87-'88) [coupe conversion] ===Transmission & Steering Location (Position 8):=== * 4 = Automatic / LHD * 8 = Manual / LHD ('93-'94 XJS 4.0 w/ optional 5-spd. manual) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * C - Browns Lane plant, Coventry, West Midlands, England, UK 8zpizghgmi4hkamh2yfv7zmifa45ra9 4671825 4671817 2026-09-23T01:35:18Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Class (Regional Spec)/Restraint System (Position 5): */ 4671825 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} This VIN number decoding and designation system is used primarily for the North American Market. European and Asian markets use other decoding and designation systems. ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (2000 -)== ===Jaguar WMIs (2000-) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car (UK) * SAD - Jaguar SUV (UK & Europe) * L2C - Chery Jaguar Land Rover (China) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * A - Solihull, West Midlands, England, UK * - Halewood, Merseyside, England, UK ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999)== ===Jaguar WMIs (1981-1999) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car ===Model Line=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 4 !VIN code !Description |- |A |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('81-'87), XJ6 Vanden Plas ('82-'87) |- |B |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '81-'88) |- |D |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '89-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('88-'89, '93-'94) |- |F |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('90-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6 Sovereign]] ('90-'92) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] ('88-'94) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Majestic (1989–1992 – SWB; 1993–1994 – LWB)|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas Majestic]] ('89-'90, '92) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#XJ12 and Daimler Double Six (XJ81)|Jaguar XJ12]] ('94) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6L]] LWB [X330] ('97) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] SWB ('95) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] LWB [X330] ('96-'97) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] SWB ('95) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] LWB [X330] ('96) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJR (X306)|Jaguar XJR]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8]] ('98-'99) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8L]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ8 Vanden Plas]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#XJR|Jaguar XJR]] ('98-'99) |- |N |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] ('82-'91), XJ-SC ('86-'88), XJS ('92-'96) |- |T |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] Rouge Collection ('89-'90), Classic Collection ('90-'91) |- |S |[[w:Jaguar XJS#XJR-S|Jaguar XJR-S]] ('93) |- |G |[[w:Jaguar XK (X100)|Jaguar XK8]] ('97-'99) |} ===Class (Regional Spec)/Restraint System (Position 5):=== * V = N. American-spec (Manual seat belts) * L = Canadian-spec (Manual seat belts) * Y = XJ6 Vanden Plas [Series III] ('82-'87) (Manual seat belts) * A = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '88-'89, XJ-SC '88) * Y = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '89, XJ sedan '89-'92) * W = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (US: XJ-S '90-'93, XJ6 '93, XJ12 Early '94) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (US: XJS '94-'96, XJ6 '94-'97, XJ12 '94-'96, XJR '95-'97, XK8 '97-'99) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '98-'99) * D = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '99) * M = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (Canada) * N = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (Canada) * F = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (Canada: XJ8/XJR '99) ===Body Style (Position 6):=== * 1 = 4-door sedan (XJ-series sedan '81-'99) * 2 = 2-door convertible w/2+2 seating (XJS convertible '94-'96, XK8 convertible '97-'99) * 3 = 2-door Cabriolet (XJ-SC '86-'88) * 4 = 2-door convertible w/2-psgr. seating (factory-built XJS convertible '89-'94, XJR-S convertible '93) * 5 = 2-door coupe (XJS coupe '82-'96, XJR-S coupe '93, XK8 coupe '97-'99) * 5 = 2-door coupe (Hess & Eisenhardt-built XJS convertible '87-'88) [coupe conversion] ===Transmission & Steering Location (Position 8):=== * 4 = Automatic / LHD * 8 = Manual / LHD ('93-'94 XJS 4.0 w/ optional 5-spd. manual) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * C - Browns Lane plant, Coventry, West Midlands, England, UK 45c2qb9vvjioefjmkty38a5up16xgbz 4671832 4671825 2026-09-23T02:44:12Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999) */ 4671832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} This VIN number decoding and designation system is used primarily for the North American Market. European and Asian markets use other decoding and designation systems. ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (2000 -)== ===Jaguar WMIs (2000-) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car (UK) * SAD - Jaguar SUV (UK & Europe) * L2C - Chery Jaguar Land Rover (China) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * A - Solihull, West Midlands, England, UK * - Halewood, Merseyside, England, UK ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999)== ===Jaguar WMIs (1981-1999) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car ===Model Line=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 4 !VIN code !Description |- |A |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('81-'87), XJ6 Vanden Plas ('82-'87) |- |B |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '81-'88) |- |D |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '89-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('88-'89, '93-'94) |- |F |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('90-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6 Sovereign]] ('90-'92) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] ('88-'94) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Majestic (1989–1992 – SWB; 1993–1994 – LWB)|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas Majestic]] ('89-'90, '92) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#XJ12 and Daimler Double Six (XJ81)|Jaguar XJ12]] ('94) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6L]] LWB [X330] ('97) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] SWB ('95) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] LWB [X330] ('96-'97) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] SWB ('95) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] LWB [X330] ('96) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJR (X306)|Jaguar XJR]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8]] ('98-'99) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8L]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ8 Vanden Plas]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#XJR|Jaguar XJR]] ('98-'99) |- |N |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] ('82-'91), XJ-SC ('86-'88), XJS ('92-'96) |- |T |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] Rouge Collection ('89-'90), Classic Collection ('90-'91) |- |S |[[w:Jaguar XJS#XJR-S|Jaguar XJR-S]] ('93) |- |G |[[w:Jaguar XK (X100)|Jaguar XK8]] ('97-'99) |} ===Class (Regional Spec)/Restraint System (Position 5):=== * V = N. American-spec (Manual seat belts) * L = Canadian-spec (Manual seat belts) * Y = XJ6 Vanden Plas [Series III] ('82-'87) (Manual seat belts) * A = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '88-'89, XJ-SC '88) * Y = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '89, XJ sedan '89-'92) * W = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (US: XJ-S '90-'93, XJ6 '93, XJ12 Early '94) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (US: XJS '94-'96, XJ6 '94-'97, XJ12 '94-'96, XJR '95-'97, XK8 '97-'99) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '98-'99) * D = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '99) * M = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (Canada) * N = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (Canada) * F = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (Canada: XJ8/XJR '99) ===Body Style (Position 6):=== * 1 = 4-door sedan (XJ-series sedan '81-'99) * 2 = 2-door convertible w/2+2 seating (XJS convertible '94-'96, XK8 convertible '97-'99) * 3 = 2-door Cabriolet (XJ-SC '86-'88) * 4 = 2-door convertible w/2-psgr. seating (factory-built XJS convertible '89-'94, XJR-S convertible '93) * 5 = 2-door coupe (XJS coupe '82-'96, XJR-S coupe '93, XK8 coupe '97-'99) * 5 = 2-door coupe (Hess & Eisenhardt-built XJS convertible '87-'88) [coupe conversion] ===Engine Type (Position 7):=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 7 |- ! VIN !! Size !! Type !! Fuel !! Valvetrain !! Engine Family/Notes/Applications |- | 2 || 4.2L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 12 valve||CA & Canada-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar XK engine|Jaguar XK I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('81-'82). |- | 3 || 4.2L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 12 valve||N. America-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar XK engine|Jaguar XK I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('81-'87). |- | 8 || 5.3L || V12 || Gas ||SOHC,<br /> 24 valve||N. America-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar V12 engine|Jaguar V12]]. Jaguar XJ-S ('82-'92), XJ12 (Canada only: '88-'92). |- | 0 || 5.3L || V12 || Gas ||SOHC,<br /> 24 valve||Canada-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar V12 engine|Jaguar V12]]. Jaguar XJ-S ('82-'87), XJ12 (Canada only: '85-'87). |} ===Transmission & Steering Location (Position 8):=== * 4 = Automatic / LHD * 8 = Manual / LHD ('93-'94 XJS 4.0 w/ optional 5-spd. manual) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * C - Browns Lane plant, Coventry, West Midlands, England, UK j8g5yt8l0ddy0d4vgytzdanxze8zsg3 4671933 4671832 2026-09-23T09:45:42Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Engine Type (Position 7): */ 4671933 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} This VIN number decoding and designation system is used primarily for the North American Market. European and Asian markets use other decoding and designation systems. ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (2000 -)== ===Jaguar WMIs (2000-) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car (UK) * SAD - Jaguar SUV (UK & Europe) * L2C - Chery Jaguar Land Rover (China) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * A - Solihull, West Midlands, England, UK * - Halewood, Merseyside, England, UK ==General Template for Jaguar's VIN format (1981 - 1999)== ===Jaguar WMIs (1981-1999) (Position 1-3)=== * SAJ - Jaguar passenger car ===Model Line=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 4 !VIN code !Description |- |A |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('81-'87), XJ6 Vanden Plas ('82-'87) |- |B |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '81-'88) |- |D |[[w:Jaguar XJ#Series 3 (1979–1992)|Jaguar XJ12]] (Canada only: '89-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('88-'89, '93-'94) |- |F |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('90-'92) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)|Jaguar XJ6 Sovereign]] ('90-'92) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] ('88-'94) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#Majestic (1989–1992 – SWB; 1993–1994 – LWB)|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas Majestic]] ('89-'90, '92) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (XJ40)#XJ12 and Daimler Double Six (XJ81)|Jaguar XJ12]] ('94) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)|Jaguar XJ6L]] LWB [X330] ('97) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] SWB ('95) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#Daimler/Jaguar Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ6 Vanden Plas]] LWB [X330] ('96-'97) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] SWB ('95) |- |M |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJ12 (X305)|Jaguar XJ12]] LWB [X330] ('96) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X300)#XJR (X306)|Jaguar XJR]] ('95-'97) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8]] ('98-'99) |- |H |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)|Jaguar XJ8L]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |K |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#Daimler/Vanden Plas|Jaguar XJ8 Vanden Plas]] LWB ('98-'99) |- |P |[[w:Jaguar XJ (X308)#XJR|Jaguar XJR]] ('98-'99) |- |N |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] ('82-'91), XJ-SC ('86-'88), XJS ('92-'96) |- |T |[[w:Jaguar XJS|Jaguar XJ-S]] Rouge Collection ('89-'90), Classic Collection ('90-'91) |- |S |[[w:Jaguar XJS#XJR-S|Jaguar XJR-S]] ('93) |- |G |[[w:Jaguar XK (X100)|Jaguar XK8]] ('97-'99) |} ===Class (Regional Spec)/Restraint System (Position 5):=== * V = N. American-spec (Manual seat belts) * L = Canadian-spec (Manual seat belts) * Y = XJ6 Vanden Plas [Series III] ('82-'87) (Manual seat belts) * A = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '88-'89, XJ-SC '88) * Y = Motorized Shoulder Belts (XJ-S coupe '89, XJ sedan '89-'92) * W = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (US: XJ-S '90-'93, XJ6 '93, XJ12 Early '94) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (US: XJS '94-'96, XJ6 '94-'97, XJ12 '94-'96, XJR '95-'97, XK8 '97-'99) * X = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '98-'99) * D = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (US: XJ8/XJR '99) * M = Manual seat belts, Driver-side airbag (Canada) * N = Manual seat belts, Dual front airbags (Canada) * F = Manual seat belts, Depowered Dual front airbags, & Front Side Airbags (Canada: XJ8/XJR '99) ===Body Style (Position 6):=== * 1 = 4-door sedan (XJ-series sedan '81-'99) * 2 = 2-door convertible w/2+2 seating (XJS convertible '94-'96, XK8 convertible '97-'99) * 3 = 2-door Cabriolet (XJ-SC '86-'88) * 4 = 2-door convertible w/2-psgr. seating (factory-built XJS convertible '89-'94, XJR-S convertible '93) * 5 = 2-door coupe (XJS coupe '82-'96, XJR-S coupe '93, XK8 coupe '97-'99) * 5 = 2-door coupe (Hess & Eisenhardt-built XJS convertible '87-'88) [coupe conversion] ===Engine Type (Position 7):=== {| class="wikitable" |+Position 7 |- ! VIN !! Size !! Type !! Fuel !! Valvetrain !! Engine Family/Notes/Applications |- | 1 || 4.0L || I6 [[w:Supercharged|SC]] [[w:Intercooler|IC]] || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||MPI. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine#AJ16S|Jaguar AJ16S I6]]. Jaguar XJR ('95-'97). |- | 2 || 4.2L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 12 valve||CA & Canada-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar XK engine|Jaguar XK I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('81-'82). |- | 2 || 4.0L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||MPI. Dual-canister evaporative emissions system. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine#AJ16|Jaguar AJ16 I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('96-'97). |- | 3 || 4.2L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 12 valve||N. America-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar XK engine|Jaguar XK I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('81-'87). |- | 3 || 6.0L || V12 || Gas ||SOHC,<br /> 24 valve||MPI. [[w:Jaguar V12 engine|Jaguar V12]]. Jaguar XJR-S ('93), XJS ('94-'95), XJ12 ('94-'96). |- | 8 || 5.3L || V12 || Gas ||SOHC,<br /> 24 valve||N. America-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar V12 engine|Jaguar V12]]. Jaguar XJ-S ('82-'92), XJ12 (Canada only: '88-'92). |- | 0 || 5.3L || V12 || Gas ||SOHC,<br /> 24 valve||Canada-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar V12 engine|Jaguar V12]]. Jaguar XJ-S ('82-'87), XJ12 (Canada only: '85-'87). |- | 5 || 3.6L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||N. America-spec - Low Compression. MPI. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine|Jaguar AJ6 I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('88-'89). |- | 6 || 3.6L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||N. America-spec - High Compression. MPI. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine|Jaguar AJ6 I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('88). |- | 7 || 4.0L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||MPI. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine|Jaguar AJ6 I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('90-'94), XJS ('93-'94). |- | 7 || 4.0L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||MPI. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine#AJ16|Jaguar AJ16 I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('95-'96), XJS ('95-'96). |- | 9 || 4.0L || I6 || Gas ||DOHC,<br /> 24 valve||Canada-spec. MPI. [[w:Jaguar AJ6 engine|Jaguar AJ6 I6]]. Jaguar XJ6 ('90-'93), XJS ('93). |} ===Transmission & Steering Location (Position 8):=== * 4 = Automatic / LHD * 8 = Manual / LHD ('93-'94 XJS 4.0 w/ optional 5-spd. manual) ===Check Digit/Gearbox (Position 9)=== * USA /Canada [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit|Check digit]] ===Model Year Code (Position 10)=== ''See: [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year]]'' ===Plant Codes (Position 11)=== * C - Browns Lane plant, Coventry, West Midlands, England, UK eidnez4ie1mlctmlmh4tf6pdmeui7vu 1 485792 4671819 2026-09-22T23:31:36Z ~2026-51136-21 3626608 Created page with "@ ~~~~" 4671819 wikitext text/x-wiki @ [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51136-21|~2026-51136-21]] ([[User talk:~2026-51136-21|talk]]) 23:31, 22 September 2026 (UTC) c9zwdf0y1hy88fnpto83a5obelplazz 4671841 4671819 2026-09-23T03:28:13Z Jianhui67 1013809 Requesting deletion ([[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]] v3.1c) 4671841 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{delete|1=Test page <small>[[:m:Special:MyLanguage/User:TenWhile6/XReport|XReport]]</small>}}</noinclude> @ [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51136-21|~2026-51136-21]] ([[User talk:~2026-51136-21|talk]]) 23:31, 22 September 2026 (UTC) altdkqkvoxldzhbyl2rx9iz9z7np822 2 485793 4671842 2026-09-23T03:46:50Z Lpuwikiuser 3626625 Created page with "==Binary Number== Binary numbers are numbers in base two which consists of two digit 0 and 1 . A series of 0's and 1's can be formed to represent info For example number from 0 to 9 can be expressed as binary numbers of four bit as shown <table border=1 width=50%> <tr> <td>1</td><td>0001 <tr> <td>2</td><td>0010 <tr> <td>3</td><td>0011 <tr> <td>4</td><td>0100 <tr> <td>5</td><td>0101 <tr> <td>6</td><td>0110 <tr> <td>7</td><td>0111 <tr> <td>8</td><td>1000 <tr> <td>9</td><..." 4671842 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Binary Number== Binary numbers are numbers in base two which consists of two digit 0 and 1 . A series of 0's and 1's can be formed to represent info For example number from 0 to 9 can be expressed as binary numbers of four bit as shown <table border=1 width=50%> <tr> <td>1</td><td>0001 <tr> <td>2</td><td>0010 <tr> <td>3</td><td>0011 <tr> <td>4</td><td>0100 <tr> <td>5</td><td>0101 <tr> <td>6</td><td>0110 <tr> <td>7</td><td>0111 <tr> <td>8</td><td>1000 <tr> <td>9</td><td>1001 </tr> </table> ==Binary Coding== Since in binary number system there are only two digits 0 and 1 called a Bit . So 1-bit binary number refers to number of 1 digit either 0 or 1 . 2-bit binary number refers to number of 2 digit namely 00, 01, 10, 11 and there are 4 of such numbers which equivalent to 2². Hence, there are 2ⁿ binary numbers of n bits The process of using binary numbers to represent info is called Binary Coding For example with 1-bit binary number 0 and 1 can be used to represent number 0 and 1 in our system . With 2-bit binary number can be used to represent number 0 to 3 in our system as follow :00 represents 0 :01 represents 1 :10 represents 2 :11 represents 3 With digit 0 and 1 we have three bit binary numbers of 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111 which equivalent to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 {{BookCat}} cuql28pardbh9080i7d0vc75ydc0etn 4671843 4671842 2026-09-23T03:50:22Z Lpuwikiuser 3626625 Added reference 4671843 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Binary Number== A binary number is a number expressed in the base‑2 numeral system<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-10 |title=Binary Numbers |url=https://www.electronics-lab.com/article/binary-numbers/ |access-date=2026-09-23 |website=Electronics-Lab |language=en-US}}</ref>,Binary numbers are numbers in base two which consists of two digit 0 and 1 . A series of 0's and 1's can be formed to represent info For example number from 0 to 9 can be expressed as binary numbers of four bit as shown <table border=1 width=50%> <tr> <td>1</td><td>0001 <tr> <td>2</td><td>0010 <tr> <td>3</td><td>0011 <tr> <td>4</td><td>0100 <tr> <td>5</td><td>0101 <tr> <td>6</td><td>0110 <tr> <td>7</td><td>0111 <tr> <td>8</td><td>1000 <tr> <td>9</td><td>1001 </tr> </table> ==Binary Coding== Since in binary number system there are only two digits 0 and 1 called a Bit . So 1-bit binary number refers to number of 1 digit either 0 or 1 . 2-bit binary number refers to number of 2 digit namely 00, 01, 10, 11 and there are 4 of such numbers which equivalent to 2². Hence, there are 2ⁿ binary numbers of n bits The process of using binary numbers to represent info is called Binary Coding For example with 1-bit binary number 0 and 1 can be used to represent number 0 and 1 in our system . With 2-bit binary number can be used to represent number 0 to 3 in our system as follow :00 represents 0 :01 represents 1 :10 represents 2 :11 represents 3 With digit 0 and 1 we have three bit binary numbers of 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111 which equivalent to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 == Reference == {{BookCat}} jmfwq4ianzkpdwtrlawai3bjq1n77og 2 485794 4671844 2026-09-23T03:54:23Z Lpuwikiuser 3626625 Created page with "A remote control is a handheld device that allows you to operate machines or systems from a distance, usually using infrared (IR) signals, radio frequency (RF), or Bluetooth/Wi‑Fi. It’s one of the most practical applications of electronics and binary logic in everyday life." 4671844 wikitext text/x-wiki A remote control is a handheld device that allows you to operate machines or systems from a distance, usually using infrared (IR) signals, radio frequency (RF), or Bluetooth/Wi‑Fi. It’s one of the most practical applications of electronics and binary logic in everyday life. 0c49skyckpqvr31hhjazfkwpdwqguis 4671846 4671844 2026-09-23T04:00:14Z Lpuwikiuser 3626625 Added reference 4671846 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Inside LG Smart TV WIFI + IR Remote 01.jpg|alt=Inside LG Smart TV WIFI + IR Remote|thumb|'''LG Smart TV WIFI + IR Remote''' ]] A remote control is a handheld device that allows you to operate machines or systems from a distance, usually using infrared (IR) signals,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of IR remote control |url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/ir-remote-control |access-date=2026-09-23 |website=PCMAG |language=en}}</ref> radio frequency (RF), or Bluetooth/Wi‑Fi. It’s one of the most practical applications of electronics and binary logic in everyday life. == Reference == djkeph7ksu70xwbqagqqxfb2vui88kr 4671849 4671846 2026-09-23T04:02:59Z Lpuwikiuser 3626625 added interwiki links 4671849 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Inside LG Smart TV WIFI + IR Remote 01.jpg|alt=Inside LG Smart TV WIFI + IR Remote|thumb|'''LG Smart TV WIFI + IR Remote''' ]] A [[wikipedia:Remote_control|remote control]] is a handheld device that allows you to operate machines or systems from a distance, usually using infrared (IR) signals,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of IR remote control |url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/ir-remote-control |access-date=2026-09-23 |website=PCMAG |language=en}}</ref> radio frequency (RF), or [[Bluetooth]]/Wi‑Fi. It’s one of the most practical applications of electronics and binary logic in everyday life. == Reference == ly9pbc1u6hys7u0umyt4f4oonctxc4f 2 485795 4671863 2026-09-23T04:48:56Z TechVindicator 3626296 Setting default Luna preferences 4671863 json application/json { "rollback": { "rc": { "rb": false, "vand": false, "res": false }, "rcl": { "rb": false, "vand": false, "res": false }, "wl": { "rb": false, "vand": false, "res": false }, "ct": { "rb": false, "vand": false, "res": false }, "ht": { "rb": false, "vand": false, "res": false }, "df": { "rb": false, "vand": false, "res": false }, "oi": { "res": false } }, "CSD": {}, "CTP": {}, "CTF": {}, "DI": {}, "warn": {}, "welcome": {}, "welcomeUnregistered": {}, "tb": {}, "debug": false, "version": 0.82 } s621qkjp7g0eno91vj6mrgrgwbzbun5 3 485796 4671866 2026-09-23T04:50:35Z TechVindicator 3626296 Welcoming user with {{Welcome-belated}} 4671866 wikitext text/x-wiki == A belated welcome! == [[File:Chocolate chip cookies.jpg|thumb|The welcome may be belated, but the cookies are still warm! {{smiley}}]] Here's wishing you a belated welcome to Wikibooks, Theki! I see that you've already been around a while and wanted to thank you for [[Special:Contributions/Theki|your contributions]]. Though you seem to have been successful in finding your way around, you may still benefit from following some of the links below, which help editors get the most out of Wikibooks: * [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] * [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks|What is Wikibooks?]] * [[Using Wikibooks]] Need some ideas of what kind of things need doing? Try [[Wikibooks:Maintenance]]. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikibooks:Wikibookians|Wikibookian]]! Again, welcome! Welcome to Wikibooks! <!-- Template:Welcome-belated --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:50, 23 September 2026 (UTC) 9ot695c1j6456xip40mgacyb10e9e3f 4671874 4671866 2026-09-23T05:02:26Z TechVindicator 3626296 Welcoming user with {{Cookbookwelcome}} 4671874 wikitext text/x-wiki == A belated welcome! == [[File:Chocolate chip cookies.jpg|thumb|The welcome may be belated, but the cookies are still warm! {{smiley}}]] Here's wishing you a belated welcome to Wikibooks, Theki! I see that you've already been around a while and wanted to thank you for [[Special:Contributions/Theki|your contributions]]. Though you seem to have been successful in finding your way around, you may still benefit from following some of the links below, which help editors get the most out of Wikibooks: * [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] * [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks|What is Wikibooks?]] * [[Using Wikibooks]] Need some ideas of what kind of things need doing? Try [[Wikibooks:Maintenance]]. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikibooks:Wikibookians|Wikibookian]]! Again, welcome! Welcome to Wikibooks! <!-- Template:Welcome-belated --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:50, 23 September 2026 (UTC) ==Welcome!== Welcome, Theki! {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Getting started]] with Wikibooks |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. Find out [[WB:WIW|what this means]]. * To sign your name (on discussion pages), use four tildes, like this: &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * Learn how to [[Using Wikibooks|use Wikibooks]] and learn more about the community. * [[WB:CCO|Explore]], [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]], and have fun! |} If you have any questions, you can ask in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|assistance reading room]] or possibly contact me personally. * Please also check out the [[Cookbook:Policy|Cookbook policy]] page and the [[Talk:Cookbook|Cookbook talk]] pages. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 05:02, 23 September 2026 (UTC) 78f7a54dxgp7gxevc0kfkci6fvpdbbe 0 485797 4671877 2026-09-23T05:32:14Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 It-is-Truly-Meet moved page [[Ukrainian/Grammar]] to [[Ukrainian/Glossary of Grammatical Terms]]: This page functions as an overview of Ukrainian grammar, from personal pronouns to ordinals. Therefore, it should be used as an appendix or reference. 4671877 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Ukrainian/Glossary of Grammatical Terms]] gu8rs4e73b48vs3mftfhxlcmijg7q7i 1 485798 4671879 2026-09-23T05:32:15Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 It-is-Truly-Meet moved page [[Talk:Ukrainian/Grammar]] to [[Talk:Ukrainian/Glossary of Grammatical Terms]]: This page functions as an overview of Ukrainian grammar, from personal pronouns to ordinals. Therefore, it should be used as an appendix or reference. 4671879 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Talk:Ukrainian/Glossary of Grammatical Terms]] 40r7fjraluok52cxl7q626yy92o8ijs 0 485799 4671884 2026-09-23T05:48:48Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 Created page with "{{printable}}" 4671884 wikitext text/x-wiki {{printable}} rfox2umbwbdol14wau7rnobacus9ozy 0 485800 4671904 2026-09-23T07:23:04Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4671904 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Underconstruction}} The '''top bar''' of Scratch is where it is possible to adjust the interface of Scratch, change the language, as well as being able to change various other aspects of the Scratch interface. The Scratch top bar may differ if you are logged in or not. The top bar also varies between versions. ==Scratch 1.4== ==Scratch 2.0== ==Scratch 3.0== camsb2u79ggnq5d5zzp0xpdih9t3l5v 4671919 4671904 2026-09-23T08:10:46Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Scratch 1.4 */ 4671919 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Underconstruction}} The '''top bar''' of Scratch is where it is possible to adjust the interface of Scratch, change the language, as well as being able to change various other aspects of the Scratch interface. The Scratch top bar may differ if you are logged in or not. The top bar also varies between versions. ==Scratch 1.4== In Scratch 1.4, on the top bar, the following functions are available: ==Scratch 2.0== ==Scratch 3.0== 9mdtmqj721e3ldii9k143n6b8ouosvg 4671923 4671919 2026-09-23T08:17:06Z TechVindicator 3626296 4671923 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Underconstruction}} The '''top bar''' of Scratch is where it is possible to adjust the interface of Scratch, change the language, as well as being able to change various other aspects of the Scratch interface. The top bar varies between versions. ==Scratch 1.4== In Scratch 1.4, on the top bar, the following functions are available: ==Scratch 2.0== ==Scratch 3.0== 3njhb5l6i9bn5o1yu6l4vys23j1ke1p 4671926 4671923 2026-09-23T08:35:35Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* Scratch 1.4 */ 4671926 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Underconstruction}} The '''top bar''' of Scratch is where it is possible to adjust the interface of Scratch, change the language, as well as being able to change various other aspects of the Scratch interface. The top bar varies between versions. ==Scratch 1.4== In Scratch 1.4, on the top bar, the following functions are available: Language - To change the language of Scratch, it is possible by clicking the globe icon and selecting a language. ==Scratch 2.0== ==Scratch 3.0== ht0d60umzxw8vu9z7jm43zvtmehxc00 4671927 4671926 2026-09-23T08:36:14Z TechVindicator 3626296 TechVindicator moved page [[Scratch/Top Bar]] to [[Scratch/Toolbar]]: More appropriate name 4671926 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Underconstruction}} The '''top bar''' of Scratch is where it is possible to adjust the interface of Scratch, change the language, as well as being able to change various other aspects of the Scratch interface. The top bar varies between versions. ==Scratch 1.4== In Scratch 1.4, on the top bar, the following functions are available: Language - To change the language of Scratch, it is possible by clicking the globe icon and selecting a language. ==Scratch 2.0== ==Scratch 3.0== ht0d60umzxw8vu9z7jm43zvtmehxc00 3 485801 4671909 2026-09-23T07:36:03Z TechVindicator 3626296 Welcoming user with {{Classwelcome}} 4671909 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Using]] Wikibooks for class projects |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. Find out [[WB:WIW|what this means]]. * It appears that you are editing as part of a class project so please read [[Using_Wikibooks/Class_Project_Guidelines|Using Wikibooks: Class Project Guidelines]] as soon as possible. * To sign your name (on discussion pages), use four tildes, like this: &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * Learn how to [[Using Wikibooks|use Wikibooks]] and learn more about the community. * [[WB:CCO|Explore]], [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]], and have fun! |} Come introduce yourself in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General|general reading room]] or your project in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Projects|project reading room]]. If you have any questions, you can ask in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|assistance reading room]] or contact me personally. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:36, 23 September 2026 (UTC) g3bbqu3ddlgvukuewpg2lckdt3h2rr9 4671911 4671909 2026-09-23T07:38:44Z TechVindicator 3626296 +correct welcome, apologies for the incorrect welcome 4671911 wikitext text/x-wiki {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Using]] Wikibooks for class projects |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. Find out [[WB:WIW|what this means]]. * It appears that you are editing as part of a class project so please read [[Using_Wikibooks/Class_Project_Guidelines|Using Wikibooks: Class Project Guidelines]] as soon as possible. * To sign your name (on discussion pages), use four tildes, like this: &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * Learn how to [[Using Wikibooks|use Wikibooks]] and learn more about the community. * [[WB:CCO|Explore]], [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]], and have fun! |} Come introduce yourself in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General|general reading room]] or your project in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Projects|project reading room]]. If you have any questions, you can ask in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|assistance reading room]] or contact me personally. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:36, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :Apologies for the wrong welcome. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:38, 23 September 2026 (UTC) ==Welcome!== Welcome, Lpuwikiuser! {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Getting started]] with Wikibooks |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. Find out [[WB:WIW|what this means]]. * To sign your name (on discussion pages), use four tildes, like this: &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * Learn how to [[Using Wikibooks|use Wikibooks]] and learn more about the community. * [[WB:CCO|Explore]], [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]], and have fun! |} If you have any questions, you can ask in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|assistance reading room]] or possibly contact me personally. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:38, 23 September 2026 (UTC) qzuoixxtspe3o5hauuhhfnkfd8askhx 4671914 4671911 2026-09-23T07:42:58Z TechVindicator 3626296 removing incorrect welcome 4671914 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome!== Welcome, Lpuwikiuser! {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Getting started]] with Wikibooks |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. Find out [[WB:WIW|what this means]]. * To sign your name (on discussion pages), use four tildes, like this: &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * Learn how to [[Using Wikibooks|use Wikibooks]] and learn more about the community. * [[WB:CCO|Explore]], [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]], and have fun! |} If you have any questions, you can ask in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|assistance reading room]] or possibly contact me personally. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:38, 23 September 2026 (UTC) 7kyqffm1jcf9ok8pd853ke1axdpxo7z 0 485802 4671913 2026-09-23T07:41:35Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 I made it 4671913 wikitext text/x-wiki ''Note: Synthora is a '''conceptual language''' or a '''language concept'''. It means that this is not an officially recognized language nor a fully developed language either.'' == What is Synthora? == '''Synthora''' is a multi-use, customizable and conceptual language which doesn't require syntax, semantics or phonology like most languages, but it uses its own language framework, philosophy and vocabulary while also using the beauty of arithmetics, geometry, trigonometry, synthora levels, etc. It doesn't prefer theoretical names, degrees or studies of different things, but rather focuses on practicality for coding, writing digitally and in real life. This language is not well known as the whole point of this language was to make coding user-friendly and customizable to the user's choice. Later on, Synthora got upgraded by a lot when the creator saw its full potential. e01f0mu7w68ncatn72o2mvkzrrjej5q 0 485803 4671928 2026-09-23T08:36:14Z TechVindicator 3626296 TechVindicator moved page [[Scratch/Top Bar]] to [[Scratch/Toolbar]]: More appropriate name 4671928 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Scratch/Toolbar]] 4icxw8r4sz0zu5i8bh8gr69p3x31au6 0 485804 4671936 2026-09-23T10:02:42Z Atiedebee 3523910 Description of whites follow-ups. Could use a history section 4671936 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Winawer variation |eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C18]] |parent=[[../|Winawer variation]] }} == 6...Qc7 · Classical variation == Black develops the queen to the c-file, which may be opened up soon with cxd4. However, Blacks kingside still isn't developed, which can be exploited by White. '''[[/7. Qg4/]]''' is the main line and Whites most aggressive response. Here we see the second use of Black's previous move: Black can defend the g-pawn with '''7...f6''' or '''7...f5''', both of which open up the queens vision of the g-pawn. Alternatively, Black can play '''7...Ne7''', which transposes into the '''[[../6...Ne7/7. Qg4/7...Qc7|Poisoned pawn variation]]'''. White can also go for a more positional approach with '''7. Nf3''', where it is more important to grasp the general ideas of the opening rather than hard lines. White can attack on the kingside with h2-h4-h5, while Black will try to trade the light-squared bishops with b6 followed by Ba6. White generally tries to get as much as possible out of this trade, usually using a combination of Bb5+ and a4 to take back with the a-pawn, placing it on the b5 square to restrict Blacks pieces. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}} {{Chess/theory table |line1=7. Qg4 f5 8. Qg3 Ne7 |line2=7. ... ... 8. Qh4+ g6 9. Qd1 |line3=7. ... f6 8. Nf3 c4 |name4=Poisoned pawn variation |line4=7. ... Ne7 8. Qxg7 Rg8 |line5=7. Nf3 Ne7 }} {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{BCO2}} === See also === {{Wikipedia|French Defence}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} 9z2eop7nwvufhhb3akdxyyrgla7gyav 2 485805 4671947 2026-09-23T11:44:17Z KafuaJoy 3622578 Created page with "In many African communities, the word ''village'' means more than a collection of houses. It describes a web of relationships. There is the grandmother who sits outside her house in the evening. There is the neighbour who knows when a child has not returned from school. There is the uncle who teaches a boy how to repair a bicycle. There is the auntie who takes a young girl with her to the market and teaches her how to choose vegetables. There is the teacher who notices..." 4671947 wikitext text/x-wiki In many African communities, the word ''village'' means more than a collection of houses. It describes a web of relationships. There is the grandmother who sits outside her house in the evening. There is the neighbour who knows when a child has not returned from school. There is the uncle who teaches a boy how to repair a bicycle. There is the auntie who takes a young girl with her to the market and teaches her how to choose vegetables. There is the teacher who notices that a child has stopped participating in class. These people may not live under the same roof, but they can all become part of a child's world. === The story of Okello === Okello was eight years old when his mother sent him to the trading centre to buy paraffin. The shop was not far from home, but Okello stopped on the way to watch older boys playing football. He stayed longer than he was supposed to. When he finally reached the shop, the shopkeeper looked at him. "Where is your mother sending you?" "To buy paraffin." "And why are you only arriving now?" Okello looked down. The shopkeeper laughed. "So the football has defeated you again?" Okello smiled. The shopkeeper gave him the paraffin and reminded him to go straight home. By the time Okello reached his compound, his mother already knew that he had been playing football. "Who told you?" he asked. "Your village told me," she replied. It was not literally the entire village. It was simply that people knew one another. The shopkeeper knew Okello's mother. The boys playing football knew his older brother. The neighbour had seen him leave home. Okello was growing up in a network of people who were paying attention. That is one meaning of the village. It is a place where a child's life is not completely invisible. ovb2kr6bda5he1ytjt8e3ja57w3133l 2 485806 4671951 2026-09-23T11:54:07Z KafuaJoy 3622578 Created page with "There is an important distinction between saying "a child belongs to everyone" and saying "everyone owns a child." Children are not property. The phrase is better understood as a statement of shared responsibility. When a child is hungry, unsafe, excluded from school or struggling emotionally, the problem should not automatically be seen as belonging only to the parents. This is particularly important in communities where families experience poverty, unemployment, il..." 4671951 wikitext text/x-wiki There is an important distinction between saying "a child belongs to everyone" and saying "everyone owns a child." Children are not property. The phrase is better understood as a statement of shared responsibility. When a child is hungry, unsafe, excluded from school or struggling emotionally, the problem should not automatically be seen as belonging only to the parents. This is particularly important in communities where families experience poverty, unemployment, illness, displacement or other pressures. A village can become a safety net. One family may provide food. Another may provide school materials. A teacher may provide extra learning support. A relative may provide accommodation. A neighbour may help with childcare. No single person has solved everything, but together they may prevent a difficult situation from becoming a disaster. The limits of communal responsibility Shared responsibility also needs boundaries. Parents and guardians remain responsible for the care of children. Communities should not use the idea of collective responsibility to interfere unnecessarily in family life. Most importantly, children need protection from abuse regardless of who commits it. The village should be a place where children are known and protected, not a place where everyone feels entitled to control them. s25c5tetck7sy21syu94ap9rb8ffgv4 2 485807 4671952 2026-09-23T11:55:27Z KafuaJoy 3622578 Created page with "There is an important distinction between saying "a child belongs to everyone" and saying "everyone owns a child." Children are not property. The phrase is better understood as a statement of shared responsibility. When a child is hungry, unsafe, excluded from school or struggling emotionally, the problem should not automatically be seen as belonging only to the parents. This is particularly important in communities where families experience poverty, unemployment, il..." 4671952 wikitext text/x-wiki There is an important distinction between saying "a child belongs to everyone" and saying "everyone owns a child." Children are not property. The phrase is better understood as a statement of shared responsibility. When a child is hungry, unsafe, excluded from school or struggling emotionally, the problem should not automatically be seen as belonging only to the parents. This is particularly important in communities where families experience poverty, unemployment, illness, displacement or other pressures. A village can become a safety net. One family may provide food. Another may provide school materials. A teacher may provide extra learning support. A relative may provide accommodation. A neighbour may help with childcare. No single person has solved everything, but together they may prevent a difficult situation from becoming a disaster. The limits of communal responsibility Shared responsibility also needs boundaries. Parents and guardians remain responsible for the care of children. Communities should not use the idea of collective responsibility to interfere unnecessarily in family life. Most importantly, children need protection from abuse regardless of who commits it. The village should be a place where children are known and protected, not a place where everyone feels entitled to control them. s25c5tetck7sy21syu94ap9rb8ffgv4 2 485808 4671953 2026-09-23T11:56:26Z KafuaJoy 3622578 Created page with "School is important, but it is only one of the places where a child learns. A child learns while watching an adult negotiate at a market. They learn cooperation when several families work together. They learn responsibility through household chores. They learn history through stories. They learn language through conversation. They learn practical knowledge through participation. This kind of learning is often informal, but it can shape a person's understanding of..." 4671953 wikitext text/x-wiki School is important, but it is only one of the places where a child learns. A child learns while watching an adult negotiate at a market. They learn cooperation when several families work together. They learn responsibility through household chores. They learn history through stories. They learn language through conversation. They learn practical knowledge through participation. This kind of learning is often informal, but it can shape a person's understanding of work, community and identity. Learning by doing In many rural communities, children historically participated in age-appropriate household and community activities. A child might learn to collect firewood, prepare food, tend animals, cultivate crops or care for younger siblings. There is value in this practical education. However, it is also important to recognise that children's labour should not replace education or become exploitation. The goal should be to give children opportunities to develop responsibility while protecting their right to education, rest, play and safety. 28kyhy778jehm3o5t33v990tatek863