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Requests to remove others' rights should be placed here, whether due to inactivity, or abuse. Proposals for the removal of advanced permissions (included admin and bureaucrat rights) are governed by the [[WB:ADMIN]] policy. A minimum discussion of two weeks is required to remove an admin or bureaucrat for inactivity. }} = Requests for permissions = {{mbox | image = [[File:Symbol comment vote.svg|40px]] | text = '''Note:''' When adding nominations, please use the format <code>=={{tlx|usercheck|Username}} (Right requested)==</code> followed by the nomination. }} == {{usercheck|DavidCota64}} (Reviewer) == I am requesting reviewer permission because automatic promotion appears not to have occurred, although my account meets the published criteria. The account was registered in July 2025, has a confirmed email address, more than 100 edits, sufficient non-talk edits and edit summaries, edits across more than ten pages, the required temporal distribution, and current activity in Recent Changes. I have never been blocked or previously had reviewer permission removed. The permission would support the maintenance and stabilisation of the 46-page active edition of Foundations of the Ontology of Emergent Complexity, whose current revisions are largely awaiting review. [[User:DavidCota64|DavidCota64]] ([[User talk:DavidCota64|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidCota64|contribs]]) 11:21, 18 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:46, 23 September 2026 (UTC) =={{usercheck|TechVindicator}} (Autoreview)== I am requesting autoreview permissions because I believe I have largely met the criteria, and published high quality pages onto Wikibooks, that, I believe, do not require reviewing. An example is [[Wikijunior:Africa/Central African Republic]]. I have also made more than 100 edits to Wikibooks and helped with moderation, as well as welcoming new users. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:13, 23 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. However, once you automatically receive reviewer permissions, your autoreviewed user status will be removed accordingly. It will have no effect whatsoever. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:46, 23 September 2026 (UTC) =={{usercheck|TechVindicator}} (Reviewer)== I am requesting reviewer permissions because I believe it is necessary to have the rollback tool in order to revert vandalism much more quickly. I tend to revert vandalism/petty edits when they shows up, such as in this [[Special:Diff/4672915]]. I have also largely met the criteria for reviewer permissions, and with 70% (and possibly more) of reviewer accounts being inactive, I had to step up. Regards, [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 14:05, 3 October 2026 (UTC) fle3nh1qozu8vw0ujt9plxaxpqo5guf 4673877 4673875 2026-10-03T14:37:42Z Koavf 16549 /* TechVindicator (discuss · contribs · count · SUL account · logs · block log · rfp · rights) (Reviewer) */ Reply 4673877 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Requests for permissions/Archives}} {{shortcut|WB:RFP|WB:PERM}} [[Category:Wikibooks administration|{{PAGENAME}}]] All [[Wikibooks:User rights|rights]] available on Wikibooks are handled here, including [[Wikibooks:Autoreviewed users|autoreview]], [[Wikibooks:Reviewers|reviewer]], [[Wikibooks:Importers|importer]], [[Wikibooks:Import uploaders|import uploader]], [[Wikibooks:Uploaders|uploader]], [[Wikibooks:Temporary account IP viewer|temporary account IP viewer]], [[Wikibooks:Administrators|administrator]], [[Wikibooks:Interface administrators|interface administrator]], [[Wikibooks:Administrators|bureaucrat]], [[m:CheckUser|CheckUser]], [[Wikibooks:Pseudo-bots|pseudo-bot]], and [[Wikibooks:Bots|bot]] flags. A nomination must demonstrate how the project will benefit from granting the rights. ;Nominations :To nominate a user (including yourself), add their username to the appropriate section below. Please explain why you feel the nominated user would be a good choice. All registered Wikibookians may comment, and provide arguments in support or opposition. For the bot flag, technical information about the bot may be requested. See the specific requirements for each type of access on their respective pages. Please do not nominate other users unless they have already agreed to be nominated. ;Outcome :Consensus does not need to be demonstrated &mdash;though discussion is welcome&mdash; in granting autoreview, reviewer, importer, and uploader flags. Administrators may use their best judgement in granting those. Interface admin was historically part of the administrator tool set and is granted on request to administrators. All other tools require community consensus and can only be granted by bureaucrats. Access to CheckUser is governed by [[meta:CheckUser policy|CheckUser policy]]. After about one week, if there is consensus to grant access, then a [[Special:ListUsers/bureaucrat|bureaucrat]] (or steward if there are no bureaucrats) will make it so and record the fact here. If not, the bureaucrat or steward may refuse to grant the rights and the request will remain until a consensus is reached. The importer and import uploader permissions require a 5-day discussion before the right(s) can be granted. ;Note(s) :This project allows [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy#Global bots|global bots]], but otherwise does ''not'' allow automatic approval, nor does it utilize the [[:m:Bot policy|standard bot policy]]. = Removal of permissions= {{mbox | image = [[File:Symbol comment vote.svg|40px]] | text = '''Note:''' You may request removal of ''your own'' rights at [[meta:Steward requests/Permissions]]. Requests to remove others' rights should be placed here, whether due to inactivity, or abuse. Proposals for the removal of advanced permissions (included admin and bureaucrat rights) are governed by the [[WB:ADMIN]] policy. A minimum discussion of two weeks is required to remove an admin or bureaucrat for inactivity. }} = Requests for permissions = {{mbox | image = [[File:Symbol comment vote.svg|40px]] | text = '''Note:''' When adding nominations, please use the format <code>=={{tlx|usercheck|Username}} (Right requested)==</code> followed by the nomination. }} == {{usercheck|DavidCota64}} (Reviewer) == I am requesting reviewer permission because automatic promotion appears not to have occurred, although my account meets the published criteria. The account was registered in July 2025, has a confirmed email address, more than 100 edits, sufficient non-talk edits and edit summaries, edits across more than ten pages, the required temporal distribution, and current activity in Recent Changes. I have never been blocked or previously had reviewer permission removed. The permission would support the maintenance and stabilisation of the 46-page active edition of Foundations of the Ontology of Emergent Complexity, whose current revisions are largely awaiting review. [[User:DavidCota64|DavidCota64]] ([[User talk:DavidCota64|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DavidCota64|contribs]]) 11:21, 18 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:46, 23 September 2026 (UTC) =={{usercheck|TechVindicator}} (Autoreview)== I am requesting autoreview permissions because I believe I have largely met the criteria, and published high quality pages onto Wikibooks, that, I believe, do not require reviewing. An example is [[Wikijunior:Africa/Central African Republic]]. I have also made more than 100 edits to Wikibooks and helped with moderation, as well as welcoming new users. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:13, 23 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. However, once you automatically receive reviewer permissions, your autoreviewed user status will be removed accordingly. It will have no effect whatsoever. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:46, 23 September 2026 (UTC) =={{usercheck|TechVindicator}} (Reviewer)== I am requesting reviewer permissions because I believe it is necessary to have the rollback tool in order to revert vandalism much more quickly. I tend to revert vandalism/petty edits when they shows up, such as in this [[Special:Diff/4672915]]. I have also largely met the criteria for reviewer permissions, and with 70% (and possibly more) of reviewer accounts being inactive, I had to step up. Regards, [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 14:05, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} Seems reasonable and this is safe enough to try. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:37, 3 October 2026 (UTC) 9qgkeyzir56zyfsgpm1yxbfqtho5ote 1 3111 4673876 3323370 2026-10-03T14:15:31Z 8z0 3627498 /* Change title? */ new section 4673876 wikitext text/x-wiki ''(flattened this thread. Use horizontal rules ---- between threads.)'' -- [[User:R3m0t|r3m0t]] 23:56, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) I'm glad you liked HSE so much! I'm trying my best to do a good job, but as so often is the case in my first drafts, glaring spelling and grammar mistakes seem to plague my work. Lucky you pick them out for me. I do not know enough about Lisp, Prolog, Scheme (never heard of it) or Haskell to decide whether they are suitable for high school students or not. If you think a coherent course can be taught using one of those languages, then please go ahead! Create a new chapte if you have to. But I was thinking of teaching a more conventional language like Pascal. Anyway we are not just writing about programming, but mathematical programming. Haskell seems to be a good choice, but where can I find a good programming IDE/compiler for it? I simply haven't done the research. And nice to meet you. How do you do?[[User:Xiaodai|Xiaodai]] : Just being a stickybeak, but :* If you want Haskell, the Glasgow Haskell Compiler is an excellent Windows/*nix based Haskell interpreter and compiler environment. Some systems may only run the Hugs system. I'm about to go to bed so I can't give you an exact link but I'm sure you can google it :) :* Haskell is a good choice of language for pure, functional programming. It's not quite the best language for exploring mathematical concepts in since it's a strict functional programming language. You may want to concentrate on looking at programming in common Computer Algebra systems such as Maple and Mathematica (I do know both systems, but Mathematica's better) for stuff like numerical approximations and all that funky jazz. Haskell is nice for exploring recursion, but more conventional looping structures are easier taught in some other language. With teaching Mathematica (You guys should still have it at Sydney, right?) you get the best of both worlds, really. : HTH :) [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 11:59, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) :''Think free. Learn free.'' is the Wikibooks concept, but Mathematica seems to be a commercial thing. I wouldn't encourage people to use a propriety language on Wikibooks. Wikipedia: [[w:Lisp programming language]] [[w:Scheme programming language]] [[w:Haskell programming language]] [[w:Maple computer algebra system]] [[w:Mathematica]] [[w:Maxima]] [[w:Computer algebra system]] [[User:R3m0t|r3m0t]] 19:58, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) : It doesn't mean we can't teach non-free software, at all. And it's not exactly proprietary software either - it's well used. I merely mention this to Xiaodai as an option. In any case, are we to forbid the creation of a Windows guidebook here because it is non-free software? We cannot be bigoted on the forbidding of teaching ''just'' because of its origins now, can we? [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 21:43, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) : A Windows guidebook would be created for users of Windows who wish to (manipulate/configure/whatever) their installation. By teaching Mathematica in a textbook not created ''specifically'' for teaching Mathematica, that is encouraging people to use Mathematica. Lisp, Scheme, Ruby, Haskell seem different to me - it is hard to make any money out of them (plenty of compilers or interpreters are free already) so it's offering a choice of compiler, etc. [[User:R3m0t|r3m0t]] 21:55, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) : That's fine, and I understand where you're coming from. However to simply restrict our choice of teaching tool because the product is commercial is not a necessarily good thing - Lisp, Scheme, Ruby and Haskell are fine programming languages, but they are just that -- ''programming languages''. Haskell and other functional programming languages have mathematical groundings, but we aren't teaching lambda-calculus, we're teaching how to obtain numerical solutions to things. For this, Haskell and its ilk are not suited for this and an imperative language is better suited. [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 22:59, 7 Dec 2003 (UTC) ---- I think it's best not to use any commercial software, most high school students do not have access to them. The ideal choice would be something like Free Pascal, C++ or Java (something platform independent). [[User:Xiaodai|Xiaodai]] : If you want to go down that path, C's your best choice. But to ''properly'' teach ''good'' C and not just C's nuts and bolts of C you really have to get into the details. I wouldn't suggest OO languages because it's just not necessary. [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 11:47, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC) ::Agree 100%. Still think Pascal is a good choice though -- my first love. Let this be undecided until we decide to start writing it. [[User:Xiaodai|Xiaodai]] :::Pascal...not so sure on this one. I'll think of this some more, too. [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 12:24, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC) ::::We can't decide to start writing it until we decide what programming language to use! I think C is pretty complicated, with all the #includes and things before the code bulk. I prefer Scheme (simplified Lisp) because I can just type stuff in the top frame and execute it in the bottom. I could also type straight into the bottom. (I'm talking about [http://www.drscheme.org/ DrScheme], which runs on Windows 95+, Mac OS Classic or X, and Linux). [http://www.plt-scheme.org/software/mzscheme/ MzScheme], the core of DrScheme, can be run seperately. [[User:R3m0t|r3m0t]] 12:40, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC) ::::: Okay, we know you like Scheme! :) C's not too complicated, really. It can be rote-taught. If one is trying to learn C ''proper'' it can be a bit more difficult. ::::: The reason why I don't think Scheme is best here is because it's a functional programming language and is simply not best suited for performing certain tasks which this chapter will probably aim to try and tackle. ::::: If you want to teach Scheme, why not start at [[Computer programming]] and start a new chapter? [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 12:48, 8 Dec 2003 (UTC) :I have no love for teaching any programming language proper, I don't think that's the way to learn programming. We will go into the practical aspects head first. And for that reason, I want to find a language with as few boiler-plates as possible. For ''C'', we will only need #include <stdio> and <nowiki><math></nowiki> so I don't think that's a problem. As for Scheme, I haven't tried it yet(soon will). This is still a pretty much undecided matter. ::On an aside note, I have soon come to realize that someone learning C by "osmosis", so to speak, means that they will only produce inefficient, buggy, and just plain bad code. ''Garbage in, garbage out'', they say!... For reasons why this is so, I could write a short book, but anyway, that's beside the point :) :: I was thinking we could teach GNU Maxima (I think the syntax is like Maple's), but I have no experience in Maxima whatsoever, yet I do with Maple, Mathematica and C. ---- R3m0t, you should wait till we have some sort of consensus on which language we are to use ''before'' we start writing the programming section here. We work by consensus at the Wikipedia, we should do so here. [[User:Dysprosia|Dysprosia]] 02:01, 14 Dec 2003 (UTC) :I agree with Dysprosia on this one. [[User:Xiaodai|Xiaodai]] ---- == Teach C == We shall use C as the language for this chapter. [[User:Xiaodai|Xiaodai]] 05:55, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC) == Heavy editing == I will have to heavily edit the intro to programming section, because i feel it has too many things that are potentially confusing and is giving to much irrelevant information to the reader. I want a minimalist approach to this chapter, we will not be attempting to teach the user how to program properly. They can read other materials if they want to do that. We want this chapter to have a mathematical focus, rather than a computer science/computing one. [[User:Xiaodai|Xiaodai]] 06:02, 14 Jul 2004 (UTC) == Pseudocode? == It seems there has been a heated debate about which programming language to use, here's my two cents: Afterall, we're teaching the method of programming to study and explore mathematical problems, right? It's the technique, the algorithm that matters, not the programming language. Maybe we can use pseudocode here. And when later we've a majority opinion on which programming language to use specificlly, we can easily convert them back. --[[User:Lemontea|Lemontea]] 10:38, 12 August 2005 (UTC) I think I've come up with a reasonable solution to this problem. Instead of choosing any one language why not use pseudocode in the body of the text, thus providing this information in a more general context in order to demonstrate how an algorithm might be written. Then near the end of the article, or after major examples a link can be given to a page where various code snippets from a variety of languages can be submitted for users to get a more specific example of a concept in the language they are comfortable with. This seems like it would solve any disputes and create a book that is not bounded by the constraints of teaching in any one language. Tell me what you all think. --[[User:Etscrivner|Etscrivner]] 8:25, 27 November 2005 (UTC) ==The Programming Language== If this is for High School Students, either an appropriate first programming language should be used or we should follow the AP Computer Science Standards. http://apcentral.collegeboard.com/apc/public/repository/ap08_compsci_coursedesc.pdf AP Computer Science exam uses Java as their Language. That should a fine first language, but if others think that something easier should be used, than I would recommend using PHP. Or better yet, why not use PHP is relation to MediaWiki. Maybe this chapter's scope should be limited to how to setup a MediaWiki using PHP, MySQL, and Apache. For a project, pick a simple extension, it could even be one that is already written or just make one up that would be fun for a student to use. It is much easier to add onto an existing code base than to write something completely from scratch. The kids can be exposed to all of the basic programming structures, but actually accoplish something tangable at the same time. I am a Software Engineer, and C is definitely NOT a first programming language. There is no safety in C, and it is very easy to get yourself into trouble really fast. Between PHP and Java, I personally feel that PHP is easier to learn, especially when it is the foundation language for many shareware products: MediaWiki, Moodle, WordPress, etc. So my final vote for a chapter in a high school math book, as opposed to a whole textbook is PHP. [[User:Zzmonty|Zzmonty]] ([[User talk:Zzmonty|talk]]) 05:15, 1 February 2009 (UTC) ===The Case for Python=== OK, here's my 2 cents worth on this issue. We should pick a language which allows students to focus on the algorithms without getting too involved in the nuts and bolts of software engineering. C: is great for teaching people how computers actually work but is a bit too "close to the machine" to be ideal for teaching people how to use computer programs to explore mathematics. Students are likely to spend too much time on pointers, memory management and compilation/linking problems. Also the need to have separate header and source files is a distraction. Java: is great for teaching OO programming but the fact that it is so Object Oriented means that students will have to spend too long getting to grips with Objects, Classes, Inheritence, Polymorphism etc. and not enough time thinking about the algorithms. Lisp/Prolog etc: again are great for teaching predicate calculus but are difficult to use for purely functional programming. Python: has a simple and consise syntax and scripts can be run directly without the need for the compilation stage. There is no need to consider pointers, type conversions, memory management etc. Likewise there is no need to be distracted by OO concepts but OO concepts can be introduced if needed. Also the interactive python shell can be used directly as a sort of massively powerful and expressive calculator. Also Python has the NumPy and SciPy modules that enable you to easily do graphs, statistics, linear algebra and much much more! Also it is free (as in beer) and Open Source....for what its worth my vote goes for Python.([[User:Russell|Russell]] ([[User talk:Russell|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Russell|contribs]]) 10:06, 19 July 2011 (UTC)) == modulus examples == 5%2 is 1 as far as I know ....--[[User:Billymac00|Billymac00]] ([[User talk:Billymac00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Billymac00|contribs]]) 02:04, 26 September 2014 (UTC) == Change title? == "Mathematical programming" generally refers to mathematical optimization. It may be less confusing to change the title of this chapter to "Mathematical Computer Programming," or something with a similar nuance. [[User:8z0|8z0]] ([[User talk:8z0|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/8z0|contribs]]) 14:15, 3 October 2026 (UTC) oafvp16nrf8mdv3tr94gcztft9oug71 0 5897 4674044 4652843 2026-10-04T11:42:36Z Alexey Vazhnov 120729 /* Table of operators */ Use [[en:w:Wikipedia:Naming conventions (capitalization)]], see discussion "The book title capitalization" in [[Talk:C programming]] 4674044 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Table of keywords == === ANSI (American National Standards Institute) C (C89)/ISO C (C90) === Very old compilers may not recognize some or all of the C89 keywords <code>'''const'''</code>, <code>'''enum'''</code>, <code>'''signed'''</code>, <code>'''void'''</code>, <code>'''volatile'''</code>, as well as any later standards' keywords. {| | * <code>'''auto'''</code> * <code>'''break'''</code> * <code>'''case'''</code> * <code>'''char'''</code> * <code>'''const'''</code> * <code>'''continue'''</code> * <code>'''default'''</code> * <code>'''do'''</code> | * <code>'''double'''</code> * <code>'''else'''</code> * <code>'''enum'''</code> * <code>'''extern'''</code> * <code>'''float'''</code> * <code>'''for'''</code> * <code>'''goto'''</code> * <code>'''if'''</code> | * <code>'''int'''</code> * <code>'''long'''</code> * <code>'''register'''</code> * <code>'''return'''</code> * <code>'''short'''</code> * <code>'''signed'''</code> * <code>'''sizeof'''</code> * <code>'''static'''</code> | * <code>'''struct'''</code> * <code>'''switch'''</code> * <code>'''typedef'''</code> * <code>'''union'''</code> * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> * <code>'''void'''</code> * <code>'''volatile'''</code> * <code>'''while'''</code> |} === ISO C (C99) === These are supported in most new compilers. {| | * <code>'''_Bool'''</code> * <code>'''_Complex'''</code> | * <code>'''_Imaginary'''</code> * <code>'''inline'''</code> | valign="top" | * <code>'''[[w:restrict|restrict]]'''</code> |} === ISO C (C11) === These are supported only in some newer compilers {| | * <code>'''alignof'''</code> * <code>'''_Alignas'''</code> * <code>'''_Atomic'''</code> | * <code>'''_Generic'''</code> * <code>'''_Noreturn'''</code> * <code>'''_Static_assert'''</code> | valign="top" | * <code>'''_Thread_local'''</code> |} Although not technically a keyword, C99-capable preprocessors/compilers additionally recognize the special preprocessor operator <code>'''_Pragma'''</code>, which acts as an alternate form of the <code>'''#pragma'''</code> directive that can be used from within macro expansions. For example, the following code will cause some compilers (incl. GCC, Clang) to emit a diagnostic message: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #define EMIT_MESSAGE(str) EMIT_PRAGMA(message(str)) #define EMIT_PRAGMA(content) _Pragma(#content) EMIT_MESSAGE("Hello, world!") </syntaxhighlight> Some compilers use a slight variant syntax; in particular, MSVC supports <code>'''__pragma'''</code> instead of <code>'''_Pragma'''</code>. Specific compilers may also&#x2014;in a non-standards-compliant mode, or with additional syntactic markers like <code>'''__extension__'''</code>&#x2014;treat some other words as keywords, including <code>'''asm'''</code>, <code>'''cdecl'''</code>, <code>'''far'''</code>, <code>'''fortran'''</code>, <code>'''huge'''</code>, <code>'''interrupt'''</code>, <code>'''near'''</code>, <code>'''pascal'''</code>, or <code>'''typeof'''</code>. However, they typically allow these keywords to be overridden by declarations when operating in standards-compliant modes (e.g., by defining a variable named <code>'''typeof'''</code>), in order to avoid introducing incompatibilities with existing programs. In order to ensure the compiler can maintain access to extension features, these compilers usually have an additional set of proper keywords beginning with two underscores (<code>'''__'''</code>). For example, GCC treats <code>'''asm'''</code>, <code>'''__asm'''</code>, and <code>'''__asm__'''</code> somewhat identically, but the latter two are always guaranteed to have the expected meaning since they can't be overridden. Many of the newly introduced keywords&#x2014;namely, those beginning with an underscore and capital letter like <code>'''_Noreturn'''</code> or <code>'''_Imaginary'''</code>&#x2014;are intended to be used only indirectly in most situations. Instead, the programmer should prefer the use of standard headers such as <code>&lt;stdbool.h&gt;</code> or <code>&lt;stdalign.h&gt;</code>, which typically use the preprocessor to establish an all-lower-case variant of the keyword (e.g., <q><code>complex</code></q> or <q><code>noreturn</code></q>). These headers serve the purpose of enabling C and C++ code, as well as code targeting different compilers or language versions, to interoperate more cleanly. For example, by including <code>&lt;stdbool.h&gt;</code>, the tokens <q><code>bool</code></q>, <q><code>true</code></q>, and <q><code>false</code></q> can be used identically in either C99 or C++ without having to explicitly use <code>'''_Bool'''</code> in C99 or <code>'''bool'''</code> in C++. See also the list of reserved identifiers <ref>http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/comphelp/v7v91/topic/com.ibm.vacpp7a.doc/language/ref/clrc02reserved_identifiers.htm list of reserved identifiers</ref>. ==Table of operators== Operators in the same row of this table have the same '''precedence''' and the order of evaluation is decided by the '''associativity''' (''left-to-right'' or ''right-to-left''). Operators closer to the top of this table have ''higher'' precedence than those in a subsequent group. {| cellspacing=5 !Operators!!Description!!Example usage!!Associativity |- !colspan=3 align=center|Postfix operators |rowspan=5 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Left to right |- |<code>()</code>||function call operator||<code>swap (x, y)</code> |- |<code>[]</code>||array index operator||<code>arr [i]</code> |- |<code>.</code>||member access operator<br>''for an object of struct/union type<br>or a reference to it''||<code>obj.member</code> |- |<code>-></code>||member access operator<br>''for a pointer to an object of<br>struct/union type''||<code>ptr->member</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Unary operators |rowspan=11 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Right to left |- |<code>!</code>||logical not operator||<code>!eof_reached</code> |- |<code>~</code>||bitwise not operator||<code>~mask</code> |- |<code>+ -</code><ref>Very old compilers may not recognize the unary <code>+</code> operator.</ref> |unary plus/minus operators||<code>-num</code> |- |<code>++ --</code>||post-increment/decrement operators||<code>num++</code> |- |<code>++ --</code>||pre-increment/decrement operators||<code>++num</code> |- |<code>&</code>||address-of operator||<code>&data</code> |- |<code>*</code>||indirection operator||<code>*ptr</code> |- |<code>'''sizeof'''</code>||sizeof operator ''for expressions''||<code>'''sizeof''' 123</code> |- |<code>'''sizeof'''()</code>||sizeof operator ''for types''||<code>'''sizeof''' ('''int''')</code> |- |<code>(''type'')</code>||cast operator||<code>('''float''')i</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Multiplicative operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>* / %</code>||multiplication, division and<br>modulus operators||<code>celsius_diff * 9.0 / 5.0</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Additive operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>+ -</code>||addition and subtraction operators||<code>end - start + 1</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise shift operators |rowspan=3 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Left to right |- |<code><<</code>||left shift operator||<code>bits << shift_len</code> |- |<code>>></code>||right shift operator||<code>bits >> shift_len</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Relational inequality operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>< > <= >=</code>||less-than, greater-than, less-than or<br>equal-to, greater-than or equal-to<br>operators||<code>i < num_elements</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Relational equality operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>== !=</code>||equal-to, not-equal-to||<code>choice != 'n'</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise AND operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>&</code>|| ||<code>bits & clear_mask_complement</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise XOR operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>^</code>|| ||<code>bits ^ invert_mask</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise OR operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- ||<code>|</code>|| |||<code>bits | set_mask</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Logical AND operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>&&</code>|| ||<code>arr != 0 && arr->len != 0</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Logical OR operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code><nowiki>||</nowiki></code>|| ||<code><nowiki>arr == 0 || arr->len == 0</nowiki></code> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Conditional operator |rowspan=2|Right to left |- |<code>?:</code>|| ||<code>size != 0 ? size : 0</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Assignment operators |rowspan=3 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Right to left |- |<code>=</code>||assignment operator||<code>i = 0</code> |- |<code>+= -= *= /= <br><nowiki>%= &= |= ^=</nowiki> <br><nowiki><<= >>=</nowiki></code> |shorthand assignment operators<br>''(''<code>''foo'' op= ''bar''</code>'' represents<br>''<code>''foo'' = ''foo'' op ''bar''</code>'')''||<code>num /= 10</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Comma operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>,</code>|| ||<code>i = 0, j = i + 1, k = 0</code> |} ==Table of data types== {| cellspacing=20 !Type!!Size in Bits!!Comments!!Alternative Names |- !colspan=4 align=center|Primitive Types in ANSI C (C89)/ISO C (C90) |- |<code>'''char'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 8 | * <code>'''sizeof'''</code> gives the size in units of <code>'''char'''</code>s. These "C bytes" need not be 8-bit bytes (though commonly they are); the number of bits is given by the <code>CHAR_BIT</code> macro in the <code>limits.h</code> header. * Signedness is implementation-defined. * Any encoding of 8 bits or less (e.g. ASCII) can be used to store characters. * Integer operations can be performed portably only for the range 0 ~ 127. * All bits contribute to the value of the '''char''', i.e. there are no "holes" or "padding" bits. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''signed''' '''char'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''char'''</code> | * Characters stored like for type <code>'''char'''</code>. * Can store integers in the range -127 ~ 127 portably<ref>-128 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence). Very old compilers may not recognize the <code>'''signed'''</code> keyword</ref>. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''char'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''char'''</code> | * Characters stored like for type <code>'''char'''</code>. * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 255 portably. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''short'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 16, &ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range -32767 ~ 32767 portably<ref name="ref_1">-32768 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence). Very old compilers may not recognize the <code>'''signed'''</code> keyword</ref>. * Used to reduce memory usage (although the resulting executable may be larger and probably slower as compared to using <code>'''int'''</code>. |align=center|<code>'''short''' '''int'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''short'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''short''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''short'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''short'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 65535 portably. * Used to reduce memory usage (although the resulting executable may be larger and probably slower as compared to using <code>'''int'''</code>. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned''' '''short''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''int'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 16, &ge; size of <code>'''short'''</code> | * Represents the "normal" size of data the processor deals with (the word-size); this is the integral data-type used normally. * Can store integers in the range -32767 ~ 32767 portably<ref name="ref_1" />. |align=center|<code>'''signed'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''int'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''int'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 65535 portably. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned'''</code> |- |<code>'''long'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 32, &ge; size of <code>'''int'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range -2147483647 ~ 2147483647 portably<ref>-2147483648 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence). Very old compilers may not recognize the <code>'''signed'''</code> keyword</ref>. |align=center|<code>'''long''' '''int'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''long'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''long'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 4294967295 portably. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''float'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * Used to reduce memory usage when the values used do not vary widely. * The floating-point format used is implementation defined and need not be the IEEE single-precision format. * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> cannot be specified. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''double'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''float'''</code> | * Represents the "normal" size of data the processor deals with; this is the floating-point data-type used normally. * The floating-point format used is implementation defined and need not be the IEEE double-precision format. * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> cannot be specified. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''long''' '''double'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''double'''</code> | * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> cannot be specified. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<br> |- !colspan=4 align=center|Primitive Types added to ISO C (C99) |- |<code>'''long''' '''long'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 64, &ge; size of <code>'''long'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range -9223372036854775807 ~ 9223372036854775807 portably<ref>-9223372036854775808 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence)</ref>. |align=center|<code>'''long''' '''long''' '''int'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long''' '''long'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''long''' '''long'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''long''' '''long'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 18446744073709551615 portably. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned''' '''long''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''intmax_t'''</code>||align=center| the maximum width supported by the platform | * Can store integers in the range -(1 << n-1)+1 ~ (1 << n-1)-1, with 'n' the width of intmax_t. * Used by the "j" length modifier in the [[C programming/File IO#Formatted output functions: the printf family of functions]]. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''uintmax_t'''</code>||align=center| same as <code>'''intmax_t'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ (1 << n)-1, with 'n' the width of uintmax_t. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<br> |- !colspan=4 align=center|User Defined Types |- |<code>'''struct'''</code>||align=center|&ge; sum of size of each member | * Said to be an ''aggregate type''. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''union'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of the largest member | * Said to be an ''aggregate type''. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''enum'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * Enumerations are a separate type from <code>'''int'''</code>s, though they are mutually convertible. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''typedef'''</code>||align=center|same as the type being given a name | * <code>'''typedef'''</code> has syntax similar to a storage class like <code>'''static'''</code>, <code>'''register'''</code> or <code>'''extern'''</code>. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<br> |- !colspan=4 align=center|Derived Types<ref>The precedences in a declaration are: {| |- || <code>[]</code>, <code>()</code> (left associative) &mdash; Highest |- || <code>*</code> (right associative) &mdash; Lowest |} </ref> |- |<code>''type''*</code><br><br>(pointer)||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * <code>0</code> always represents the null pointer (an address where no data can be placed), irrespective of what bit sequence represents the value of a null pointer. * Pointers to different types may have different representations, which means they could also be of different sizes. So they are not convertible to one another. * Even in an implementation which guarantess all data pointers to be of the same size, function pointers and data pointers are in general incompatible with each other. * For functions taking variable number of arguments, the arguments passed must be of appropriate type, so even <code>0</code> must be cast to the appropriate type in such function-calls. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>''type'' [''integer''<ref>The standards do NOT place any restriction on the size/type of the integer, it's implementation dependent. The only mention in the standards is a reference that an implementation may have limits to the maximum size of memory block which can be allocated, and as such the limit on integer will be size_of_max_block/sizeof(type)</ref>]</code><br><br>(array)||align=center|&ge; ''integer'' &times; size of <code>''type''</code> | * The brackets (<code>[]</code>) ''follow'' the identifier name in a declaration. * In a declaration which also initializes the array (including a function parameter declaration), the size of the array (the ''integer'') can be omitted. * <code>''type'' []</code> is not the same as <code>''type''*</code>. Only under some circumstances one can be converted to the other. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>''type'' (''comma-delimited list of types/declarations'')</code><br><br>(function)||align=center|&mdash; | * Functions declared without any storage class are <code>'''extern'''</code>. * The parentheses (<code>()</code>) ''follow'' the identifier name in a declaration, e.g. a 2-arg function pointer: <code>'''int''' (* fptr) ('''int''' arg1, '''int''' arg2)</code>. |align=center|&mdash; |} == Character sets == Programs written in C can read and write any character set, provided the libraries that support them are included/used. The source code for C programs, however, is usually limited to the ASCII character set. In a file containing source code, the end of a line is sometimes, depending on the operating system it was created on not a newline character but compilers treat the end of each line as if it were a single newline character. Virtually all compilers allow the '''$''', '''@''', and '''`''' characters in string constants. Many compilers also allow literal multibyte Unicode characters, but they are not portable. Certain characters must be escaped with a backslash to represent themselves in a string or character constant. These are: {| | * <code>'''\\'''</code> Literal backslash * <code>'''\"'''</code> Literal double quote * <code>'''\''''</code> Literal single quote | * <code>'''\n'''</code> Newline * <code>'''\t'''</code> Horizontal tab * <code>'''\f'''</code> Form feed | * <code>'''\v'''</code> Vertical tab |} Additionally, some compilers allow these characters: * <code>'''\r'''</code> Carriage return * <code>'''\a'''</code> Alert (audible bell) * <code>'''\b'''</code> Backspace '''\xhh''', where the 'h' characters are hexadecimal digits, is used to represent arbitrary bytes (including '''\x00''', the zero byte). '''\uhhhh''' or '''\Uhhhhhhhh''', where the 'h' characters are hexadecimal digits, is used to portably represent Unicode characters. == References == {{reflist}} {{Nav}} [[et:Programmeerimiskeel C/Operaatorid]] [[fr:Programmation C/Types de base]] [[pl:C/Składnia]] dgrpkalawoeknzpnpntxv0nfu3akyes 4674045 4674044 2026-10-04T11:45:28Z Alexey Vazhnov 120729 /* Table of data types */ Use [[en:w:Wikipedia:Naming conventions (capitalization)]], see discussion "The book title capitalization" in [[Talk:C programming]] 4674045 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Table of keywords == === ANSI (American National Standards Institute) C (C89)/ISO C (C90) === Very old compilers may not recognize some or all of the C89 keywords <code>'''const'''</code>, <code>'''enum'''</code>, <code>'''signed'''</code>, <code>'''void'''</code>, <code>'''volatile'''</code>, as well as any later standards' keywords. {| | * <code>'''auto'''</code> * <code>'''break'''</code> * <code>'''case'''</code> * <code>'''char'''</code> * <code>'''const'''</code> * <code>'''continue'''</code> * <code>'''default'''</code> * <code>'''do'''</code> | * <code>'''double'''</code> * <code>'''else'''</code> * <code>'''enum'''</code> * <code>'''extern'''</code> * <code>'''float'''</code> * <code>'''for'''</code> * <code>'''goto'''</code> * <code>'''if'''</code> | * <code>'''int'''</code> * <code>'''long'''</code> * <code>'''register'''</code> * <code>'''return'''</code> * <code>'''short'''</code> * <code>'''signed'''</code> * <code>'''sizeof'''</code> * <code>'''static'''</code> | * <code>'''struct'''</code> * <code>'''switch'''</code> * <code>'''typedef'''</code> * <code>'''union'''</code> * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> * <code>'''void'''</code> * <code>'''volatile'''</code> * <code>'''while'''</code> |} === ISO C (C99) === These are supported in most new compilers. {| | * <code>'''_Bool'''</code> * <code>'''_Complex'''</code> | * <code>'''_Imaginary'''</code> * <code>'''inline'''</code> | valign="top" | * <code>'''[[w:restrict|restrict]]'''</code> |} === ISO C (C11) === These are supported only in some newer compilers {| | * <code>'''alignof'''</code> * <code>'''_Alignas'''</code> * <code>'''_Atomic'''</code> | * <code>'''_Generic'''</code> * <code>'''_Noreturn'''</code> * <code>'''_Static_assert'''</code> | valign="top" | * <code>'''_Thread_local'''</code> |} Although not technically a keyword, C99-capable preprocessors/compilers additionally recognize the special preprocessor operator <code>'''_Pragma'''</code>, which acts as an alternate form of the <code>'''#pragma'''</code> directive that can be used from within macro expansions. For example, the following code will cause some compilers (incl. GCC, Clang) to emit a diagnostic message: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #define EMIT_MESSAGE(str) EMIT_PRAGMA(message(str)) #define EMIT_PRAGMA(content) _Pragma(#content) EMIT_MESSAGE("Hello, world!") </syntaxhighlight> Some compilers use a slight variant syntax; in particular, MSVC supports <code>'''__pragma'''</code> instead of <code>'''_Pragma'''</code>. Specific compilers may also&#x2014;in a non-standards-compliant mode, or with additional syntactic markers like <code>'''__extension__'''</code>&#x2014;treat some other words as keywords, including <code>'''asm'''</code>, <code>'''cdecl'''</code>, <code>'''far'''</code>, <code>'''fortran'''</code>, <code>'''huge'''</code>, <code>'''interrupt'''</code>, <code>'''near'''</code>, <code>'''pascal'''</code>, or <code>'''typeof'''</code>. However, they typically allow these keywords to be overridden by declarations when operating in standards-compliant modes (e.g., by defining a variable named <code>'''typeof'''</code>), in order to avoid introducing incompatibilities with existing programs. In order to ensure the compiler can maintain access to extension features, these compilers usually have an additional set of proper keywords beginning with two underscores (<code>'''__'''</code>). For example, GCC treats <code>'''asm'''</code>, <code>'''__asm'''</code>, and <code>'''__asm__'''</code> somewhat identically, but the latter two are always guaranteed to have the expected meaning since they can't be overridden. Many of the newly introduced keywords&#x2014;namely, those beginning with an underscore and capital letter like <code>'''_Noreturn'''</code> or <code>'''_Imaginary'''</code>&#x2014;are intended to be used only indirectly in most situations. Instead, the programmer should prefer the use of standard headers such as <code>&lt;stdbool.h&gt;</code> or <code>&lt;stdalign.h&gt;</code>, which typically use the preprocessor to establish an all-lower-case variant of the keyword (e.g., <q><code>complex</code></q> or <q><code>noreturn</code></q>). These headers serve the purpose of enabling C and C++ code, as well as code targeting different compilers or language versions, to interoperate more cleanly. For example, by including <code>&lt;stdbool.h&gt;</code>, the tokens <q><code>bool</code></q>, <q><code>true</code></q>, and <q><code>false</code></q> can be used identically in either C99 or C++ without having to explicitly use <code>'''_Bool'''</code> in C99 or <code>'''bool'''</code> in C++. See also the list of reserved identifiers <ref>http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/comphelp/v7v91/topic/com.ibm.vacpp7a.doc/language/ref/clrc02reserved_identifiers.htm list of reserved identifiers</ref>. ==Table of operators== Operators in the same row of this table have the same '''precedence''' and the order of evaluation is decided by the '''associativity''' (''left-to-right'' or ''right-to-left''). Operators closer to the top of this table have ''higher'' precedence than those in a subsequent group. {| cellspacing=5 !Operators!!Description!!Example usage!!Associativity |- !colspan=3 align=center|Postfix operators |rowspan=5 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Left to right |- |<code>()</code>||function call operator||<code>swap (x, y)</code> |- |<code>[]</code>||array index operator||<code>arr [i]</code> |- |<code>.</code>||member access operator<br>''for an object of struct/union type<br>or a reference to it''||<code>obj.member</code> |- |<code>-></code>||member access operator<br>''for a pointer to an object of<br>struct/union type''||<code>ptr->member</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Unary operators |rowspan=11 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Right to left |- |<code>!</code>||logical not operator||<code>!eof_reached</code> |- |<code>~</code>||bitwise not operator||<code>~mask</code> |- |<code>+ -</code><ref>Very old compilers may not recognize the unary <code>+</code> operator.</ref> |unary plus/minus operators||<code>-num</code> |- |<code>++ --</code>||post-increment/decrement operators||<code>num++</code> |- |<code>++ --</code>||pre-increment/decrement operators||<code>++num</code> |- |<code>&</code>||address-of operator||<code>&data</code> |- |<code>*</code>||indirection operator||<code>*ptr</code> |- |<code>'''sizeof'''</code>||sizeof operator ''for expressions''||<code>'''sizeof''' 123</code> |- |<code>'''sizeof'''()</code>||sizeof operator ''for types''||<code>'''sizeof''' ('''int''')</code> |- |<code>(''type'')</code>||cast operator||<code>('''float''')i</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Multiplicative operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>* / %</code>||multiplication, division and<br>modulus operators||<code>celsius_diff * 9.0 / 5.0</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Additive operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>+ -</code>||addition and subtraction operators||<code>end - start + 1</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise shift operators |rowspan=3 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Left to right |- |<code><<</code>||left shift operator||<code>bits << shift_len</code> |- |<code>>></code>||right shift operator||<code>bits >> shift_len</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Relational inequality operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>< > <= >=</code>||less-than, greater-than, less-than or<br>equal-to, greater-than or equal-to<br>operators||<code>i < num_elements</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Relational equality operators |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>== !=</code>||equal-to, not-equal-to||<code>choice != 'n'</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise AND operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>&</code>|| ||<code>bits & clear_mask_complement</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise XOR operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>^</code>|| ||<code>bits ^ invert_mask</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Bitwise OR operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- ||<code>|</code>|| |||<code>bits | set_mask</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Logical AND operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>&&</code>|| ||<code>arr != 0 && arr->len != 0</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Logical OR operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code><nowiki>||</nowiki></code>|| ||<code><nowiki>arr == 0 || arr->len == 0</nowiki></code> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Conditional operator |rowspan=2|Right to left |- |<code>?:</code>|| ||<code>size != 0 ? size : 0</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Assignment operators |rowspan=3 style="border-left:1px solid gray"|Right to left |- |<code>=</code>||assignment operator||<code>i = 0</code> |- |<code>+= -= *= /= <br><nowiki>%= &= |= ^=</nowiki> <br><nowiki><<= >>=</nowiki></code> |shorthand assignment operators<br>''(''<code>''foo'' op= ''bar''</code>'' represents<br>''<code>''foo'' = ''foo'' op ''bar''</code>'')''||<code>num /= 10</code> |- |<br> |- !colspan=3 align=center|Comma operator |rowspan=2|Left to right |- |<code>,</code>|| ||<code>i = 0, j = i + 1, k = 0</code> |} ==Table of data types== {| cellspacing=20 !Type!!Size in bits!!Comments!!Alternative names |- !colspan=4 align=center|Primitive types in ANSI C (C89)/ISO C (C90) |- |<code>'''char'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 8 | * <code>'''sizeof'''</code> gives the size in units of <code>'''char'''</code>s. These "C bytes" need not be 8-bit bytes (though commonly they are); the number of bits is given by the <code>CHAR_BIT</code> macro in the <code>limits.h</code> header. * Signedness is implementation-defined. * Any encoding of 8 bits or less (e.g. ASCII) can be used to store characters. * Integer operations can be performed portably only for the range 0 ~ 127. * All bits contribute to the value of the '''char''', i.e. there are no "holes" or "padding" bits. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''signed''' '''char'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''char'''</code> | * Characters stored like for type <code>'''char'''</code>. * Can store integers in the range -127 ~ 127 portably<ref>-128 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence). Very old compilers may not recognize the <code>'''signed'''</code> keyword</ref>. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''char'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''char'''</code> | * Characters stored like for type <code>'''char'''</code>. * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 255 portably. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''short'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 16, &ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range -32767 ~ 32767 portably<ref name="ref_1">-32768 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence). Very old compilers may not recognize the <code>'''signed'''</code> keyword</ref>. * Used to reduce memory usage (although the resulting executable may be larger and probably slower as compared to using <code>'''int'''</code>. |align=center|<code>'''short''' '''int'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''short'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''short''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''short'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''short'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 65535 portably. * Used to reduce memory usage (although the resulting executable may be larger and probably slower as compared to using <code>'''int'''</code>. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned''' '''short''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''int'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 16, &ge; size of <code>'''short'''</code> | * Represents the "normal" size of data the processor deals with (the word-size); this is the integral data-type used normally. * Can store integers in the range -32767 ~ 32767 portably<ref name="ref_1" />. |align=center|<code>'''signed'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''int'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''int'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 65535 portably. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned'''</code> |- |<code>'''long'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 32, &ge; size of <code>'''int'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range -2147483647 ~ 2147483647 portably<ref>-2147483648 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence). Very old compilers may not recognize the <code>'''signed'''</code> keyword</ref>. |align=center|<code>'''long''' '''int'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''long'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''long'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 4294967295 portably. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''float'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * Used to reduce memory usage when the values used do not vary widely. * The floating-point format used is implementation defined and need not be the IEEE single-precision format. * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> cannot be specified. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''double'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''float'''</code> | * Represents the "normal" size of data the processor deals with; this is the floating-point data-type used normally. * The floating-point format used is implementation defined and need not be the IEEE double-precision format. * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> cannot be specified. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''long''' '''double'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''double'''</code> | * <code>'''unsigned'''</code> cannot be specified. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<br> |- !colspan=4 align=center|Primitive types added to ISO C (C99) |- |<code>'''long''' '''long'''</code>||align=center|&ge; 64, &ge; size of <code>'''long'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range -9223372036854775807 ~ 9223372036854775807 portably<ref>-9223372036854775808 can be stored in two's-complement machines (i.e. most machines in existence)</ref>. |align=center|<code>'''long''' '''long''' '''int'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long''' '''long'''</code>, <code>'''signed''' '''long''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''unsigned''' '''long''' '''long'''</code>||align=center|same as <code>'''long''' '''long'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ 18446744073709551615 portably. |align=center|<code>'''unsigned''' '''long''' '''long''' '''int'''</code> |- |<code>'''intmax_t'''</code>||align=center| the maximum width supported by the platform | * Can store integers in the range -(1 << n-1)+1 ~ (1 << n-1)-1, with 'n' the width of intmax_t. * Used by the "j" length modifier in the [[C programming/File IO#Formatted output functions: the printf family of functions]]. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''uintmax_t'''</code>||align=center| same as <code>'''intmax_t'''</code> | * Can store integers in the range 0 ~ (1 << n)-1, with 'n' the width of uintmax_t. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<br> |- !colspan=4 align=center|User defined types |- |<code>'''struct'''</code>||align=center|&ge; sum of size of each member | * Said to be an ''aggregate type''. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''union'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of the largest member | * Said to be an ''aggregate type''. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''enum'''</code>||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * Enumerations are a separate type from <code>'''int'''</code>s, though they are mutually convertible. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>'''typedef'''</code>||align=center|same as the type being given a name | * <code>'''typedef'''</code> has syntax similar to a storage class like <code>'''static'''</code>, <code>'''register'''</code> or <code>'''extern'''</code>. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<br> |- !colspan=4 align=center|Derived types<ref>The precedences in a declaration are: {| |- || <code>[]</code>, <code>()</code> (left associative) &mdash; Highest |- || <code>*</code> (right associative) &mdash; Lowest |} </ref> |- |<code>''type''*</code><br><br>(pointer)||align=center|&ge; size of <code>'''char'''</code> | * <code>0</code> always represents the null pointer (an address where no data can be placed), irrespective of what bit sequence represents the value of a null pointer. * Pointers to different types may have different representations, which means they could also be of different sizes. So they are not convertible to one another. * Even in an implementation which guarantees all data pointers to be of the same size, function pointers and data pointers are in general incompatible with each other. * For functions taking variable number of arguments, the arguments passed must be of appropriate type, so even <code>0</code> must be cast to the appropriate type in such function-calls. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>''type'' [''integer''<ref>The standards do NOT place any restriction on the size/type of the integer, it's implementation dependent. The only mention in the standards is a reference that an implementation may have limits to the maximum size of memory block which can be allocated, and as such the limit on integer will be size_of_max_block/sizeof(type)</ref>]</code><br><br>(array)||align=center|&ge; ''integer'' &times; size of <code>''type''</code> | * The brackets (<code>[]</code>) ''follow'' the identifier name in a declaration. * In a declaration which also initializes the array (including a function parameter declaration), the size of the array (the ''integer'') can be omitted. * <code>''type'' []</code> is not the same as <code>''type''*</code>. Only under some circumstances one can be converted to the other. |align=center|&mdash; |- |<code>''type'' (''comma-delimited list of types/declarations'')</code><br><br>(function)||align=center|&mdash; | * Functions declared without any storage class are <code>'''extern'''</code>. * The parentheses (<code>()</code>) ''follow'' the identifier name in a declaration, e.g. a 2-arg function pointer: <code>'''int''' (* fptr) ('''int''' arg1, '''int''' arg2)</code>. |align=center|&mdash; |} == Character sets == Programs written in C can read and write any character set, provided the libraries that support them are included/used. The source code for C programs, however, is usually limited to the ASCII character set. In a file containing source code, the end of a line is sometimes, depending on the operating system it was created on not a newline character but compilers treat the end of each line as if it were a single newline character. Virtually all compilers allow the '''$''', '''@''', and '''`''' characters in string constants. Many compilers also allow literal multibyte Unicode characters, but they are not portable. Certain characters must be escaped with a backslash to represent themselves in a string or character constant. These are: {| | * <code>'''\\'''</code> Literal backslash * <code>'''\"'''</code> Literal double quote * <code>'''\''''</code> Literal single quote | * <code>'''\n'''</code> Newline * <code>'''\t'''</code> Horizontal tab * <code>'''\f'''</code> Form feed | * <code>'''\v'''</code> Vertical tab |} Additionally, some compilers allow these characters: * <code>'''\r'''</code> Carriage return * <code>'''\a'''</code> Alert (audible bell) * <code>'''\b'''</code> Backspace '''\xhh''', where the 'h' characters are hexadecimal digits, is used to represent arbitrary bytes (including '''\x00''', the zero byte). '''\uhhhh''' or '''\Uhhhhhhhh''', where the 'h' characters are hexadecimal digits, is used to portably represent Unicode characters. == References == {{reflist}} {{Nav}} [[et:Programmeerimiskeel C/Operaatorid]] [[fr:Programmation C/Types de base]] [[pl:C/Składnia]] ggkk2t311cvid7v30gqqrh9o1ay4oak 102 9273 4673969 4624036 2026-10-04T05:25:21Z TunnelESON 10882 cat 4673969 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Cooknav}}[[File:Sushi platter.jpg|thumb|Sushi]] In Japanese cuisine, '''sushi''' (寿司, 鮨, 鮓) is vinegar-seasoned rice, usually topped with a variety of ingredients including seafood (cooked or uncooked) and vegetables. Outside of Japan, sushi is sometimes misunderstood to mean the raw fish by itself, or even any fresh raw-seafood dishes. In Japan, sliced raw fish alone is called sashimi and is distinct from sushi, as sashimi is the raw fish component, not the rice component. The word sushi itself comes from an outdated grammatical form of a word that is no longer used in other contexts; literally, sushi means "it's sour." Much care is put into the creation of the dish and the many methods of preparing the food indicate the importance of appearance to the educated consumer. ==History== Beginning as a method of [[Cookbook:Pickling|pickling]] [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] centuries ago, '''sushi''' has evolved into an artful, unique dining experience. In its earliest form, fish was placed between two wads of [[Cookbook:Rice|rice]], producing a moderately complex chemical reaction as the fish fermented, helping to preserve it. Sometime between the 14th and 16th centuries, rice vinegar started to be added to the rice to help speed up the process which took several months. Around this time the rice also started to be consumed with the fish it was used to preserve. ''[[Cookbook:Nori|Nori]]'' (red algae [[Cookbook:Seaweed|seaweed]] paper) was added about this period as a way to keep one's fingers from getting sticky, thus creating the first ancestor of modern 'makizushi', or rolled sushi. Sometime in the mid to late 18th century, a restaurant in Edo (modern Tokyo) started serving sushi rice alone with thinly sliced fresh fish pressed into it. This was the start of Edo-Mae sushi, which is also known as 'nigirizushi', or pressed sushi. Sometime after this, a chef took this one step further and eliminated the sushi rice all together, resulting in sashimi. It is important to note that sashimi specifically refers to thinly sliced raw or mostly raw fish and shellfish. It is hard to tell when exactly the wasabi and pickled ginger were added, but it is probable they came in with the Edo-Mae sushi, as this was when the focus of sushi became enjoying the taste of the exceedingly fresh fish, and the condiments heighten the experience. == Composition and Preparation == Sushi, in its simplest forms, is made by first cooking rice, seasoning it with vinegar, and molding it to shape with added toppings or fillings. Like Western hors d'oeuvres, sushi should be served in a manner that will allow eating by hand, usually in a bite or two. As such, sushi will be shaped or cut to the appropriate size before serving—while sushi may sometimes be prepared as an entire wrap or roll, these must be sliced into smaller pieces before consumption. Sushi is usually served cool with soy sauce, sliced ginger, and [[Cookbook:Wasabi|wasabi]]. === Common toppings and fillings === The possibilities for sushi toppings and fillings are nearly endless, but common ones include: * Raw fish (e.g. [[Cookbook:Salmon|salmon]], [[Cookbook:Tuna|tuna]], cuttlefish, hamachi [[Cookbook:Yellowtail|yellowtail]]) * Cooked [[Cookbook:Eel|eel]] * Cooked [[Cookbook:Shrimp|shrimp]]/[[Cookbook:Prawn|prawn]] * Fish and sea urchin roe * Cooked [[Cookbook:Egg|egg]] * Cooked [[Cookbook:Chicken|chicken]] * [[Cookbook:Cucumber|Cucumber]] * [[Cookbook:Green Onion|Scallion]] * [[Cookbook:Avocado|Avocado]] * [[Cookbook:Carrot|Carrot]] === Condiments === Sushi is often accompanied by various condiments, including: * [[Cookbook:Wasabi|Wasabi]] or green-dyed [[Cookbook:Horseradish|horseradish]] * Gari ([[Cookbook:Pickling|pickled]] [[Cookbook:Ginger|ginger]]) * [[Cookbook:Soy Sauce|Soy sauce]] * Kabayaki sauce ([[Cookbook:eel_sauce|eel sauce]] often served on some sushi that may be used for dipping instead of soy sauce) ==Types of Sushi== ===Makizushi=== [[Cookbook:Makizushi (Maki Roll)|''Makizushi'']] ("rolled sushi"), or maki for short, is the kind most common to North American consumers (see California Rolls). It consists of sushi fillings layered on top of nori and sushi rice, rolled into a tube, and cut into thick slices. Easy to make and even easier to mass produce, it has found a wide proliferation as a new form of fast food, but it is still found in traditional Japanese restaurants. ===Temakizushi=== ''Temakizushi'' is a variety of rolled sushi. It usually consists of sushi fillings, rice, and nori wrapped into a small cone. It is even found in convenience stores in Japan. ===Saikuzushi=== ''Saikuzushi'' is a type of rolled sushi, where the rice is colored and rolled with ingredients such that it will produce a design or image when sliced. It is quite difficult to make this, and also quite expensive when bought. ===Nigirizushi=== [[Cookbook:Nigiri Sushi|''Nigirizushi'']] ("hand-formed sushi"), or nigiri for short, consists of a small, hand-formed small bed of sushi rice topped with common sushi ingredients. Gunkanmaki ("battleship roll" or "boat sushi") is a ''nigirizushi'' where an oval piece of sushi rice is wrapped with nori and topped. ===Temarizushi=== ''Temarizushi'' ("ball sushi") is like nigirizushi, but shaped like a ball. The process for making it is less technically rigorous, making it a popular variety for homemade sushi. ===Oshizushi=== ''Oshizushi'' ("pressed sushi") is similar to ''nigirizushi'', but it is formed by pressing with the aid of a wooden mold (''oshibako''). Generally, the topping is placed in the ''oshibako'' first, followed by the rice is added on top. The combination is then pressed together with the ''oshibako'' top or lid. After pressing, the sushi is removed and cut into serving sizes. ===Inarizushi=== [[Cookbook:Inarizushi|''Inarizushi'']] ("stuffed sushi") is generally a pocket or pouch containing the rice and other ingredients. Materials used to make the pocket include tofu, bean curd, egg, and cabbage leaves. ===Chirashizushi=== ''Chirashizushi'', sometimes referred to as a sushi bowl, consists of sushi rice topped with various sushi ingredients. Chirashizushi has two main regional types: the Tokyo and Osaka versions. ===Sashimi=== Sashimi is sliced raw seafood (usually fish) without any rice. It is artistic, with thin slices of fish and shellfish formed into a range of different shapes. Because it does not contain rice, sashimi is not technically sushi—however, it tends to be grouped with it due to the overlap in ingredients. <gallery mode="packed" caption="Sushi Varieties"> File:Assorted Nigiri -1 (9865149266).jpg|Nigiri (''nigirizushi'') File:Sushi Nemuro Hanamaru Tokei Dai (184517515).jpeg|''Gunkanmaki'' File:Tuna avocado sushi maki roll (3185430313).jpg|Tuna avocado maki roll (''makizushi'') File:Inarizushi by stu spivack.jpg|Inarizushi File:Chirashi 02.jpg|Chirashi (''chirashizushi'') File:Temaki-zushi.jpg|Temaki roll (''temakizushi'') containing fish roe File:焼き鯖寿司.jpg|''Oshizushi'' File:Assorted sashimi.jpg|Assorted sashimi </gallery> == Eating Sushi == === Condiments === Sushi can be eaten as served by the cook or accompanied by soy sauce and/or wasabi. In Japan, sushi chefs will apply a small amount of wasabi to the appropriate types of sushi during preparation. For example, sushi that features its own unique sauce will be prepared sans wasabi so as not to compromise the flavor. Western sushi chefs may do this, but some may not apply wasabi to any sushi. === Utensils === As a general rule, it is always appropriate to eat sushi by hand, unless doing so would be exceedingly messy or would cause the sushi to fall apart—in these cases, chopsticks are appropriate. === Eating order === A meal may often begin with simple miso soup. Many people start with a mild sushi, such as tamago (a sweet, cold omelette on rice), and end with a stronger taste at the end of the meal, like a darker fish. Between different items it is recommended that a piece of pickled ginger be eaten to cleanse the palate and ensure that none of the subtle flavours of the sushi is missed. Hot, fresh, green tea is an excellent beverage to drink with your meal, as is beer or plain water. While sake can be consumed with sushi, because it is made from rice it is considered to be too much rice in one meal. ==Recipes== {{div col|3}} <categorytree mode="all"; hideprefix="always"; hideroot="on">Sushi recipes</categorytree> {{div col end}} {{wikipedia|Sushi}} [[Category:Cookbook]] [[ru:Рецепт:Суши]] 7gsst6xd42cv87t5do84gmbl4oqp002 0 31445 4674048 4655458 2026-10-04T11:47:26Z Alexey Vazhnov 120729 /* Reference tables */ + [[/Language reference/#Character sets|Character sets]]; use [[en:w:Wikipedia:Naming conventions (capitalization)]], see discussion "The book title capitalization" in [[Talk:C programming]] 4674048 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Featured book}} <div style="text-align: center;"> ''Wikibooks Contributors Present:'' [[Image:C1stEdition.svg|100px]] <big><big><big>'''C programming'''</big></big></big> <div style="text-align: center;">''A comprehensive look at the C programming language and its features.''</div> </div> __NOTOC__ ==Table of contents == <noinclude>{{Book Search}} {{reading level|intermediate}} {{PDF version}} <!--{{Collection}}--> {{Print version}} {{E-Book Reader PDF version|C_Programming_eBook_Reader.pdf}} </noinclude> === Introduction === :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Why learn C?/|Why learn C?]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/History/|History]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/What you need before you can learn/|What you need before you can learn]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Obtaining a compiler/|Obtaining a compiler]] === Beginning C === :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Intro exercise/|Intro exercise]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Preliminaries/|Preliminaries]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Basics of compilation/|Basics of compilation]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Simple output/|Simple output]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Variables/|Variables]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Simple input/|Simple input]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Operators and type casting/|Operators and type casting]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/Arrays and strings/|Arrays and strings]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/Program flow control/|Program flow control]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Procedures and functions/|Procedures and functions]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Headers and libraries/|Headers and libraries]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/Beginning exercises/|Beginning exercises]] === Intermediate C === :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Advanced data types|Advanced data types]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Pointers and arrays/|Pointers and arrays]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/Side effects and sequence points/|Side effects and sequence points]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Memory management/|Memory management]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Error handling/|Error handling]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/Stream IO/|Stream I/O]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/String manipulation/|String manipulation]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/Further math/|Further math]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Standard libraries/|Standard libraries]] === Advanced C === :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Common practices/|Common practices]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Preprocessor directives and macros/|Preprocessor directives and macros]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Networking in UNIX/|Networking in UNIX]] :{{stage short|100%}} [[/X macros and serialization/|X macros and serialization]] :{{stage short|25%}} [[/Coroutines/|Coroutines]] === C and beyond === :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Particularities of C/|Particularities of C]] :{{stage short|50%}} [[/Low-level IO/|Low-level I/O]] :{{stage short|25%}} [[/Mixing languages/|Mixing languages]] :{{stage short|75%}} [[/GObject/|GObject]] === Reference tables === This section has some tables and lists of C entities. : {{stage short|25%}} [[/Standard library reference/|Standard library reference]] : {{stage short|100%}} [[/Statements/|Statements]] : {{stage short|25%}} [[/Preprocessor reference/|Preprocessor reference]] : {{stage short|75%}} [[/Language reference/|Language reference]] ::* [[/Language reference/#Table of keywords|Table of keywords]] ::* [[/Language reference/#Table of operators|Table of operators]] ::* [[/Language reference/#Table of data types|Table of data types]] ::* [[/Language reference/#Character sets|Character sets]] ==== Platform reference ==== : {{stage short|25%}} [[/POSIX reference/|POSIX]] : {{stage short|25%}} [[/GNU C library reference/|GNU C library]] : {{stage short|25%}} [[/MS Windows reference/|MS Windows]] ===Appendices=== : {{stage short|100%}} [[/Alternative tokens/|Alternative tokens]] : {{stage short|25%}} [[/C compilers reference list/|C compilers reference list]] : {{stage short|100%}} [[/Code style/|Code style]] : {{stage short|25%}} [[/Exercise solutions/|Exercise solutions]] : {{stage short|75%}} [[/Index/|Index]] : {{stage short|50%}} [[/Links/|Links]]<noinclude> ==Related Wikibooks== * [[A Little C Primer]] * [[Data Structures]] * [[GCC Debugging]] * [[GNU C Compiler Internals]] </noinclude>{{Shelves|C programming language}}<noinclude> {{alphabetical|C}} {{status|100%}} [[bn:সি প্রোগ্রামিং]] [[ca:Programació en C]] [[cs:Kurz programování v C]] [[de:C-Programmierung]] [[el:Προγραμματισμός στην C]] [[et:Programmeerimiskeel C]] [[es:Programación en C]] [[fr:Programmation C]] [[gl:C]] [[it:C]] [[he:שפת C]] [[ka:C (პროგრამირება)]] [[nl:Programmeren in C]] [[ja:C言語]] [[pl:C]] [[pt:Programar em C]] [[ru:Язык Си в примерах]] [[fi:C]] [[sv:Programmering i ANSI-C]] [[ta:சி]] </noinclude> 9v3w9a4sj7natxhsn00ta32qwiz3rwm 110 98847 4673925 4657819 2026-10-03T19:59:10Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* How was it discovered? */ 4673925 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. ==How was it discovered?== Argon is a colorless gas. It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. == References == {{BookCat}} rrydnageofjunsvq0udibpt93gg7ojq 4673926 4673925 2026-10-03T20:00:43Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* Where is it found? */ 4673926 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. ==How was it discovered?== Argon is a colorless gas. It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. OK Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. == References == {{BookCat}} qymtsnxfv2afw7ayj6j8ld9pqe1gr1p 4673927 4673926 2026-10-03T20:01:55Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* What are its uses? */ 4673927 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. ==How was it discovered?== Argon is a colorless gas. It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. OK Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. == References == {{BookCat}} j4f130vlsycofy0yoh1kn7a4piqcub7 4673928 4673927 2026-10-03T20:03:53Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* Is it dangerous? */ 4673928 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. ==How was it discovered?== Argon is a colorless gas. It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. OK Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}} 82qynhc90831r875s5tblsm9gw7gibf 4673930 4673928 2026-10-03T20:05:11Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* Where is it found? */ 4673930 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. ==How was it discovered?== Argon is a colorless gas. It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}} a465n6t0yqqc8f18ubmbj0qgdimautc 4673931 4673930 2026-10-03T20:09:08Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like? */ 4673931 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon is a colorless gas. It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}} slcfnf6rjmrhfwrkdlxxz6f34bxoeys 4673933 4673931 2026-10-03T20:10:48Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* How was it discovered? */ 4673933 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum.(Orig) Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. OK ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}} d68cuy4vqclusy2q4vik0j1fqj81oik 4673934 4673933 2026-10-03T20:11:19Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* How was it discovered? */ 4673934 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}} lk4uwejzwppclzgbk9rfbwuqbtjx19v 4673936 4673934 2026-10-03T20:13:30Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* References */ 4673936 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. ==Where did its name come from?== The name Argon comes from argos, the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}}D Ducksters. (2026). Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Argon. ''Ducksters''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.ducksters.com/science/chemistry/argon.php</nowiki> TutorialPedia Team. Argon Gas: Formula, Structure, Properties, and Applications <nowiki>https://www.tutorialpedia.org/blog/argon-gas-formula-structure-properties-uses-sample-questions</nowiki> Periodic Videos. (2016, May 23). ''Argon – Periodic table of videos'' [Video]. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0Gw6-xMLlo</nowiki> National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 23968, Argon. Retrieved September 5, 2026 <nowiki>https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Argon</nowiki>. bq36o9j1iu7qa4t30bvb4rxcdhf8lna 4673937 4673936 2026-10-03T20:16:35Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* Where did its name come from? */ 4673937 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. ==Where did its name come from?== The name argon comes from ''argos'', the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}}D Ducksters. (2026). Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Argon. ''Ducksters''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.ducksters.com/science/chemistry/argon.php</nowiki> TutorialPedia Team. Argon Gas: Formula, Structure, Properties, and Applications <nowiki>https://www.tutorialpedia.org/blog/argon-gas-formula-structure-properties-uses-sample-questions</nowiki> Periodic Videos. (2016, May 23). ''Argon – Periodic table of videos'' [Video]. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0Gw6-xMLlo</nowiki> National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 23968, Argon. Retrieved September 5, 2026 <nowiki>https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Argon</nowiki>. 325wrby38wovexpm20j401z29q76qqt 4673939 4673937 2026-10-03T20:18:24Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* Where did its name come from? */ 4673939 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. ==Where did its name come from?== The name argon comes from ''argos'', the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}}D Ducksters. (2026). Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Argon. ''Ducksters''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.ducksters.com/science/chemistry/argon.php</nowiki> TutorialPedia Team. Argon Gas: Formula, Structure, Properties, and Applications <nowiki>https://www.tutorialpedia.org/blog/argon-gas-formula-structure-properties-uses-sample-questions</nowiki> Periodic Videos. (2016, May 23). ''Argon – Periodic table of videos'' [Video]. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0Gw6-xMLlo</nowiki> National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 23968, Argon. Retrieved September 5, 2026 <nowiki>https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Argon</nowiki>. q7dy0lxtjhrtqipc8qpx8n3i61609ux 4673940 4673939 2026-10-03T20:19:20Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* References */ 4673940 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. ==Where did its name come from?== The name argon comes from ''argos'', the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the  universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}}Ducksters. (2026). Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Argon. ''Ducksters''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.ducksters.com/science/chemistry/argon.php</nowiki> TutorialPedia Team. Argon Gas: Formula, Structure, Properties, and Applications <nowiki>https://www.tutorialpedia.org/blog/argon-gas-formula-structure-properties-uses-sample-questions</nowiki> Periodic Videos. (2016, May 23). ''Argon – Periodic table of videos'' [Video]. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0Gw6-xMLlo</nowiki> National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 23968, Argon. Retrieved September 5, 2026 <nowiki>https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Argon</nowiki>. 1jy6uqchro1h1b0m1zm6qfnidd9xuhb 4673944 4673940 2026-10-03T20:25:23Z ~2026-53353-53 3627523 /* Where is it found? */ 4673944 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ [[File:Ar-TableImage.svg|thumb|left|500px|Shows the position of Argon on the periodic chart.]] [[File:Argon.png|thumb|Argon's symbol on the Periodic Table]] {{clear}} ==What does it look, feel, taste, or smell like?== Argon has no smell. It is a colorless gas. It has no taste. It, being inert, is non-toxic. Argon It is completely invisible. There is no special texture or feel to argon. It has no taste. It is odorless without scent or smell. It looks like normal air and blends naturally into the atmosphere around us. It behaves like any other gas but does not react easily with other elements. This means it is “inert”. ==How was it discovered?== Argon was discovered by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay in 1894. It was isolated by examination of the residue obtained by removing nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water from clean air. In fact, air contains slightly less than 1% argon, making it the third most abundant gas in air, behind nitrogen and oxygen. The atmosphere of Mars contains less than 2% argon. It was recognized by the characteristic lines in the red end of the spectrum. Scientists knew there were elements besides nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide in the air. However, they were unable to find and isolate other elements. English chemist Henry Cavendish was the first to show that air contained different gases. In 1894 the experiments of Rayleigh and Ramsay proved argon and most other noble gases existed in the air. ==Where did its name come from?== The name argon comes from ''argos'', the Greek word for lazy or inactive. It got this name, because it doesn't react easily with other elements. <div style="float:right; border:2px solid #000000; width:250px; margin-left:0.2em; padding:0.4em; background-color:#f0f0ff;{{Text default color}};"> '''Did You Know?''' *Argon is heavier than air. *Argon is the third most abundant gas in air. *Argon forms [[w:Argon fluorohydride|only one compound]]. </div> ==Where is it found?== Argon is found in the air and is a byproduct of the production of oxygen and nitrogen. Argon makes up .93% of the Earth's atmosphere. A byproduct is something produced unintentionally while making something else. Factories mainly take oxygen and nitrogen from the air, but argon also comes out  in the process. So, it is captured (collected) and sold. Argon is not limited to Earth’s atmosphere. It exists throughout the universe in the Sun and other stars. Argon is in the atmospheres of Mars, Jupiter, and other planets. It is inside rocks and minerals, volcanic gases and natural gas deposits. On earth, it is dissolved in groundwater. ==What are its uses?== [[Image:Argon.jpg|thumb|Canisters containing Argon gas for use in putting out fire without damaging server equipment]] [[Image:ArTube.jpg|thumb|left|Argon can be used to make light signs]] Argon can be used to put out fires without damaging electronics. Argon is used in welding arcs and growing semiconductor crystals. Argon is also used in some light signs. Light signs containing argon emit a deep blue light. In some double-glazed windows, argon is contained to slow the loss of heat. For the same purpose some diving suits are also filled with argon for those diving deep down where it's freezing cold. Argon can protect an object stored in it by forcing out the water vapours and oxygen that would damage the object like the Magna Carta. Argon is used in various everyday applications, including windows, lighting, welding, food preservation and food packaging. Its inert properties make it ideal for creating stable environments. Argon makes incandescent and fluorescent light bulbs last longer. The food industry uses argon to replace oxygen, extending shelf life of perishable items. This is called modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).   Argon is commonly placed between windowpanes as an insulator. Argon-filled windowpanes are energy efficient because they reduce heat transfer. Heat stays inside in winter and outside in summer. Double-paned or triple-paned windows are used in regions that have large swings between winter and summer temperatures ==Is it dangerous?== Argon is usually not dangerous; it can be inhaled safely as long as there is also oxygen. Argon does not usually react with other substances. It is generally safe to breathe. It is unsafe in high concentrations because it pushes oxygen out of the air causing asphyxiation. Liquid argon is dangerous. It is so cold (–185.8 °C) that it instantly freezes skin on contact. It causes frostbite just like liquid nitrogen. Even the cold vapor above liquid argon can injure skin. This danger applies only to cryogenic liquid argon kept at extremely low temperatures. Normal argon gas at room temperature cannot cause frostbite. == References == {{BookCat}}Ducksters. (2026). Chemistry for Kids: Elements - Argon. ''Ducksters''. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.ducksters.com/science/chemistry/argon.php</nowiki> TutorialPedia Team. Argon Gas: Formula, Structure, Properties, and Applications <nowiki>https://www.tutorialpedia.org/blog/argon-gas-formula-structure-properties-uses-sample-questions</nowiki> Periodic Videos. (2016, May 23). ''Argon – Periodic table of videos'' [Video]. YouTube. <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N0Gw6-xMLlo</nowiki> National Center for Biotechnology Information (2026). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 23968, Argon. Retrieved September 5, 2026 <nowiki>https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Argon</nowiki>. nze1qupok3qd10qh98e0jbcxkclw3z6 110 107150 4673979 4463777 2026-10-04T07:16:50Z ~2026-51118-27 3626547 /* */ 4673979 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%; color: Blue">'''<big><big>D</big></big>''' is for '''<big>D</big>'''olphin</PG13 暴力画面 [[File:D_is_for_Dolphin.jpg|center|500px]] {{ {{BOOKTEMPLATE}} }} 4tl40uinh5du4k4sv8lizy6g1uv5xh7 4673985 4673979 2026-10-04T07:27:28Z EggRoll97 3178669 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|talk]]) to last version by Kittycataclysm 4463777 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%; color: Blue">'''<big><big>D</big></big>''' is for '''<big>D</big>'''olphin</div> [[File:D_is_for_Dolphin.jpg|center|500px]] {{ {{BOOKTEMPLATE}} }} al2u1bu1lwki0goe9ch6pcgnz2ac2w6 4 140081 4673964 4673632 2026-10-04T02:34:55Z MathXplore 3097823 Reporting Diiminstitute 4673964 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == CU request == {{ping|MarcGarver|Xania}} According to [[Special:Diff/4671813]], User:Sisterian ([[Special:Contributions/Sisterian]]) has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. User:Pamela Talemwa ([[Special:Contributions/Pamela_Talemwa]]) & User:Sisterian overlap at [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&diff=prev&oldid=4671755&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&oldid=4665328]). What do our admins and CUs think about this? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :[[User:Sisterian]] has also created a page in another person's userspace, [[User:Samah2025/sandbox/A Young Girl’s Guide to Menstrual Health and Wellbeing]], so I will add [[User:Samah2025]] to the list. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:45, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :Hello, @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have been supporting a number of trainees with Wikibooks editing and its looks like a lot more was done outside of the guidance I provided. I am going to look into those contributions and rectify the underlying issues. Thank you. [[User:Sisterian|Sisterian]] ([[User talk:Sisterian|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sisterian|contribs]]) 08:52, 23 September 2026 (UTC) : OK --[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 12:13, 23 September 2026 (UTC) == DhaanishChennai123 reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|DhaanishChennai123}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/DhaanishChennai123/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 11:05, 24 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:17, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Seobavswellness12390 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Seobavswellness12390}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Seobavswellness12390/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 24 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:17, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Mango-tree-technology reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|Mango-tree-technology}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mango-tree-technology/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:41, 25 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:53, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-51713-42 reported by Morkoz == * {{userlinks|~2026-51713-42}} Spam, see also [[w:hi:special:contribs/~2026-51214-19|~2026-51214-19]]. <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-51713-42/ --> --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 15:43, 25 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by NDKDD (GS). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:37, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == Tunde akinlabi reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Tunde akinlabi}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Tunde akinlabi/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Barakat isiaka reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Barakat isiaka}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Barakat isiaka/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Roconpaas01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roconpaas01}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315913]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roconpaas01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:10, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Diiminstitute reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Diiminstitute}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315963]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Diiminstitute/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:34, 4 October 2026 (UTC) 6p24s98ox67semjp9e4qwylv7ipobkt 4673965 4673964 2026-10-04T02:58:52Z SHB 3332924 /* Diiminstitute reported by MathXplore */ Reply 4673965 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == CU request == {{ping|MarcGarver|Xania}} According to [[Special:Diff/4671813]], User:Sisterian ([[Special:Contributions/Sisterian]]) has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. User:Pamela Talemwa ([[Special:Contributions/Pamela_Talemwa]]) & User:Sisterian overlap at [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&diff=prev&oldid=4671755&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&oldid=4665328]). What do our admins and CUs think about this? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :[[User:Sisterian]] has also created a page in another person's userspace, [[User:Samah2025/sandbox/A Young Girl’s Guide to Menstrual Health and Wellbeing]], so I will add [[User:Samah2025]] to the list. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:45, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :Hello, @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have been supporting a number of trainees with Wikibooks editing and its looks like a lot more was done outside of the guidance I provided. I am going to look into those contributions and rectify the underlying issues. Thank you. [[User:Sisterian|Sisterian]] ([[User talk:Sisterian|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sisterian|contribs]]) 08:52, 23 September 2026 (UTC) : OK --[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 12:13, 23 September 2026 (UTC) == DhaanishChennai123 reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|DhaanishChennai123}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/DhaanishChennai123/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 11:05, 24 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:17, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Seobavswellness12390 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Seobavswellness12390}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Seobavswellness12390/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 24 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:17, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Mango-tree-technology reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|Mango-tree-technology}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mango-tree-technology/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:41, 25 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:53, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-51713-42 reported by Morkoz == * {{userlinks|~2026-51713-42}} Spam, see also [[w:hi:special:contribs/~2026-51214-19|~2026-51214-19]]. <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-51713-42/ --> --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 15:43, 25 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by NDKDD (GS). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:37, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == Tunde akinlabi reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Tunde akinlabi}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Tunde akinlabi/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Barakat isiaka reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Barakat isiaka}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Barakat isiaka/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Roconpaas01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roconpaas01}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315913]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roconpaas01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:10, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Diiminstitute reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Diiminstitute}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315963]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Diiminstitute/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:34, 4 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} --[[User:SHB|SHB]] ([[User talk:SHB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB|contribs]]) 02:58, 4 October 2026 (UTC) fpeuzx50uxl1c811g0mo5gskqr6xf5o 4673988 4673965 2026-10-04T07:28:23Z EggRoll97 3178669 Reporting ~2026-51118-27 4673988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} == Mscdubai reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Mscdubai}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mscdubai/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == Hasbaticom reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Hasbaticom}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hasbaticom/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:40, 19 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:44, 21 September 2026 (UTC) == [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] reported by TechVindicator == Spam [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 10:03, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == AAASecurityGuard reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|AAASecurityGuard}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/AAASecurityGuard/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 10:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked and blocked}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:18, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == [[Wikibooks:AI For Beginners]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' Wrong title, renaming needed ([[AI For Beginners]]). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 13:20, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Moved to the correct namespace}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:17, 22 September 2026 (UTC) ::{{done|Ultimately deleted}} per [[WB:AI]]. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:51, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == CU request == {{ping|MarcGarver|Xania}} According to [[Special:Diff/4671813]], User:Sisterian ([[Special:Contributions/Sisterian]]) has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. User:Pamela Talemwa ([[Special:Contributions/Pamela_Talemwa]]) & User:Sisterian overlap at [[A Young Reader's Guide to a Healthy Environment]] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&diff=prev&oldid=4671755&diffmode=source], [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=A_Young_Reader%27s_Guide_to_a_Healthy_Environment&oldid=4665328]). What do our admins and CUs think about this? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:11, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :[[User:Sisterian]] has also created a page in another person's userspace, [[User:Samah2025/sandbox/A Young Girl’s Guide to Menstrual Health and Wellbeing]], so I will add [[User:Samah2025]] to the list. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:45, 23 September 2026 (UTC) :Hello, @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have been supporting a number of trainees with Wikibooks editing and its looks like a lot more was done outside of the guidance I provided. I am going to look into those contributions and rectify the underlying issues. Thank you. [[User:Sisterian|Sisterian]] ([[User talk:Sisterian|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sisterian|contribs]]) 08:52, 23 September 2026 (UTC) : OK --[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 12:13, 23 September 2026 (UTC) == DhaanishChennai123 reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|DhaanishChennai123}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/DhaanishChennai123/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 11:05, 24 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:17, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Seobavswellness12390 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Seobavswellness12390}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Seobavswellness12390/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:23, 24 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:17, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Mango-tree-technology reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|Mango-tree-technology}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Mango-tree-technology/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:41, 25 September 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Blocked}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:53, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-51713-42 reported by Morkoz == * {{userlinks|~2026-51713-42}} Spam, see also [[w:hi:special:contribs/~2026-51214-19|~2026-51214-19]]. <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-51713-42/ --> --[[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 15:43, 25 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by NDKDD (GS). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:37, 25 September 2026 (UTC) == Tunde akinlabi reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Tunde akinlabi}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Tunde akinlabi/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Barakat isiaka reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Barakat isiaka}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Barakat isiaka/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Roconpaas01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roconpaas01}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315913]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roconpaas01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:10, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Diiminstitute reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Diiminstitute}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315963]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Diiminstitute/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:34, 4 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} --[[User:SHB|SHB]] ([[User talk:SHB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB|contribs]]) 02:58, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-51118-27 reported by EggRoll97 == * {{anonlinks|~2026-51118-27}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-51118-27/ --> [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:28, 4 October 2026 (UTC) asaqszug34oqpjhvpq0nwaur1sbxyn3 0 155016 4673949 4673816 2026-10-03T21:59:13Z ~2026-53413-17 3627529 After Extended-A comes Extended-B. 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VERTICAL-02-02|&#x1f073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-03|&#x1f074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-04|&#x1f075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-05|&#x1f076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-06|&#x1f077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-00|&#x1f078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-01|&#x1f079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-02|&#x1f07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-03|&#x1f07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-04|&#x1f07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-05|&#x1f07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-06|&#x1f07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-00|&#x1f07f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F08x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-01|&#x1f080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-02|&#x1f081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-03|&#x1f082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-04|&#x1f083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-05|&#x1f084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-06|&#x1f085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-00|&#x1f086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-01|&#x1f087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-02|&#x1f088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-03|&#x1f089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-04|&#x1f08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-05|&#x1f08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-06|&#x1f08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-00|&#x1f08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-01|&#x1f08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-02|&#x1f08f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F09x |style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-03|&#x1f090;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-04|&#x1f091;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-05|&#x1f092;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-06|&#x1f093;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Playing Cards''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BACK|&#x1f0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF SPADES|&#x1f0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF SPADES|&#x1f0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF SPADES|&#x1f0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF SPADES|&#x1f0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF SPADES|&#x1f0ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Bx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF HEARTS|&#x1f0be;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD RED JOKER|&#x1f0bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Cx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BLACK JOKER|&#x1f0cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Dx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF CLUBS|&#x1f0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF CLUBS|&#x1f0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD WHITE JOKER|&#x1f0df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOOL|&#x1f0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-1|&#x1f0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-2|&#x1f0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-3|&#x1f0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-4|&#x1f0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-5|&#x1f0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-6|&#x1f0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-7|&#x1f0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-8|&#x1f0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-9|&#x1f0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-10|&#x1f0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-11|&#x1f0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-12|&#x1f0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-13|&#x1f0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-14|&#x1f0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-15|&#x1f0ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Fx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-16|&#x1f0f0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-17|&#x1f0f1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-18|&#x1f0f2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-19|&#x1f0f3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-20|&#x1f0f4;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-21|&#x1f0f5;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F10x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO FULL STOP|&#x1f100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO COMMA|&#x1f101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ONE COMMA|&#x1f102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT TWO COMMA|&#x1f103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT THREE COMMA|&#x1f104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FOUR COMMA|&#x1f105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FIVE COMMA|&#x1f106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SIX COMMA|&#x1f107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SEVEN COMMA|&#x1f108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT EIGHT COMMA|&#x1f109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT NINE COMMA|&#x1f10a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ZERO WITH SLASH|&#x1f10d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ANTICLOCKWISE ARROW|&#x1f10e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED DOLLAR SIGN WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f10f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F11x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f11f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F12x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CD|&#x1f12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED WZ|&#x1f12e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COPYLEFT SYMBOL|&#x1f12f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F13x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f130;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f13c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f13e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f13f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F14x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f141;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f145;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f149;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HV|&#x1f14a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED MV|&#x1f14b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SD|&#x1f14c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SS|&#x1f14d;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED PPV|&#x1f14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED WC|&#x1f14f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F15x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f156;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f158;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f15f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F16x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f169;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MC SIGN|&#x1f16a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MD SIGN|&#x1f16b;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MR SIGN|&#x1f16c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CC|&#x1f16d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED C WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f16e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED HUMAN FIGURE|&#x1f16f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F17x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f172;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f173;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f174;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f175;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f176;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f177;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f178;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f179;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f17a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f17b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f17e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f17f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F18x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f189;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f18a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED IC|&#x1f18b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED PA|&#x1f18c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED SA|&#x1f18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED AB|&#x1f18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED WC|&#x1f18f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F19x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE DJ|&#x1f190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CL|&#x1f191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED COOL|&#x1f192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FREE|&#x1f193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ID|&#x1f194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NEW|&#x1f195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NG|&#x1f196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED OK|&#x1f197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SOS|&#x1f198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UP WITH EXCLAMATION MARK|&#x1f199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VS|&#x1f19a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED THREE D|&#x1f19b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SECOND SCREEN|&#x1f19c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWO K|&#x1f19d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FOUR K|&#x1f19e;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED EIGHT K|&#x1f19f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FIVE POINT ONE|&#x1f1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SEVEN POINT ONE|&#x1f1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWENTY-TWO POINT TWO|&#x1f1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SIXTY P|&#x1f1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ONE HUNDRED TWENTY P|&#x1f1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN SMALL LETTER D|&#x1f1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HC|&#x1f1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HDR|&#x1f1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HI-RES|&#x1f1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LOSSLESS|&#x1f1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SHV|&#x1f1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UHD|&#x1f1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VOD|&#x1f1ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MASK WORK SYMBOL|&#x1f1ad;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMOBIKI SYMBOL|&#x1f1ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ex |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER A|&#x1f1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER B|&#x1f1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER C|&#x1f1e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER D|&#x1f1e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER E|&#x1f1ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER F|&#x1f1eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER G|&#x1f1ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER H|&#x1f1ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER I|&#x1f1ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER J|&#x1f1ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER K|&#x1f1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER L|&#x1f1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER M|&#x1f1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER N|&#x1f1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER O|&#x1f1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER P|&#x1f1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Q|&#x1f1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER R|&#x1f1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER S|&#x1f1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER T|&#x1f1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER U|&#x1f1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER V|&#x1f1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER W|&#x1f1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER X|&#x1f1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Y|&#x1f1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Z|&#x1f1ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F20x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE HIRAGANA HOKA|&#x1f200;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA KOKO|&#x1f201;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA SA|&#x1f202;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F21x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-624B|&#x1f210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B57|&#x1f211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53CC|&#x1f212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA DE|&#x1f213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-591A|&#x1f215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-89E3|&#x1f216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5929|&#x1f217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4EA4|&#x1f218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6620|&#x1f219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7121|&#x1f21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6599|&#x1f21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-524D|&#x1f21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5F8C|&#x1f21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-518D|&#x1f21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-65B0|&#x1f21f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F22x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-521D|&#x1f220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7D42|&#x1f221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-751F|&#x1f222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8CA9|&#x1f223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-58F0|&#x1f224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5439|&#x1f225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6F14|&#x1f226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6295|&#x1f227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6355|&#x1f228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E00|&#x1f229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-904A|&#x1f22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5DE6|&#x1f22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E2D|&#x1f22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53F3|&#x1f22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6307|&#x1f22f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F23x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8D70|&#x1f230;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7981|&#x1f232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7A7A|&#x1f233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5408|&#x1f234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6E80|&#x1f235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6709|&#x1f236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6708|&#x1f237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7533|&#x1f238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5272|&#x1f239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-55B6|&#x1f23a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-914D|&#x1f23b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F24x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-672C|&#x1f240;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f241;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f242;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B89|&#x1f243;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-70B9|&#x1f244;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f245;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-76D7|&#x1f246;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-52DD|&#x1f247;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6557|&#x1f248;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F25x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ADVANTAGE|&#x1f250;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ACCEPT|&#x1f251;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F26x |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR FU|&#x1f260;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR LU|&#x1f261;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHOU|&#x1f262;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR XI|&#x1f263;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHUANGXI|&#x1f264;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR CAI|&#x1f265;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F27x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F28x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F29x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F30x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CYCLONE|&#x1f300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOGGY|&#x1f301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED UMBRELLA|&#x1f302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NIGHT WITH STARS|&#x1f303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE OVER MOUNTAINS|&#x1f304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE|&#x1f305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CITYSCAPE AT DUSK|&#x1f306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNSET OVER BUILDINGS|&#x1f307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAINBOW|&#x1f308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDGE AT NIGHT|&#x1f309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER WAVE|&#x1f30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOLCANO|&#x1f30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILKY WAY|&#x1f30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE EUROPE-AFRICA|&#x1f30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE AMERICAS|&#x1f30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE ASIA-AUSTRALIA|&#x1f30f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F31x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOBE WITH MERIDIANS|&#x1f310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRESCENT MOON|&#x1f319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUN WITH FACE|&#x1f31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOWING STAR|&#x1f31f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F32x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOOTING STAR|&#x1f320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THERMOMETER|&#x1f321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DROPLET|&#x1f322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN|&#x1f323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN WITH SMALL CLOUD|&#x1f324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD|&#x1f325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH SNOW|&#x1f328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH TORNADO|&#x1f32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOG|&#x1f32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND BLOWING FACE|&#x1f32c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT DOG|&#x1f32d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TACO|&#x1f32e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BURRITO|&#x1f32f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F33x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHESTNUT|&#x1f330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEEDLING|&#x1f331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EVERGREEN TREE|&#x1f332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECIDUOUS TREE|&#x1f333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM TREE|&#x1f334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CACTUS|&#x1f335;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT PEPPER|&#x1f336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULIP|&#x1f337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRY BLOSSOM|&#x1f338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROSE|&#x1f339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIBISCUS|&#x1f33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNFLOWER|&#x1f33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOSSOM|&#x1f33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF MAIZE|&#x1f33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF RICE|&#x1f33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HERB|&#x1f33f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F34x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR LEAF CLOVER|&#x1f340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAPLE LEAF|&#x1f341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALLEN LEAF|&#x1f342;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAF FLUTTERING IN WIND|&#x1f343;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSHROOM|&#x1f344;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMATO|&#x1f345;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUBERGINE|&#x1f346;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRAPES|&#x1f347;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MELON|&#x1f348;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATERMELON|&#x1f349;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANGERINE|&#x1f34a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEMON|&#x1f34b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANANA|&#x1f34c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PINEAPPLE|&#x1f34d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED APPLE|&#x1f34e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN APPLE|&#x1f34f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F35x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PEAR|&#x1f350;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACH|&#x1f351;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRIES|&#x1f352;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAWBERRY|&#x1f353;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMBURGER|&#x1f354;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLICE OF PIZZA|&#x1f355;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEAT ON BONE|&#x1f356;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POULTRY LEG|&#x1f357;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RICE CRACKER|&#x1f358;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RICE BALL|&#x1f359;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKED RICE|&#x1f35a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRY AND RICE|&#x1f35b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAMING BOWL|&#x1f35c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPAGHETTI|&#x1f35d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAD|&#x1f35e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRENCH FRIES|&#x1f35f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F36x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ROASTED SWEET POTATO|&#x1f360;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DANGO|&#x1f361;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ODEN|&#x1f362;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSHI|&#x1f363;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRIED SHRIMP|&#x1f364;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FISH CAKE WITH SWIRL DESIGN|&#x1f365;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT ICE CREAM|&#x1f366;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHAVED ICE|&#x1f367;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CREAM|&#x1f368;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUGHNUT|&#x1f369;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKIE|&#x1f36a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOCOLATE BAR|&#x1f36b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDY|&#x1f36c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOLLIPOP|&#x1f36d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTARD|&#x1f36e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HONEY POT|&#x1f36f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F37x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTCAKE|&#x1f370;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BENTO BOX|&#x1f371;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POT OF FOOD|&#x1f372;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKING|&#x1f373;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FORK AND KNIFE|&#x1f374;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEACUP WITHOUT HANDLE|&#x1f375;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAKE BOTTLE AND CUP|&#x1f376;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINE GLASS|&#x1f377;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKTAIL GLASS|&#x1f378;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROPICAL DRINK|&#x1f379;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEER MUG|&#x1f37a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLINKING BEER MUGS|&#x1f37b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY BOTTLE|&#x1f37c;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORK AND KNIFE WITH PLATE|&#x1f37d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTLE WITH POPPING CORK|&#x1f37e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POPCORN|&#x1f37f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F38x |{{H:title|dotted=no|RIBBON|&#x1f380;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRAPPED PRESENT|&#x1f381;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BIRTHDAY CAKE|&#x1f382;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JACK-O-LANTERN|&#x1f383;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHRISTMAS TREE|&#x1f384;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FATHER CHRISTMAS|&#x1f385;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIREWORKS|&#x1f386;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIREWORK SPARKLER|&#x1f387;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOON|&#x1f388;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTY POPPER|&#x1f389;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFETTI BALL|&#x1f38a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TANABATA TREE|&#x1f38b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED FLAGS|&#x1f38c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PINE DECORATION|&#x1f38d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE DOLLS|&#x1f38e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARP STREAMER|&#x1f38f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F39x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND CHIME|&#x1f390;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOON VIEWING CEREMONY|&#x1f391;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCHOOL SATCHEL|&#x1f392;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRADUATION CAP|&#x1f393;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH TIP ON THE LEFT|&#x1f394;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOUQUET OF FLOWERS|&#x1f395;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY MEDAL|&#x1f396;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REMINDER RIBBON|&#x1f397;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL KEYBOARD WITH JACKS|&#x1f398;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STUDIO MICROPHONE|&#x1f399;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEVEL SLIDER|&#x1f39a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONTROL KNOBS|&#x1f39b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAMED ASCENDING MUSICAL NOTES|&#x1f39c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAMED DESCENDING MUSICAL NOTES|&#x1f39d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM FRAMES|&#x1f39e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADMISSION TICKETS|&#x1f39f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F3Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|CAROUSEL HORSE|&#x1f3a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FERRIS WHEEL|&#x1f3a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER COASTER|&#x1f3a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FISHING POLE AND FISH|&#x1f3a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROPHONE|&#x1f3a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOVIE CAMERA|&#x1f3a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CINEMA|&#x1f3a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADPHONE|&#x1f3a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTIST PALETTE|&#x1f3a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP HAT|&#x1f3a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCUS TENT|&#x1f3aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TICKET|&#x1f3ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAPPER BOARD|&#x1f3ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERFORMING ARTS|&#x1f3ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO GAME|&#x1f3ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIRECT HIT|&#x1f3af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F3Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SLOT MACHINE|&#x1f3b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BILLIARDS|&#x1f3b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GAME DIE|&#x1f3b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWLING|&#x1f3b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLOWER PLAYING CARDS|&#x1f3b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL NOTE|&#x1f3b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MULTIPLE MUSICAL NOTES|&#x1f3b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAXOPHONE|&#x1f3b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUITAR|&#x1f3b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL KEYBOARD|&#x1f3b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRUMPET|&#x1f3ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIOLIN|&#x1f3bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MUSICAL SCORE|&#x1f3bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RUNNING SHIRT WITH SASH|&#x1f3bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TENNIS RACQUET AND BALL|&#x1f3be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SKI AND SKI BOOT|&#x1f3bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F3Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BASKETBALL AND HOOP|&#x1f3c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEQUERED FLAG|&#x1f3c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SNOWBOARDER|&#x1f3c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RUNNER|&#x1f3c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SURFER|&#x1f3c4;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPORTS MEDAL|&#x1f3c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROPHY|&#x1f3c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORSE RACING|&#x1f3c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AMERICAN FOOTBALL|&#x1f3c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RUGBY 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COMPUTER|&#x1f4bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFCASE|&#x1f4bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIDISC|&#x1f4bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f4be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC|&#x1f4bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|DVD|&#x1f4c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE FOLDER|&#x1f4c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FILE FOLDER|&#x1f4c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CURL|&#x1f4c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE FACING UP|&#x1f4c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CALENDAR|&#x1f4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAR-OFF CALENDAR|&#x1f4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX|&#x1f4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH DOWNWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR CHART|&#x1f4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLIPBOARD|&#x1f4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAPERCLIP|&#x1f4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAIGHT RULER|&#x1f4cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR RULER|&#x1f4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK TABS|&#x1f4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEDGER|&#x1f4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK|&#x1f4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK WITH DECORATIVE COVER|&#x1f4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED BOOK|&#x1f4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN BOOK|&#x1f4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN BOOK|&#x1f4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE BOOK|&#x1f4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE BOOK|&#x1f4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKS|&#x1f4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAME BADGE|&#x1f4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCROLL|&#x1f4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEMO|&#x1f4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGER|&#x1f4df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX MACHINE|&#x1f4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE ANTENNA|&#x1f4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUBLIC ADDRESS LOUDSPEAKER|&#x1f4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEERING MEGAPHONE|&#x1f4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OUTBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PACKAGE|&#x1f4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|E-MAIL SYMBOL|&#x1f4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMING ENVELOPE|&#x1f4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH DOWNWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTBOX|&#x1f4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTAL HORN|&#x1f4ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWSPAPER|&#x1f4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW AT LEFT|&#x1f4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIBRATION MODE|&#x1f4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE OFF|&#x1f4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO MOBILE PHONES|&#x1f4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTENNA WITH BARS|&#x1f4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA|&#x1f4f7;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA WITH FLASH|&#x1f4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO CAMERA|&#x1f4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEVISION|&#x1f4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO|&#x1f4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEOCASSETTE|&#x1f4fc;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM PROJECTOR|&#x1f4fd;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PORTABLE STEREO|&#x1f4fe;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PRAYER BEADS|&#x1f4ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F50x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWISTED RIGHTWARDS ARROWS|&#x1f500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS WITH CIRCLED ONE OVERLAY|&#x1f502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTICLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f505;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f506;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER|&#x1f508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f50a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BATTERY|&#x1f50b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC PLUG|&#x1f50c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK WITH INK PEN|&#x1f50f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F51x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED LOCK WITH KEY|&#x1f510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEY|&#x1f511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK|&#x1f512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN LOCK|&#x1f513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL|&#x1f514;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f515;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK|&#x1f516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINK SYMBOL|&#x1f517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO BUTTON|&#x1f518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|END WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ON WITH EXCLAMATION MARK WITH LEFT RIGHT ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOON WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP WITH UPWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ONE UNDER EIGHTEEN SYMBOL|&#x1f51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYCAP TEN|&#x1f51f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F52x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN CAPITAL LETTERS|&#x1f520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN SMALL LETTERS|&#x1f521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR NUMBERS|&#x1f522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR SYMBOLS|&#x1f523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN LETTERS|&#x1f524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE|&#x1f525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC TORCH|&#x1f526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRENCH|&#x1f527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER|&#x1f528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NUT AND BOLT|&#x1f529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOCHO|&#x1f52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PISTOL|&#x1f52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROSCOPE|&#x1f52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELESCOPE|&#x1f52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYSTAL BALL|&#x1f52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED STAR WITH MIDDLE DOT|&#x1f52f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F53x |{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE SYMBOL FOR BEGINNER|&#x1f530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIDENT EMBLEM|&#x1f531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED CIRCLE|&#x1f534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE CIRCLE|&#x1f535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f539;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F54x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f540;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE WITH HALF-CIRCLE BELOW|&#x1f541;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f542;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED LEFT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED RIGHT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f544;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYMBOL FOR MARKS CHAPTER|&#x1f545;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LATIN CROSS|&#x1f546;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LATIN CROSS|&#x1f547;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CELTIC CROSS|&#x1f548;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OM SYMBOL|&#x1f549;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOVE OF PEACE|&#x1f54a;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAABA|&#x1f54b;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUE|&#x1f54c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SYNAGOGUE|&#x1f54d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENORAH WITH NINE BRANCHES|&#x1f54e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL OF HYGIEIA|&#x1f54f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F55x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE OCLOCK|&#x1f550;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO OCLOCK|&#x1f551;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE OCLOCK|&#x1f552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR OCLOCK|&#x1f553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE OCLOCK|&#x1f554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX OCLOCK|&#x1f555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT OCLOCK|&#x1f557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE OCLOCK|&#x1f558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN OCLOCK|&#x1f559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE OCLOCK|&#x1f55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE-THIRTY|&#x1f55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO-THIRTY|&#x1f55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE-THIRTY|&#x1f55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR-THIRTY|&#x1f55f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F56x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE-THIRTY|&#x1f560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX-THIRTY|&#x1f561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT-THIRTY|&#x1f563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE-THIRTY|&#x1f564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN-THIRTY|&#x1f565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE-THIRTY|&#x1f567;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER|&#x1f568;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f569;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN|&#x1f56b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN WITH SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56c;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGING BELL|&#x1f56d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOK|&#x1f56e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDLE|&#x1f56f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F57x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MANTELPIECE CLOCK|&#x1f570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SKULL AND CROSSBONES|&#x1f571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PIRACY|&#x1f572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLE|&#x1f573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN BUSINESS SUIT LEVITATING|&#x1f574;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEUTH OR SPY|&#x1f575;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DARK SUNGLASSES|&#x1f576;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER|&#x1f577;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIDER WEB|&#x1f578;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JOYSTICK|&#x1f579;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN DANCING|&#x1f57a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f57b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER WITH PAGE|&#x1f57c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HAND TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f57d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&#x1f57e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TOUCHTONE TELEPHONE|&#x1f57f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F58x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE ON TOP OF MODEM|&#x1f580;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLAMSHELL MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f581;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK OF ENVELOPE|&#x1f582;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STAMPED ENVELOPE|&#x1f583;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f584;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING ENVELOPE|&#x1f585;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEN OVER STAMPED ENVELOPE|&#x1f586;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINKED PAPERCLIPS|&#x1f587;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK PUSHPIN|&#x1f588;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PENCIL|&#x1f589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BALLPOINT PEN|&#x1f58a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FOUNTAIN PEN|&#x1f58b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT PAINTBRUSH|&#x1f58c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT CRAYON|&#x1f58d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT WRITING HAND|&#x1f58e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED OK HAND SIGN|&#x1f58f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F59x |{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&#x1f590;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED RAISED HAND WITH FINGERS SPLAYED|&#x1f591;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS UP SIGN|&#x1f592;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED THUMBS DOWN SIGN|&#x1f593;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED VICTORY HAND|&#x1f594;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSED HAND WITH MIDDLE FINGER EXTENDED|&#x1f595;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED HAND WITH PART BETWEEN MIDDLE AND RING FINGERS|&#x1f596;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DOWN POINTING LEFT HAND INDEX|&#x1f597;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE LEFT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f598;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f599;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK LEFT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f59c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f59d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS WHITE DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f59f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HEART|&#x1f5a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP COMPUTER|&#x1f5a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYBOARD AND MOUSE|&#x1f5a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE NETWORKED COMPUTERS|&#x1f5a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER|&#x1f5a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POCKET CALCULATOR|&#x1f5a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAPE CARTRIDGE|&#x1f5ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRED KEYBOARD|&#x1f5ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACKBALL|&#x1f5b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD PERSONAL COMPUTER|&#x1f5b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HARD DISK|&#x1f5b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREEN|&#x1f5b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER ICON|&#x1f5b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX ICON|&#x1f5b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC ICON|&#x1f5b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT|&#x1f5b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT AND PICTURE|&#x1f5ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH TILES|&#x1f5bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH AN X|&#x1f5be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK FOLDER|&#x1f5bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDER|&#x1f5c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FOLDER|&#x1f5c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX DIVIDERS|&#x1f5c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD FILE BOX|&#x1f5c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE CABINET|&#x1f5c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE|&#x1f5c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAD|&#x1f5c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE|&#x1f5c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAD|&#x1f5ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY DOCUMENT|&#x1f5cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGE|&#x1f5cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGES|&#x1f5cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT|&#x1f5ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE|&#x1f5cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGES|&#x1f5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WASTEBASKET|&#x1f5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL NOTE PAD|&#x1f5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL CALENDAR PAD|&#x1f5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP WINDOW|&#x1f5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIMIZE|&#x1f5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAXIMIZE|&#x1f5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERLAP|&#x1f5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHT AND LEFT SEMICIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANCELLATION X|&#x1f5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPRESSION|&#x1f5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD KEY|&#x1f5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLED-UP NEWSPAPER|&#x1f5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CIRCLED TEXT|&#x1f5df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|STOCK CHART|&#x1f5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DAGGER KNIFE|&#x1f5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPS|&#x1f5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKING HEAD IN SILHOUETTE|&#x1f5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS ABOVE|&#x1f5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS BELOW|&#x1f5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS LEFT|&#x1f5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS RIGHT|&#x1f5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD|&#x1f5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BALLOT|&#x1f5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT CHECK MARK|&#x1f5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD CHECK|&#x1f5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WORLD MAP|&#x1f5fa;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNT FUJI|&#x1f5fb;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOKYO TOWER|&#x1f5fc;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STATUE OF LIBERTY|&#x1f5fd;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SILHOUETTE OF JAPAN|&#x1f5fe;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOYAI|&#x1f5ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Emoticons''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F60x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE|&#x1f600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND SMILING EYES|&#x1f604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HALO|&#x1f607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HORNS|&#x1f608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINKING FACE|&#x1f609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f60a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SAVOURING DELICIOUS FOOD|&#x1f60b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f60c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f60d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SUNGLASSES|&#x1f60e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMIRKING FACE|&#x1f60f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F61x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL FACE|&#x1f610;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXPRESSIONLESS FACE|&#x1f611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UNAMUSED FACE|&#x1f612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COLD SWEAT|&#x1f613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PENSIVE FACE|&#x1f614;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFUSED FACE|&#x1f615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFOUNDED FACE|&#x1f616;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE|&#x1f617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE THROWING A KISS|&#x1f618;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE|&#x1f61b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND WINKING EYE|&#x1f61c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED FACE|&#x1f61e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORRIED FACE|&#x1f61f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F62x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGRY FACE|&#x1f620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING FACE|&#x1f621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING FACE|&#x1f622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSEVERING FACE|&#x1f623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH LOOK OF TRIUMPH|&#x1f624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED BUT RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f625;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FROWNING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f626;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGUISHED FACE|&#x1f627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FEARFUL FACE|&#x1f628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY FACE|&#x1f629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPY FACE|&#x1f62a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRED FACE|&#x1f62b;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRIMACING FACE|&#x1f62c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOUDLY CRYING FACE|&#x1f62d;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f62e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUSHED FACE|&#x1f62f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F63x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SCREAMING IN FEAR|&#x1f631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTONISHED FACE|&#x1f632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUSHED FACE|&#x1f633;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING FACE|&#x1f634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY FACE|&#x1f635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITHOUT MOUTH|&#x1f636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MEDICAL MASK|&#x1f637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING CAT FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f63a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f63b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH WRY SMILE|&#x1f63c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING CAT FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f63d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING CAT FACE|&#x1f63e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING CAT FACE|&#x1f63f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F64x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY CAT FACE|&#x1f640;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY FROWNING FACE|&#x1f641;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY SMILING FACE|&#x1f642;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPSIDE-DOWN FACE|&#x1f643;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ROLLING EYES|&#x1f644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH NO GOOD GESTURE|&#x1f645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OK GESTURE|&#x1f646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON BOWING DEEPLY|&#x1f647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEE-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAR-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAK-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAPPY PERSON RAISING ONE HAND|&#x1f64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON RAISING BOTH HANDS IN CELEBRATION|&#x1f64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON FROWNING|&#x1f64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH POUTING FACE|&#x1f64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH FOLDED HANDS|&#x1f64f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Ornamental Dingbats''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F65x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F66x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F67x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE TURNED COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY LOW DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SOLIDUS|&#x1f67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY REVERSE SOLIDUS|&#x1f67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Transport and Map Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F68x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCKET|&#x1f680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HELICOPTER|&#x1f681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAM LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY CAR|&#x1f683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN|&#x1f684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN WITH BULLET NOSE|&#x1f685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAIN|&#x1f686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|METRO|&#x1f687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT RAIL|&#x1f688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STATION|&#x1f689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM|&#x1f68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM CAR|&#x1f68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS|&#x1f68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING BUS|&#x1f68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLLEYBUS|&#x1f68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS STOP|&#x1f68f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F69x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIBUS|&#x1f690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AMBULANCE|&#x1f691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CAR|&#x1f693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING POLICE CAR|&#x1f694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAXI|&#x1f695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING TAXI|&#x1f696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECREATIONAL VEHICLE|&#x1f699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DELIVERY TRUCK|&#x1f69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTICULATED LORRY|&#x1f69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACTOR|&#x1f69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONORAIL|&#x1f69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN RAILWAY|&#x1f69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSPENSION RAILWAY|&#x1f69f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN CABLEWAY|&#x1f6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AERIAL TRAMWAY|&#x1f6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIP|&#x1f6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROWBOAT|&#x1f6a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEEDBOAT|&#x1f6a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION SIGN|&#x1f6a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CARS REVOLVING LIGHT|&#x1f6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR FLAG ON POST|&#x1f6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOOR|&#x1f6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ENTRY SIGN|&#x1f6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUT LITTER IN ITS PLACE SYMBOL|&#x1f6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DO NOT LITTER SYMBOL|&#x1f6af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NON-POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLE|&#x1f6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO BICYCLES|&#x1f6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEDESTRIAN|&#x1f6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PEDESTRIANS|&#x1f6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILDREN CROSSING|&#x1f6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RESTROOM|&#x1f6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY SYMBOL|&#x1f6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOILET|&#x1f6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER CLOSET|&#x1f6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOWER|&#x1f6bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Cx |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATH|&#x1f6c0;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATHTUB|&#x1f6c1;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSPORT CONTROL|&#x1f6c2;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTOMS|&#x1f6c3;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGGAGE CLAIM|&#x1f6c4;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT LUGGAGE|&#x1f6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1f6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROHIBITED SIGN|&#x1f6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED INFORMATION SOURCE|&#x1f6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOYS SYMBOL|&#x1f6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRLS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUCH AND LAMP|&#x1f6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING ACCOMMODATION|&#x1f6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING BAGS|&#x1f6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELLHOP BELL|&#x1f6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BED|&#x1f6cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Dx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACE OF WORSHIP|&#x1f6d0;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OCTAGONAL SIGN|&#x1f6d1;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING TROLLEY|&#x1f6d2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STUPA|&#x1f6d3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGODA|&#x1f6d4;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HINDU TEMPLE|&#x1f6d5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUT|&#x1f6d6;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ELEVATOR|&#x1f6d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LANDSLIDE|&#x1f6d8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTHOUSE|&#x1f6d9;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEATBELT SIGN|&#x1f6da;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NO CARS|&#x1f6db;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRELESS|&#x1f6dc;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYGROUND SLIDE|&#x1f6dd;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHEEL|&#x1f6de;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RING BUOY|&#x1f6df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER AND WRENCH|&#x1f6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIELD|&#x1f6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OIL DRUM|&#x1f6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORWAY|&#x1f6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY TRACK|&#x1f6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR BOAT|&#x1f6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING MILITARY AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTHEAST-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE DEPARTURE|&#x1f6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE ARRIVING|&#x1f6ec;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT AIR BALLOON|&#x1f6ed;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRSHIP|&#x1f6ee;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAPLANE|&#x1f6ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE|&#x1f6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSENGER SHIP|&#x1f6f3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCOOTER|&#x1f6f4;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR SCOOTER|&#x1f6f5;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANOE|&#x1f6f6;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLED|&#x1f6f7;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING SAUCER|&#x1f6f8;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SKATEBOARD|&#x1f6f9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTO RICKSHAW|&#x1f6fa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKUP TRUCK|&#x1f6fb;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER SKATE|&#x1f6fc;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORKLIFT|&#x1f6fd;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXCAVATOR|&#x1f6fe;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUBMARINE|&#x1f6ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Alchemical Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F70x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUINTESSENCE|&#x1f700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AIR|&#x1f701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR FIRE|&#x1f702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR EARTH|&#x1f703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WATER|&#x1f704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUAFORTIS|&#x1f705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA|&#x1f706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA-2|&#x1f707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE|&#x1f708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE-2|&#x1f709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR|&#x1f70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-2|&#x1f70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-3|&#x1f70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SULFUR|&#x1f70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PHILOSOPHERS SULFUR|&#x1f70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BLACK SULFUR|&#x1f70f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F71x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE|&#x1f710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-2|&#x1f711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-3|&#x1f712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CINNABAR|&#x1f713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT|&#x1f714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NITRE|&#x1f715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL|&#x1f716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL-2|&#x1f717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT|&#x1f718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT-2|&#x1f719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GOLD|&#x1f71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SILVER|&#x1f71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE|&#x1f71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE-2|&#x1f71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF IRON|&#x1f71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF IRON|&#x1f71f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F72x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ORE|&#x1f720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON-COPPER ORE|&#x1f721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF COPPER|&#x1f722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER|&#x1f723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER-2|&#x1f724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF COPPER|&#x1f727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VERDIGRIS|&#x1f728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TIN ORE|&#x1f729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LEAD ORE|&#x1f72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ANTIMONY ORE|&#x1f72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F73x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY-2|&#x1f731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS|&#x1f732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-2|&#x1f733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-3|&#x1f734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-4|&#x1f735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI|&#x1f736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI-2|&#x1f737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MARCASITE|&#x1f738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SAL-AMMONIAC|&#x1f739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ARSENIC|&#x1f73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR|&#x1f73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR-2|&#x1f73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AURIPIGMENT|&#x1f73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BISMUTH ORE|&#x1f73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR|&#x1f73f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F74x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR-2|&#x1f740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUICK LIME|&#x1f741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX|&#x1f742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-2|&#x1f743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-3|&#x1f744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALUM|&#x1f745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR OIL|&#x1f746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SPIRIT|&#x1f747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TINCTURE|&#x1f748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GUM|&#x1f749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WAX|&#x1f74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDER|&#x1f74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CALX|&#x1f74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TUTTY|&#x1f74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CAPUT MORTUUM|&#x1f74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SCEPTER OF JOVE|&#x1f74f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F75x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CADUCEUS|&#x1f750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TRIDENT|&#x1f751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STARRED TRIDENT|&#x1f752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LODESTONE|&#x1f753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SOAP|&#x1f754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR URINE|&#x1f755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HORSE DUNG|&#x1f756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ASHES|&#x1f757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POT ASHES|&#x1f758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BRICK|&#x1f759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDERED BRICK|&#x1f75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AMALGAM|&#x1f75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM|&#x1f75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM-2|&#x1f75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATION|&#x1f75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PRECIPITATE|&#x1f75f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F76x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISTILL|&#x1f760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE|&#x1f761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE-2|&#x1f762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PURIFY|&#x1f763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PUTREFACTION|&#x1f764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE|&#x1f765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-2|&#x1f766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-3|&#x1f767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-4|&#x1f768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-5|&#x1f769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALEMBIC|&#x1f76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF MARY|&#x1f76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF VAPOURS|&#x1f76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR RETORT|&#x1f76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HOUR|&#x1f76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NIGHT|&#x1f76f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F77x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DAY-NIGHT|&#x1f770;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MONTH|&#x1f771;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF DRAM|&#x1f772;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF OUNCE|&#x1f773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOT OF FORTUNE|&#x1f774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OCCULTATION|&#x1f775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNAR ECLIPSE|&#x1f776;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VESTA FORM TWO|&#x1f777;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTRAEA FORM TWO|&#x1f778;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYGIEA FORM TWO|&#x1f779;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTHENOPE FORM TWO|&#x1f77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAUMEA|&#x1f77B;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKEMAKE|&#x1f77C;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GONGGONG|&#x1f77D;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|QUAOAR|&#x1f77E;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCUS|&#x1f77F;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Geometric Shapes Extended''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F78x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CIRCLE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND TARGET|&#x1f78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY SQUARE|&#x1f78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F79x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM SQUARE|&#x1f795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE TARGET|&#x1f796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY DIAMOND|&#x1f797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM DIAMOND|&#x1f79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND TARGET|&#x1f79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY LOZENGE|&#x1f79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LOZENGE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN SALTIRE|&#x1f7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SALTIRE|&#x1f7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SALTIRE|&#x1f7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SALTIRE|&#x1f7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE LIGHT FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Dx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d4;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d5;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d6;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d7;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d8;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINE POINTED WHITE STAR|&#x1f7d9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CIRCLE WITH WHITE VERTICAL BAR|&#x1f7da;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLET IN DOUBLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7db;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW CIRCLE|&#x1f7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED SQUARE|&#x1f7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE SQUARE|&#x1f7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE SQUARE|&#x1f7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW SQUARE|&#x1f7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN SQUARE|&#x1f7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE SQUARE|&#x1f7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN SQUARE|&#x1f7eb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NOT EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7ec;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Fx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED BOTTOM RIGHT OBLIQUE HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1f7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRANSPARENT CUBE|&#x1f7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CUBE|&#x1f7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH BOTTOM HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH TOP HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BISECTING LINES|&#x1f7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHOMBUS|&#x1f7ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Arrows-C''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F80x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F81x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F82x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F83x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F84x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f847;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F85x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT RIGHT SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP DOWN SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f859;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F86x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F87x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F88x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f887;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F89x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE HALF|&#x1f89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE THIRD|&#x1f89f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BOTTOM-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BOTTOM SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f8ad;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Bx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING UPWARDS THEN NORTH WEST|&#x1f8b0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING RIGHTWARDS THEN CURVING SOUTH WEST|&#x1f8b1;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LOWER HOOK|&#x1f8b2;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS BLACK ARROW TO BAR|&#x1f8b3;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b4;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED UPWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b5;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED RIGHTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b6;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b7;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b8;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b9;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8ba;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8bb;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Cx |style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c0;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c1;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Dx |style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW OVER LONG LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8d0;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON OVER LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d1;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d2;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d3;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d4;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d5;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW THROUGH X|&#x1f8d6;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH DOUBLE SLASH|&#x1f8d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG LEFT RIGHT ARROW WITH DEPENDENT LOBE|&#x1f8d8;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F90x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE|&#x1f902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH DOT|&#x1f906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE|&#x1f907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK|&#x1f908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK|&#x1f909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90b;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHED FINGERS|&#x1f90c;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEART|&#x1f90d;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BROWN HEART|&#x1f90e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHING HAND|&#x1f90f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F91x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZIPPER-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH THERMOMETER|&#x1f912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NERD FACE|&#x1f913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THINKING FACE|&#x1f914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH HEAD-BANDAGE|&#x1f915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROBOT FACE|&#x1f916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUGGING FACE|&#x1f917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGN OF THE HORNS|&#x1f918;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CALL ME HAND|&#x1f919;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED BACK OF HAND|&#x1f91a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default 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!style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT RED HAIR|&#x1f9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT CURLY HAIR|&#x1f9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT BALD|&#x1f9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT WHITE HAIR|&#x1f9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BONE|&#x1f9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG|&#x1f9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOOT|&#x1f9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTH|&#x1f9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERHERO|&#x1f9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERVILLAIN|&#x1f9b9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY VEST|&#x1f9ba;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR WITH HEARING AID|&#x1f9bb;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORIZED WHEELCHAIR|&#x1f9bc;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANUAL WHEELCHAIR|&#x1f9bd;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default 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color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COAT|&#x1f9e5;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOCKS|&#x1f9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED GIFT ENVELOPE|&#x1f9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRECRACKER|&#x1f9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JIGSAW PUZZLE PIECE|&#x1f9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEST TUBE|&#x1f9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PETRI DISH|&#x1f9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DNA DOUBLE HELIX|&#x1f9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPASS|&#x1f9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ABACUS|&#x1f9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE EXTINGUISHER|&#x1f9ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOLBOX|&#x1f9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRICK|&#x1f9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGNET|&#x1f9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUGGAGE|&#x1f9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTION BOTTLE|&#x1f9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOOL OF THREAD|&#x1f9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALL OF YARN|&#x1f9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY PIN|&#x1f9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEDDY BEAR|&#x1f9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROOM|&#x1f9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASKET|&#x1f9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLL OF PAPER|&#x1f9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR OF SOAP|&#x1f9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPONGE|&#x1f9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECEIPT|&#x1f9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAZAR AMULET|&#x1f9ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Chess Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING|&#x1fa00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN|&#x1fa01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK|&#x1fa02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP|&#x1fa03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT|&#x1fa04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN|&#x1fa05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREE|&#x1fa06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa2f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA5x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa50;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa51;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa52;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa53;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa54;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa55;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa56;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa57;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa58;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa59;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5a;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5b;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5d;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5e;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED GENERAL|&#x1fa60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED MANDARIN|&#x1fa61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED ELEPHANT|&#x1fa62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED HORSE|&#x1fa63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CHARIOT|&#x1fa64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CANNON|&#x1fa65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED SOLDIER|&#x1fa66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK GENERAL|&#x1fa67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK MANDARIN|&#x1fa68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK ELEPHANT|&#x1fa69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK HORSE|&#x1fa6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CHARIOT|&#x1fa6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CANNON|&#x1fa6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK SOLDIER|&#x1fa6d;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA7x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLET SHOES|&#x1fa70;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE-PIECE SWIMSUIT|&#x1fa71;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFS|&#x1fa72;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTS|&#x1fa73;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THONG SANDAL|&#x1fa74;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT BLUE HEART|&#x1fa75;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREY HEART|&#x1fa76;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINK HEART|&#x1fa77;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DROP OF BLOOD|&#x1fa78;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADHESIVE BANDAGE|&#x1fa79;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STETHOSCOPE|&#x1fa7a;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|X-RAY|&#x1fa7b;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRUTCH|&#x1fa7c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOOD BAG|&#x1fa7d;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INHALER|&#x1fa7e;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX OF PILLS|&#x1fa7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA8x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YO-YO|&#x1fa80;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KITE|&#x1fa81;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARACHUTE|&#x1fa82;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOMERANG|&#x1fa83;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGIC WAND|&#x1fa84;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINATA|&#x1fa85;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NESTING DOLLS|&#x1fa86;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARACAS|&#x1fa87;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUTE|&#x1fa88;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HARP|&#x1fa89;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROMBONE|&#x1fa8a;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|METEOR|&#x1fa8b;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ERASER|&#x1fa8c;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NET WITH HANDLE|&#x1fa8d;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TREASURE CHEST|&#x1fa8e;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOVEL|&#x1fa8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA9x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGED PLANET|&#x1fa90;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAIR|&#x1fa91;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAZOR|&#x1fa92;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AXE|&#x1fa93;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIYA LAMP|&#x1fa94;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BANJO|&#x1fa95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY HELMET|&#x1fa96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ACCORDION|&#x1fa97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG DRUM|&#x1fa98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COIN|&#x1fa99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARPENTRY SAW|&#x1fa9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREWDRIVER|&#x1fa9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LADDER|&#x1fa9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOOK|&#x1fa9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR|&#x1fa9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINDOW|&#x1fa9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLUNGER|&#x1faa0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING NEEDLE|&#x1faa1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNOT|&#x1faa2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUCKET|&#x1faa3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUSE TRAP|&#x1faa4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHBRUSH|&#x1faa5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADSTONE|&#x1faa6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACARD|&#x1faa7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCK|&#x1faa8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR BALL|&#x1faa9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|IDENTIFICATION CARD|&#x1faaa;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BATTERY|&#x1faab;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMSA|&#x1faac;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDING HAND FAN|&#x1faad;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIR PICK|&#x1faae;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHANDA|&#x1faaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FABx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLY|&#x1fab0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORM|&#x1fab1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEETLE|&#x1fab2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKROACH|&#x1fab3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POTTED PLANT|&#x1fab4;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOOD|&#x1fab5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FEATHER|&#x1fab6;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTUS|&#x1fab7;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CORAL|&#x1fab8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NEST|&#x1fab9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEST WITH EGGS|&#x1faba;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYACINTH|&#x1fabb;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JELLYFISH|&#x1fabc;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WING|&#x1fabd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFLESS TREE|&#x1fabe;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOOSE|&#x1fabf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FACx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANATOMICAL HEART|&#x1fac0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default 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FACE|&#x1faea;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRACKING FACE|&#x1faeb;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH SQUINTING EYES|&#x1faec;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLEVER FACE|&#x1faed;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PALM ON CHEEK|&#x1faee;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FIGHT CLOUD|&#x1faef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAFx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB CROSSED|&#x1faf0;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf1;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf2;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM DOWN HAND|&#x1faf3;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM UP HAND|&#x1faf4;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDEX POINTING AT THE VIEWER|&#x1faf5;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART HANDS|&#x1faf6;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf7;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1faf9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1fafa;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE FINGER SALUTE|&#x1fafb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND SNAPPING FINGERS|&#x1fafc;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB FORMING CIRCLE|&#x1fafd;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG KICKING|&#x1fafe;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMP|&#x1faff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols for Legacy Computing''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1|&#x1fb00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2|&#x1fb01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12|&#x1fb02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3|&#x1fb03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK 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POINTER|&#x1fbb0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECK MARK|&#x1fbb1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH TIP LEFTWARDS|&#x1fbb4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbb9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOIDED GREEK CROSS|&#x1fbbb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT OPEN SQUARED DOT|&#x1fbbc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL CROSS|&#x1fbbd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbbe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbbf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBCx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEAVY SALTIRE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1fbc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED QUESTION MARK|&#x1fbc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE|&#x1fbc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH ARMS RAISED|&#x1fbc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING LEFT|&#x1fbc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING RIGHT|&#x1fbc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH DRESS|&#x1fbc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbca;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CROSS MARK|&#x1fbcb;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED SMALL LEFT SQUARE BRACKET|&#x1fbcc;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SMALL UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbcd;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TWO THIRDS BLOCK|&#x1fbce;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ONE THIRD BLOCK|&#x1fbcf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX 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LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE LEFT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbeb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP RIGHT JUSTIFIED LOWER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM LEFT JUSTIFIED UPPER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM RIGHT JUSTIFIED UPPER LEFT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP LEFT JUSTIFIED LOWER RIGHT QUARTER BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBFx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ZERO|&#x1fbf0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT ONE|&#x1fbf1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT TWO|&#x1fbf2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT THREE|&#x1fbf3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FOUR|&#x1fbf4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT FIVE|&#x1fbf5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SIX|&#x1fbf6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT SEVEN|&#x1fbf7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT EIGHT|&#x1fbf8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEGMENTED DIGIT NINE|&#x1fbf9;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALARM BELL SYMBOL|&#x1fbfa;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FC9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FCFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD0x |style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RECTANGULAR TABLE|&#x1fd00;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ESCALATOR|&#x1fd01;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLDOZER|&#x1fd02;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT TYRE|&#x1fd03;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default 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color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOTHES HANGER|&#x1fd16;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRILL|&#x1fd17;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING BUTTON|&#x1fd18;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COOKING POT|&#x1fd19;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|APRON|&#x1fd1a;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BINOCULARS|&#x1fd1b;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INCENSE|&#x1fd1c;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PIGGY BANK|&#x1fd1d;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPRAY CAN|&#x1fd1e;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PERFUME GLASS BOTTLE|&#x1fd1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD2x |style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOLD BAR|&#x1fd20;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CYMBALS|&#x1fd21;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|XYLOPHONE|&#x1fd22;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONCRETE BLOCK|&#x1fd23;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD4x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPRING ONION|&#x1fd40;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRAPEFRUIT|&#x1fd41;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE POP|&#x1fd42;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CINNAMON STICKS|&#x1fd43;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUGAR CUBES|&#x1fd44;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POMEGRANATE|&#x1fd45;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRAGON FRUIT|&#x1fd46;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOFFEE|&#x1fd47;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD5x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCHID|&#x1fd50;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAMELEON|&#x1fd51;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OSTRICH|&#x1fd52;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOLE|&#x1fd53;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARIGOLD|&#x1fd54;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMBAT|&#x1fd55;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAHORSE|&#x1fd56;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOUCAN|&#x1fd57;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD7x |style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMACH|&#x1fd70;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INTESTINE|&#x1fd71;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD8x |style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE REVEALING FACE|&#x1fd80;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FD9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FDFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | ''Unassigned'' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FE9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FECx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FEFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white"|&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white;"|&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} a8xy8z1jnoynyn7xvggvp9jzbef3laq 4673971 4673949 2026-10-04T05:55:07Z ILYA125467 3627024 Roadmaps say it's Extended Pictographic Characters, not Symbols and Pictographs Extended-B. 4673971 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{Text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Mahjong Tiles''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !width="4%"|U+!!width="6%"|0!!width="6%"|1!!width="6%"|2!!width="6%"|3!!width="6%"|4!!width="6%"|5!!width="6%"|6!!width="6%"|7!!width="6%"|8!!width="6%"|9!!width="6%"|A!!width="6%"|B!!width="6%"|C!!width="6%"|D!!width="6%"|E!!width="6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F00x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EAST WIND|&#x1f000;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SOUTH WIND|&#x1f001;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WEST WIND|&#x1f002;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NORTH WIND|&#x1f003;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE RED DRAGON|&#x1f004;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE GREEN DRAGON|&#x1f005;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WHITE DRAGON|&#x1f006;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f007;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f008;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f009;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CHARACTERS|&#x1f00f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F01x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f010;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f011;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f012;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f013;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f014;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f015;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f016;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f017;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF BAMBOOS|&#x1f018;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ONE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f019;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE TWO OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE THREE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FOUR OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE FIVE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SIX OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SEVEN OF CIRCLES|&#x1f01f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F02x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE EIGHT OF CIRCLES|&#x1f020;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE NINE OF CIRCLES|&#x1f021;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE PLUM|&#x1f022;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE ORCHID|&#x1f023;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BAMBOO|&#x1f024;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE CHRYSANTHEMUM|&#x1f025;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SPRING|&#x1f026;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE SUMMER|&#x1f027;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE AUTUMN|&#x1f028;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE WINTER|&#x1f029;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE JOKER|&#x1f02a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAHJONG TILE BACK|&#x1f02b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Domino Tiles''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F03x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL BACK|&#x1f030;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-00|&#x1f031;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-01|&#x1f032;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-02|&#x1f033;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-03|&#x1f034;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-04|&#x1f035;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-05|&#x1f036;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-00-06|&#x1f037;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-00|&#x1f038;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-01|&#x1f039;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-02|&#x1f03a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-03|&#x1f03b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-04|&#x1f03c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-05|&#x1f03d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-01-06|&#x1f03e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-00|&#x1f03f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F04x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-01|&#x1f040;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-02|&#x1f041;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-03|&#x1f042;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-04|&#x1f043;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-05|&#x1f044;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-02-06|&#x1f045;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-00|&#x1f046;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-01|&#x1f047;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-02|&#x1f048;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-03|&#x1f049;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-04|&#x1f04a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-05|&#x1f04b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-03-06|&#x1f04c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-00|&#x1f04d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-01|&#x1f04e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-02|&#x1f04f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F05x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-03|&#x1f050;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-04|&#x1f051;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-05|&#x1f052;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-04-06|&#x1f053;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-00|&#x1f054;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-01|&#x1f055;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-02|&#x1f056;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-03|&#x1f057;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-04|&#x1f058;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-05|&#x1f059;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-05-06|&#x1f05a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-00|&#x1f05b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-01|&#x1f05c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-02|&#x1f05d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-03|&#x1f05e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-04|&#x1f05f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F06x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-05|&#x1f060;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE HORIZONTAL-06-06|&#x1f061;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL BACK|&#x1f062;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-00|&#x1f063;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-01|&#x1f064;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-02|&#x1f065;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-03|&#x1f066;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-04|&#x1f067;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-05|&#x1f068;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-00-06|&#x1f069;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-00|&#x1f06a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-01|&#x1f06b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-02|&#x1f06c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-03|&#x1f06d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-04|&#x1f06e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-05|&#x1f06f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F07x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-01-06|&#x1f070;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-00|&#x1f071;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-01|&#x1f072;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-02|&#x1f073;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-03|&#x1f074;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-04|&#x1f075;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-05|&#x1f076;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-02-06|&#x1f077;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-00|&#x1f078;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-01|&#x1f079;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-02|&#x1f07a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-03|&#x1f07b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-04|&#x1f07c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-05|&#x1f07d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-03-06|&#x1f07e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-00|&#x1f07f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F08x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-01|&#x1f080;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-02|&#x1f081;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-03|&#x1f082;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-04|&#x1f083;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-05|&#x1f084;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-04-06|&#x1f085;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-00|&#x1f086;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-01|&#x1f087;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-02|&#x1f088;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-03|&#x1f089;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-04|&#x1f08a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-05|&#x1f08b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-05-06|&#x1f08c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-00|&#x1f08d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-01|&#x1f08e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-02|&#x1f08f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F09x |style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-03|&#x1f090;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-04|&#x1f091;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-05|&#x1f092;}}||style="background:#75ffab;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOMINO TILE VERTICAL-06-06|&#x1f093;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Playing Cards''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BACK|&#x1f0a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF SPADES|&#x1f0a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF SPADES|&#x1f0a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF SPADES|&#x1f0a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF SPADES|&#x1f0a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF SPADES|&#x1f0ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF SPADES|&#x1f0ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF SPADES|&#x1f0ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF SPADES|&#x1f0ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Bx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF HEARTS|&#x1f0b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF HEARTS|&#x1f0bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF HEARTS|&#x1f0be;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD RED JOKER|&#x1f0bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Cx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF DIAMONDS|&#x1f0ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD BLACK JOKER|&#x1f0cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Dx |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD ACE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TWO OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD THREE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOUR OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FIVE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SIX OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD SEVEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD EIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD NINE OF CLUBS|&#x1f0d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD JACK OF CLUBS|&#x1f0db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KNIGHT OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD QUEEN OF CLUBS|&#x1f0dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD KING OF CLUBS|&#x1f0de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD WHITE JOKER|&#x1f0df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD FOOL|&#x1f0e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-1|&#x1f0e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-2|&#x1f0e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-3|&#x1f0e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-4|&#x1f0e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-5|&#x1f0e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-6|&#x1f0e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-7|&#x1f0e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-8|&#x1f0e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-9|&#x1f0e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-10|&#x1f0ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-11|&#x1f0eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-12|&#x1f0ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-13|&#x1f0ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-14|&#x1f0ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-15|&#x1f0ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F0Fx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-16|&#x1f0f0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-17|&#x1f0f1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-18|&#x1f0f2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-19|&#x1f0f3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-20|&#x1f0f4;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYING CARD TRUMP-21|&#x1f0f5;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F10x |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO FULL STOP|&#x1f100;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ZERO COMMA|&#x1f101;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT ONE COMMA|&#x1f102;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT TWO COMMA|&#x1f103;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT THREE COMMA|&#x1f104;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FOUR COMMA|&#x1f105;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT FIVE COMMA|&#x1f106;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SIX COMMA|&#x1f107;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT SEVEN COMMA|&#x1f108;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT EIGHT COMMA|&#x1f109;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIGIT NINE COMMA|&#x1f10a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DINGBAT NEGATIVE CIRCLED SANS-SERIF DIGIT ZERO|&#x1f10c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ZERO WITH SLASH|&#x1f10d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ANTICLOCKWISE ARROW|&#x1f10e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED DOLLAR SIGN WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f10f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F11x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f110;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f111;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f112;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f113;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f114;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f115;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f116;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f117;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f118;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f119;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f11a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f11b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f11c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f11d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f11e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f11f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F12x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f120;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f121;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f122;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f123;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f124;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f125;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f126;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f127;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f128;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f129;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f12a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f12b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED ITALIC LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f12c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CD|&#x1f12d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED WZ|&#x1f12e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COPYLEFT SYMBOL|&#x1f12f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F13x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f130;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f131;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f132;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f133;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f134;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f135;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f136;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f137;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f138;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f139;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f13a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f13b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f13c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f13d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f13e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f13f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F14x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f140;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f141;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f142;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f143;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f144;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f145;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f146;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f147;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f148;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f149;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HV|&#x1f14a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED MV|&#x1f14b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SD|&#x1f14c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SS|&#x1f14d;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED PPV|&#x1f14e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED WC|&#x1f14f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F15x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f150;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f151;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f152;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f153;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f154;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f155;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f156;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f157;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f158;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f159;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f15a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f15b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f15c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f15d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f15e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f15f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F16x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f160;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f161;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f162;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f163;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f164;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f165;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f166;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f167;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f168;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f169;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MC SIGN|&#x1f16a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MD SIGN|&#x1f16b;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED MR SIGN|&#x1f16c;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CC|&#x1f16d;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED C WITH OVERLAID BACKSLASH|&#x1f16e;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED HUMAN FIGURE|&#x1f16f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F17x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x1f170;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x1f171;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x1f172;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x1f173;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x1f174;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x1f175;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x1f176;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x1f177;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x1f178;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x1f179;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x1f17a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x1f17b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x1f17c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x1f17d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x1f17e;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f17f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F18x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x1f180;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x1f181;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER S|&#x1f182;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x1f183;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x1f184;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x1f185;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x1f186;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x1f187;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x1f188;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x1f189;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSSED NEGATIVE SQUARED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x1f18a;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED IC|&#x1f18b;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED PA|&#x1f18c;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED SA|&#x1f18d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED AB|&#x1f18e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED WC|&#x1f18f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F19x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE DJ|&#x1f190;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CL|&#x1f191;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED COOL|&#x1f192;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FREE|&#x1f193;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ID|&#x1f194;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NEW|&#x1f195;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED NG|&#x1f196;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED OK|&#x1f197;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SOS|&#x1f198;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UP WITH EXCLAMATION MARK|&#x1f199;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VS|&#x1f19a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED THREE D|&#x1f19b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SECOND SCREEN|&#x1f19c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWO K|&#x1f19d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FOUR K|&#x1f19e;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED EIGHT K|&#x1f19f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED FIVE POINT ONE|&#x1f1a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SEVEN POINT ONE|&#x1f1a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED TWENTY-TWO POINT TWO|&#x1f1a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SIXTY P|&#x1f1a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED ONE HUNDRED TWENTY P|&#x1f1a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LATIN SMALL LETTER D|&#x1f1a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HC|&#x1f1a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HDR|&#x1f1a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED HI-RES|&#x1f1a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED LOSSLESS|&#x1f1a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED SHV|&#x1f1aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED UHD|&#x1f1ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED VOD|&#x1f1ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MASK WORK SYMBOL|&#x1f1ad;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOMOBIKI SYMBOL|&#x1f1ae;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Ex |style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER A|&#x1f1e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER B|&#x1f1e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER C|&#x1f1e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER D|&#x1f1e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER E|&#x1f1ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER F|&#x1f1eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER G|&#x1f1ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER H|&#x1f1ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER I|&#x1f1ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER J|&#x1f1ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F1Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER K|&#x1f1f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER L|&#x1f1f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER M|&#x1f1f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER N|&#x1f1f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER O|&#x1f1f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER P|&#x1f1f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Q|&#x1f1f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER R|&#x1f1f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER S|&#x1f1f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER T|&#x1f1f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER U|&#x1f1fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER V|&#x1f1fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER W|&#x1f1fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER X|&#x1f1fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Y|&#x1f1fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER Z|&#x1f1ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Enclosed Ideographic Supplement''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F20x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE HIRAGANA HOKA|&#x1f200;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA KOKO|&#x1f201;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA SA|&#x1f202;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F21x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-624B|&#x1f210;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B57|&#x1f211;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53CC|&#x1f212;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED KATAKANA DE|&#x1f213;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f214;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-591A|&#x1f215;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-89E3|&#x1f216;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5929|&#x1f217;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4EA4|&#x1f218;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6620|&#x1f219;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7121|&#x1f21a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6599|&#x1f21b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-524D|&#x1f21c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5F8C|&#x1f21d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-518D|&#x1f21e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-65B0|&#x1f21f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F22x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-521D|&#x1f220;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7D42|&#x1f221;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-751F|&#x1f222;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8CA9|&#x1f223;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-58F0|&#x1f224;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5439|&#x1f225;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6F14|&#x1f226;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6295|&#x1f227;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6355|&#x1f228;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E00|&#x1f229;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f22a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-904A|&#x1f22b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5DE6|&#x1f22c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E2D|&#x1f22d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-53F3|&#x1f22e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6307|&#x1f22f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F23x |style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-8D70|&#x1f230;}}||style="background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f231;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7981|&#x1f232;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7A7A|&#x1f233;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5408|&#x1f234;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6E80|&#x1f235;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6709|&#x1f236;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6708|&#x1f237;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-7533|&#x1f238;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5272|&#x1f239;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-55B6|&#x1f23a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-914D|&#x1f23b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#78ffca;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F24x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-672C|&#x1f240;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E09|&#x1f241;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-4E8C|&#x1f242;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-5B89|&#x1f243;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-70B9|&#x1f244;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6253|&#x1f245;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-76D7|&#x1f246;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-52DD|&#x1f247;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED CJK UNIFIED IDEOGRAPH-6557|&#x1f248;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F25x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ADVANTAGE|&#x1f250;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED IDEOGRAPH ACCEPT|&#x1f251;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F26x |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR FU|&#x1f260;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR LU|&#x1f261;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHOU|&#x1f262;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR XI|&#x1f263;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR SHUANGXI|&#x1f264;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUNDED SYMBOL FOR CAI|&#x1f265;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F27x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F28x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F29x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F2Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Miscellaneous Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F30x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CYCLONE|&#x1f300;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOGGY|&#x1f301;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED UMBRELLA|&#x1f302;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NIGHT WITH STARS|&#x1f303;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE OVER MOUNTAINS|&#x1f304;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNRISE|&#x1f305;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CITYSCAPE AT DUSK|&#x1f306;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNSET OVER BUILDINGS|&#x1f307;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAINBOW|&#x1f308;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDGE AT NIGHT|&#x1f309;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER WAVE|&#x1f30a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOLCANO|&#x1f30b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILKY WAY|&#x1f30c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE EUROPE-AFRICA|&#x1f30d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE AMERICAS|&#x1f30e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EARTH GLOBE ASIA-AUSTRALIA|&#x1f30f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F31x |{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOBE WITH MERIDIANS|&#x1f310;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f311;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f312;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f313;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAXING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f314;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f315;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING GIBBOUS MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f316;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f317;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WANING CRESCENT MOON SYMBOL|&#x1f318;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRESCENT MOON|&#x1f319;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEW MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAST QUARTER MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FULL MOON WITH FACE|&#x1f31d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUN WITH FACE|&#x1f31e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOWING STAR|&#x1f31f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F32x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOOTING STAR|&#x1f320;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THERMOMETER|&#x1f321;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DROPLET|&#x1f322;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN|&#x1f323;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN WITH SMALL CLOUD|&#x1f324;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD|&#x1f325;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SUN BEHIND CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f326;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH RAIN|&#x1f327;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH SNOW|&#x1f328;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH LIGHTNING|&#x1f329;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOUD WITH TORNADO|&#x1f32a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOG|&#x1f32b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIND BLOWING FACE|&#x1f32c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT DOG|&#x1f32d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TACO|&#x1f32e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BURRITO|&#x1f32f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F33x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CHESTNUT|&#x1f330;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEEDLING|&#x1f331;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EVERGREEN TREE|&#x1f332;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECIDUOUS TREE|&#x1f333;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM TREE|&#x1f334;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CACTUS|&#x1f335;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT PEPPER|&#x1f336;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TULIP|&#x1f337;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHERRY BLOSSOM|&#x1f338;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROSE|&#x1f339;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIBISCUS|&#x1f33a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUNFLOWER|&#x1f33b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOSSOM|&#x1f33c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF MAIZE|&#x1f33d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR OF RICE|&#x1f33e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HERB|&#x1f33f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F34x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR LEAF CLOVER|&#x1f340;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAPLE LEAF|&#x1f341;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALLEN 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SILHOUETTE|&#x1f465;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOY|&#x1f466;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRL|&#x1f467;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN|&#x1f468;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMAN|&#x1f469;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAMILY|&#x1f46a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN AND WOMAN HOLDING HANDS|&#x1f46b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO MEN HOLDING HANDS|&#x1f46c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO WOMEN HOLDING HANDS|&#x1f46d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE OFFICER|&#x1f46e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMAN WITH BUNNY EARS|&#x1f46f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F47x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIDE WITH VEIL|&#x1f470;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH BLOND HAIR|&#x1f471;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN WITH GUA PI MAO|&#x1f472;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN WITH TURBAN|&#x1f473;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER MAN|&#x1f474;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER WOMAN|&#x1f475;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY|&#x1f476;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION WORKER|&#x1f477;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCESS|&#x1f478;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE OGRE|&#x1f479;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE GOBLIN|&#x1f47a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GHOST|&#x1f47b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY ANGEL|&#x1f47c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTRATERRESTRIAL ALIEN|&#x1f47d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALIEN MONSTER|&#x1f47e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|IMP|&#x1f47f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F48x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SKULL|&#x1f480;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INFORMATION DESK PERSON|&#x1f481;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUARDSMAN|&#x1f482;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DANCER|&#x1f483;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPSTICK|&#x1f484;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAIL POLISH|&#x1f485;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE MASSAGE|&#x1f486;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIRCUT|&#x1f487;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BARBER POLE|&#x1f488;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYRINGE|&#x1f489;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILL|&#x1f48a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISS MARK|&#x1f48b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOVE LETTER|&#x1f48c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RING|&#x1f48d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GEM STONE|&#x1f48e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISS|&#x1f48f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F49x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOUQUET|&#x1f490;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUPLE WITH HEART|&#x1f491;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEDDING|&#x1f492;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEATING HEART|&#x1f493;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROKEN HEART|&#x1f494;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO HEARTS|&#x1f495;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPARKLING HEART|&#x1f496;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GROWING HEART|&#x1f497;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH ARROW|&#x1f498;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE HEART|&#x1f499;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN HEART|&#x1f49a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|YELLOW HEART|&#x1f49b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PURPLE HEART|&#x1f49c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART WITH RIBBON|&#x1f49d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVOLVING HEARTS|&#x1f49e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART DECORATION|&#x1f49f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND SHAPE WITH A DOT INSIDE|&#x1f4a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC LIGHT BULB|&#x1f4a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGER SYMBOL|&#x1f4a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOMB|&#x1f4a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING SYMBOL|&#x1f4a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COLLISION SYMBOL|&#x1f4a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLASHING SWEAT SYMBOL|&#x1f4a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROPLET|&#x1f4a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DASH SYMBOL|&#x1f4a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PILE OF POO|&#x1f4a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLEXED BICEPS|&#x1f4aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY SYMBOL|&#x1f4ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEECH BALLOON|&#x1f4ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THOUGHT BALLOON|&#x1f4ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE FLOWER|&#x1f4ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUNDRED POINTS SYMBOL|&#x1f4af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY BAG|&#x1f4b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CURRENCY EXCHANGE|&#x1f4b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOLLAR SIGN|&#x1f4b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CREDIT CARD|&#x1f4b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH YEN SIGN|&#x1f4b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH DOLLAR SIGN|&#x1f4b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH EURO SIGN|&#x1f4b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BANKNOTE WITH POUND SIGN|&#x1f4b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY WITH WINGS|&#x1f4b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND AND YEN SIGN|&#x1f4b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAT|&#x1f4ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSONAL COMPUTER|&#x1f4bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFCASE|&#x1f4bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIDISC|&#x1f4bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f4be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC|&#x1f4bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|DVD|&#x1f4c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE FOLDER|&#x1f4c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FILE FOLDER|&#x1f4c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CURL|&#x1f4c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE FACING UP|&#x1f4c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CALENDAR|&#x1f4c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAR-OFF CALENDAR|&#x1f4c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX|&#x1f4c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH UPWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHART WITH DOWNWARDS TREND|&#x1f4c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR CHART|&#x1f4ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLIPBOARD|&#x1f4cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND PUSHPIN|&#x1f4cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAPERCLIP|&#x1f4ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STRAIGHT RULER|&#x1f4cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR RULER|&#x1f4d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK TABS|&#x1f4d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEDGER|&#x1f4d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK|&#x1f4d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTEBOOK WITH DECORATIVE COVER|&#x1f4d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED BOOK|&#x1f4d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN BOOK|&#x1f4d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN BOOK|&#x1f4d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUE BOOK|&#x1f4d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE BOOK|&#x1f4d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKS|&#x1f4da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAME BADGE|&#x1f4db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCROLL|&#x1f4dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEMO|&#x1f4dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEPHONE RECEIVER|&#x1f4de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGER|&#x1f4df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX MACHINE|&#x1f4e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE ANTENNA|&#x1f4e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUBLIC ADDRESS LOUDSPEAKER|&#x1f4e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEERING MEGAPHONE|&#x1f4e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OUTBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INBOX TRAY|&#x1f4e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PACKAGE|&#x1f4e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|E-MAIL SYMBOL|&#x1f4e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCOMING ENVELOPE|&#x1f4e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ENVELOPE WITH DOWNWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f4e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH RAISED FLAG|&#x1f4ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN MAILBOX WITH LOWERED FLAG|&#x1f4ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTBOX|&#x1f4ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POSTAL HORN|&#x1f4ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F4Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEWSPAPER|&#x1f4f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE|&#x1f4f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW AT LEFT|&#x1f4f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIBRATION MODE|&#x1f4f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOBILE PHONE OFF|&#x1f4f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO MOBILE PHONES|&#x1f4f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTENNA WITH BARS|&#x1f4f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA|&#x1f4f7;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CAMERA WITH FLASH|&#x1f4f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEO CAMERA|&#x1f4f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELEVISION|&#x1f4fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO|&#x1f4fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VIDEOCASSETTE|&#x1f4fc;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FILM PROJECTOR|&#x1f4fd;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PORTABLE STEREO|&#x1f4fe;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PRAYER BEADS|&#x1f4ff;}} |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F50x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWISTED RIGHTWARDS ARROWS|&#x1f500;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f501;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHTWARDS AND LEFTWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS WITH CIRCLED ONE OVERLAY|&#x1f502;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f503;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ANTICLOCKWISE DOWNWARDS AND UPWARDS OPEN CIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f504;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f505;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH BRIGHTNESS SYMBOL|&#x1f506;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f507;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER|&#x1f508;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f509;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f50a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BATTERY|&#x1f50b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC PLUG|&#x1f50c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-POINTING MAGNIFYING GLASS|&#x1f50e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK WITH INK PEN|&#x1f50f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F51x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOSED LOCK WITH KEY|&#x1f510;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEY|&#x1f511;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOCK|&#x1f512;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN LOCK|&#x1f513;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL|&#x1f514;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL WITH CANCELLATION STROKE|&#x1f515;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOKMARK|&#x1f516;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LINK SYMBOL|&#x1f517;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RADIO BUTTON|&#x1f518;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACK WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f519;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|END WITH LEFTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ON WITH EXCLAMATION MARK WITH LEFT RIGHT ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOON WITH RIGHTWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP WITH UPWARDS ARROW ABOVE|&#x1f51d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ONE UNDER EIGHTEEN SYMBOL|&#x1f51e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYCAP TEN|&#x1f51f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F52x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN CAPITAL LETTERS|&#x1f520;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN SMALL LETTERS|&#x1f521;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR NUMBERS|&#x1f522;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR SYMBOLS|&#x1f523;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INPUT SYMBOL FOR LATIN LETTERS|&#x1f524;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE|&#x1f525;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELECTRIC TORCH|&#x1f526;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRENCH|&#x1f527;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER|&#x1f528;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NUT AND BOLT|&#x1f529;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOCHO|&#x1f52a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PISTOL|&#x1f52b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROSCOPE|&#x1f52c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TELESCOPE|&#x1f52d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYSTAL BALL|&#x1f52e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED STAR WITH MIDDLE DOT|&#x1f52f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F53x |{{H:title|dotted=no|JAPANESE SYMBOL FOR BEGINNER|&#x1f530;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIDENT EMBLEM|&#x1f531;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f532;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE BUTTON|&#x1f533;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED CIRCLE|&#x1f534;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE CIRCLE|&#x1f535;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f536;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f537;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL ORANGE DIAMOND|&#x1f538;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL BLUE DIAMOND|&#x1f539;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWN-POINTING SMALL RED TRIANGLE|&#x1f53d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT SHADOWED WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f53f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F54x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f540;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE WITH HALF-CIRCLE BELOW|&#x1f541;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CROSS POMMEE|&#x1f542;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED LEFT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f543;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTCHED RIGHT SEMICIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f544;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SYMBOL FOR MARKS CHAPTER|&#x1f545;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LATIN CROSS|&#x1f546;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LATIN CROSS|&#x1f547;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CELTIC CROSS|&#x1f548;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OM SYMBOL|&#x1f549;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOVE OF PEACE|&#x1f54a;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KAABA|&#x1f54b;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUE|&#x1f54c;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SYNAGOGUE|&#x1f54d;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MENORAH WITH NINE BRANCHES|&#x1f54e;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL OF HYGIEIA|&#x1f54f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F55x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE OCLOCK|&#x1f550;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO OCLOCK|&#x1f551;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE OCLOCK|&#x1f552;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR OCLOCK|&#x1f553;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE OCLOCK|&#x1f554;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX OCLOCK|&#x1f555;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f556;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT OCLOCK|&#x1f557;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE OCLOCK|&#x1f558;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN OCLOCK|&#x1f559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN OCLOCK|&#x1f55a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE OCLOCK|&#x1f55b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ONE-THIRTY|&#x1f55c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWO-THIRTY|&#x1f55d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE THREE-THIRTY|&#x1f55e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FOUR-THIRTY|&#x1f55f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F56x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE FIVE-THIRTY|&#x1f560;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SIX-THIRTY|&#x1f561;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE SEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f562;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE EIGHT-THIRTY|&#x1f563;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE NINE-THIRTY|&#x1f564;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TEN-THIRTY|&#x1f565;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE ELEVEN-THIRTY|&#x1f566;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCK FACE TWELVE-THIRTY|&#x1f567;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER|&#x1f568;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH ONE SOUND WAVE|&#x1f569;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEAKER WITH THREE SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56a;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN|&#x1f56b;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLHORN WITH SOUND WAVES|&#x1f56c;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGING BELL|&#x1f56d;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOK|&#x1f56e;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANDLE|&#x1f56f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F57x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MANTELPIECE CLOCK|&#x1f570;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SKULL AND CROSSBONES|&#x1f571;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PIRACY|&#x1f572;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLE|&#x1f573;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN BUSINESS SUIT 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!style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK UP POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIDEWAYS BLACK DOWN POINTING INDEX|&#x1f5a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN POINTING BACKHAND INDEX|&#x1f5a3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HEART|&#x1f5a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP COMPUTER|&#x1f5a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KEYBOARD AND MOUSE|&#x1f5a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE NETWORKED COMPUTERS|&#x1f5a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER|&#x1f5a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POCKET CALCULATOR|&#x1f5a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HARD SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFT SHELL FLOPPY DISK|&#x1f5ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAPE CARTRIDGE|&#x1f5ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRED KEYBOARD|&#x1f5ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE BUTTON MOUSE|&#x1f5b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACKBALL|&#x1f5b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD PERSONAL COMPUTER|&#x1f5b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HARD DISK|&#x1f5b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREEN|&#x1f5b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINTER ICON|&#x1f5b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAX ICON|&#x1f5b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPTICAL DISC ICON|&#x1f5b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT|&#x1f5b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH TEXT AND PICTURE|&#x1f5ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH PICTURE|&#x1f5bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH TILES|&#x1f5bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FRAME WITH AN X|&#x1f5be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK FOLDER|&#x1f5bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDER|&#x1f5c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OPEN FOLDER|&#x1f5c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD INDEX DIVIDERS|&#x1f5c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARD FILE BOX|&#x1f5c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FILE CABINET|&#x1f5c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE|&#x1f5c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NOTE PAD|&#x1f5c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE|&#x1f5c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAGE|&#x1f5c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NOTE PAD|&#x1f5ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY DOCUMENT|&#x1f5cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGE|&#x1f5cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY PAGES|&#x1f5cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOCUMENT|&#x1f5ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE|&#x1f5cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGES|&#x1f5d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WASTEBASKET|&#x1f5d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL NOTE PAD|&#x1f5d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPIRAL CALENDAR PAD|&#x1f5d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DESKTOP WINDOW|&#x1f5d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIMIZE|&#x1f5d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAXIMIZE|&#x1f5d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERLAP|&#x1f5d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOCKWISE RIGHT AND LEFT SEMICIRCLE ARROWS|&#x1f5d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANCELLATION X|&#x1f5d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INCREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DECREASE FONT SIZE SYMBOL|&#x1f5db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPRESSION|&#x1f5dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLD KEY|&#x1f5dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLED-UP NEWSPAPER|&#x1f5de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGE WITH CIRCLED TEXT|&#x1f5df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|STOCK CHART|&#x1f5e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DAGGER KNIFE|&#x1f5e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIPS|&#x1f5e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAKING HEAD IN SILHOUETTE|&#x1f5e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS ABOVE|&#x1f5e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS BELOW|&#x1f5e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS LEFT|&#x1f5e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE RAYS RIGHT|&#x1f5e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SPEECH BUBBLE|&#x1f5e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TWO SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE SPEECH BUBBLES|&#x1f5eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THOUGHT BUBBLE|&#x1f5ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ANGER BUBBLE|&#x1f5ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F5Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD BUBBLE|&#x1f5f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTNING MOOD|&#x1f5f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BALLOT|&#x1f5f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD SCRIPT X|&#x1f5f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT CHECK MARK|&#x1f5f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLOT BOX WITH BOLD CHECK|&#x1f5f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WORLD MAP|&#x1f5fa;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNT FUJI|&#x1f5fb;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TOKYO TOWER|&#x1f5fc;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STATUE OF LIBERTY|&#x1f5fd;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SILHOUETTE OF JAPAN|&#x1f5fe;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOYAI|&#x1f5ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Emoticons''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F60x |style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE|&#x1f600;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f601;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f602;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f603;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND SMILING EYES|&#x1f604;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f605;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f606;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HALO|&#x1f607;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HORNS|&#x1f608;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINKING FACE|&#x1f609;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f60a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SAVOURING DELICIOUS FOOD|&#x1f60b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f60c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f60d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SUNGLASSES|&#x1f60e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMIRKING FACE|&#x1f60f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F61x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL FACE|&#x1f610;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXPRESSIONLESS FACE|&#x1f611;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UNAMUSED FACE|&#x1f612;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COLD SWEAT|&#x1f613;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PENSIVE FACE|&#x1f614;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFUSED FACE|&#x1f615;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONFOUNDED FACE|&#x1f616;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE|&#x1f617;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE THROWING A KISS|&#x1f618;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f619;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61a;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE|&#x1f61b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND WINKING EYE|&#x1f61c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH STUCK-OUT TONGUE AND TIGHTLY-CLOSED EYES|&#x1f61d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED FACE|&#x1f61e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORRIED FACE|&#x1f61f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F62x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGRY FACE|&#x1f620;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING FACE|&#x1f621;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING FACE|&#x1f622;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSEVERING FACE|&#x1f623;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH LOOK OF TRIUMPH|&#x1f624;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DISAPPOINTED BUT RELIEVED FACE|&#x1f625;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FROWNING FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f626;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANGUISHED FACE|&#x1f627;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FEARFUL FACE|&#x1f628;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY FACE|&#x1f629;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPY FACE|&#x1f62a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TIRED FACE|&#x1f62b;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRIMACING FACE|&#x1f62c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOUDLY CRYING FACE|&#x1f62d;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f62e;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUSHED FACE|&#x1f62f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F63x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH AND COLD SWEAT|&#x1f630;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE SCREAMING IN FEAR|&#x1f631;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTONISHED FACE|&#x1f632;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUSHED FACE|&#x1f633;}}||style="background:#7ef9ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING FACE|&#x1f634;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIZZY FACE|&#x1f635;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITHOUT MOUTH|&#x1f636;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MEDICAL MASK|&#x1f637;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING CAT FACE WITH SMILING EYES|&#x1f638;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH TEARS OF JOY|&#x1f639;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH|&#x1f63a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING CAT FACE WITH HEART-SHAPED EYES|&#x1f63b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CAT FACE WITH WRY SMILE|&#x1f63c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KISSING CAT FACE WITH CLOSED EYES|&#x1f63d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POUTING CAT FACE|&#x1f63e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CRYING CAT FACE|&#x1f63f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F64x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WEARY CAT FACE|&#x1f640;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY FROWNING FACE|&#x1f641;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLIGHTLY SMILING FACE|&#x1f642;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UPSIDE-DOWN FACE|&#x1f643;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ROLLING EYES|&#x1f644;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH NO GOOD GESTURE|&#x1f645;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OK GESTURE|&#x1f646;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON BOWING DEEPLY|&#x1f647;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEE-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f648;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAR-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f649;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEAK-NO-EVIL MONKEY|&#x1f64a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAPPY PERSON RAISING ONE HAND|&#x1f64b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON RAISING BOTH HANDS IN CELEBRATION|&#x1f64c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON FROWNING|&#x1f64d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH POUTING FACE|&#x1f64e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH FOLDED HANDS|&#x1f64f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Ornamental Dingbats''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F65x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f650;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f651;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f652;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f653;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f654;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH WEST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f655;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED NORTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f656;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TURNED SOUTH EAST POINTING LEAF|&#x1f657;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f658;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f659;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING VINE LEAF|&#x1f65f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F66x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f660;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f661;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f662;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f663;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f664;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH WEST POINTING BUD|&#x1f665;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NORTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f666;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SOUTH EAST POINTING BUD|&#x1f667;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f668;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOLLOW QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f669;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT|&#x1f66a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOLID QUILT SQUARE ORNAMENT IN BLACK SQUARE|&#x1f66b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ROCKET|&#x1f66f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F67x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f670;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f671;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f672;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT|&#x1f673;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f674;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT|&#x1f675;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE TURNED COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f676;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f677;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF HEAVY LOW DOUBLE COMMA QUOTATION MARK ORNAMENT|&#x1f678;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f679;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SANS-SERIF INTERROBANG ORNAMENT|&#x1f67b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SOLIDUS|&#x1f67c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY REVERSE SOLIDUS|&#x1f67d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE CHECKER BOARD|&#x1f67f;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Transport and Map Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F68x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCKET|&#x1f680;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HELICOPTER|&#x1f681;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STEAM LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f682;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY CAR|&#x1f683;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN|&#x1f684;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIGH-SPEED TRAIN WITH BULLET NOSE|&#x1f685;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAIN|&#x1f686;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|METRO|&#x1f687;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT RAIL|&#x1f688;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STATION|&#x1f689;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM|&#x1f68a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRAM CAR|&#x1f68b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS|&#x1f68c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING BUS|&#x1f68d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLLEYBUS|&#x1f68e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUS STOP|&#x1f68f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F69x |{{H:title|dotted=no|MINIBUS|&#x1f690;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AMBULANCE|&#x1f691;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f692;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CAR|&#x1f693;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING POLICE CAR|&#x1f694;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAXI|&#x1f695;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING TAXI|&#x1f696;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f697;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING AUTOMOBILE|&#x1f698;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECREATIONAL VEHICLE|&#x1f699;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DELIVERY TRUCK|&#x1f69a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ARTICULATED LORRY|&#x1f69b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRACTOR|&#x1f69c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONORAIL|&#x1f69d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN RAILWAY|&#x1f69e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUSPENSION RAILWAY|&#x1f69f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN CABLEWAY|&#x1f6a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AERIAL TRAMWAY|&#x1f6a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIP|&#x1f6a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROWBOAT|&#x1f6a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPEEDBOAT|&#x1f6a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL TRAFFIC LIGHT|&#x1f6a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CONSTRUCTION SIGN|&#x1f6a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POLICE CARS REVOLVING LIGHT|&#x1f6a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGULAR FLAG ON POST|&#x1f6a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOOR|&#x1f6aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO ENTRY SIGN|&#x1f6ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO SMOKING SYMBOL|&#x1f6ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PUT LITTER IN ITS PLACE SYMBOL|&#x1f6ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DO NOT LITTER SYMBOL|&#x1f6af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NON-POTABLE WATER SYMBOL|&#x1f6b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLE|&#x1f6b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO BICYCLES|&#x1f6b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUNTAIN BICYCLIST|&#x1f6b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEDESTRIAN|&#x1f6b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NO PEDESTRIANS|&#x1f6b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILDREN CROSSING|&#x1f6b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WOMENS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RESTROOM|&#x1f6bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BABY SYMBOL|&#x1f6bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOILET|&#x1f6bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER CLOSET|&#x1f6be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOWER|&#x1f6bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Cx |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATH|&#x1f6c0;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BATHTUB|&#x1f6c1;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSPORT CONTROL|&#x1f6c2;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUSTOMS|&#x1f6c3;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGGAGE CLAIM|&#x1f6c4;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT LUGGAGE|&#x1f6c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIANGLE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1f6c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROHIBITED SIGN|&#x1f6c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED INFORMATION SOURCE|&#x1f6c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOYS SYMBOL|&#x1f6c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRLS SYMBOL|&#x1f6ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COUCH AND LAMP|&#x1f6cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLEEPING ACCOMMODATION|&#x1f6cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING BAGS|&#x1f6cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BELLHOP BELL|&#x1f6ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BED|&#x1f6cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Dx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACE OF WORSHIP|&#x1f6d0;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OCTAGONAL SIGN|&#x1f6d1;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOPPING TROLLEY|&#x1f6d2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STUPA|&#x1f6d3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PAGODA|&#x1f6d4;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HINDU TEMPLE|&#x1f6d5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HUT|&#x1f6d6;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ELEVATOR|&#x1f6d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LANDSLIDE|&#x1f6d8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHTHOUSE|&#x1f6d9;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEATBELT SIGN|&#x1f6da;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NO CARS|&#x1f6db;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WIRELESS|&#x1f6dc;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PLAYGROUND SLIDE|&#x1f6dd;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHEEL|&#x1f6de;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RING BUOY|&#x1f6df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMMER AND WRENCH|&#x1f6e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHIELD|&#x1f6e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OIL DRUM|&#x1f6e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORWAY|&#x1f6e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RAILWAY TRACK|&#x1f6e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR BOAT|&#x1f6e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING MILITARY AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP-POINTING SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SMALL AIRPLANE|&#x1f6e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTHEAST-POINTING AIRPLANE|&#x1f6ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE DEPARTURE|&#x1f6eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRPLANE ARRIVING|&#x1f6ec;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HOT AIR BALLOON|&#x1f6ed;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AIRSHIP|&#x1f6ee;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAPLANE|&#x1f6ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F6Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|SATELLITE|&#x1f6f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONCOMING FIRE ENGINE|&#x1f6f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIESEL LOCOMOTIVE|&#x1f6f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PASSENGER SHIP|&#x1f6f3;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCOOTER|&#x1f6f4;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTOR SCOOTER|&#x1f6f5;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CANOE|&#x1f6f6;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SLED|&#x1f6f7;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING SAUCER|&#x1f6f8;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SKATEBOARD|&#x1f6f9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AUTO RICKSHAW|&#x1f6fa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKUP TRUCK|&#x1f6fb;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLER SKATE|&#x1f6fc;}}||style="background:#768b4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FORKLIFT|&#x1f6fd;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EXCAVATOR|&#x1f6fe;}}||style="background:#457d8a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SUBMARINE|&#x1f6ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Alchemical Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F70x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUINTESSENCE|&#x1f700;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AIR|&#x1f701;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR FIRE|&#x1f702;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR EARTH|&#x1f703;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WATER|&#x1f704;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUAFORTIS|&#x1f705;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA|&#x1f706;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA REGIA-2|&#x1f707;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE|&#x1f708;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AQUA VITAE-2|&#x1f709;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR|&#x1f70a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-2|&#x1f70b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR-3|&#x1f70c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SULFUR|&#x1f70d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PHILOSOPHERS SULFUR|&#x1f70e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BLACK SULFUR|&#x1f70f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F71x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE|&#x1f710;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-2|&#x1f711;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MERCURY SUBLIMATE-3|&#x1f712;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CINNABAR|&#x1f713;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT|&#x1f714;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NITRE|&#x1f715;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL|&#x1f716;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VITRIOL-2|&#x1f717;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT|&#x1f718;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ROCK SALT-2|&#x1f719;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GOLD|&#x1f71a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SILVER|&#x1f71b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE|&#x1f71c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON ORE-2|&#x1f71d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF IRON|&#x1f71e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF IRON|&#x1f71f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F72x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ORE|&#x1f720;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR IRON-COPPER ORE|&#x1f721;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF COPPER|&#x1f722;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER|&#x1f723;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CROCUS OF COPPER-2|&#x1f724;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f725;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF COPPER ANTIMONIATE|&#x1f726;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF COPPER|&#x1f727;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VERDIGRIS|&#x1f728;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TIN ORE|&#x1f729;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LEAD ORE|&#x1f72a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ANTIMONY ORE|&#x1f72b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATE OF SALT OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR VINEGAR OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f72f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F73x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY|&#x1f730;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS OF ANTIMONY-2|&#x1f731;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS|&#x1f732;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-2|&#x1f733;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-3|&#x1f734;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REGULUS-4|&#x1f735;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI|&#x1f736;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALKALI-2|&#x1f737;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MARCASITE|&#x1f738;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SAL-AMMONIAC|&#x1f739;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ARSENIC|&#x1f73a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR|&#x1f73b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR REALGAR-2|&#x1f73c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AURIPIGMENT|&#x1f73d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BISMUTH ORE|&#x1f73e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR|&#x1f73f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F74x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TARTAR-2|&#x1f740;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR QUICK LIME|&#x1f741;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX|&#x1f742;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-2|&#x1f743;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BORAX-3|&#x1f744;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALUM|&#x1f745;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR OIL|&#x1f746;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SPIRIT|&#x1f747;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TINCTURE|&#x1f748;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR GUM|&#x1f749;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR WAX|&#x1f74a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDER|&#x1f74b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CALX|&#x1f74c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TUTTY|&#x1f74d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CAPUT MORTUUM|&#x1f74e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SCEPTER OF JOVE|&#x1f74f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F75x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CADUCEUS|&#x1f750;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR TRIDENT|&#x1f751;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STARRED TRIDENT|&#x1f752;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR LODESTONE|&#x1f753;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SOAP|&#x1f754;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR URINE|&#x1f755;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HORSE DUNG|&#x1f756;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ASHES|&#x1f757;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POT ASHES|&#x1f758;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BRICK|&#x1f759;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR POWDERED BRICK|&#x1f75a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR AMALGAM|&#x1f75b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM|&#x1f75c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR STRATUM SUPER STRATUM-2|&#x1f75d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR SUBLIMATION|&#x1f75e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PRECIPITATE|&#x1f75f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F76x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISTILL|&#x1f760;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE|&#x1f761;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DISSOLVE-2|&#x1f762;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PURIFY|&#x1f763;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR PUTREFACTION|&#x1f764;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE|&#x1f765;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-2|&#x1f766;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-3|&#x1f767;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-4|&#x1f768;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR CRUCIBLE-5|&#x1f769;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR ALEMBIC|&#x1f76a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF MARY|&#x1f76b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR BATH OF VAPOURS|&#x1f76c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR RETORT|&#x1f76d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HOUR|&#x1f76e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR NIGHT|&#x1f76f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F77x |style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR DAY-NIGHT|&#x1f770;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR MONTH|&#x1f771;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF DRAM|&#x1f772;}}||style="background:#7bffe8;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ALCHEMICAL SYMBOL FOR HALF OUNCE|&#x1f773;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOT OF FORTUNE|&#x1f774;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OCCULTATION|&#x1f775;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNAR ECLIPSE|&#x1f776;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VESTA FORM TWO|&#x1f777;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ASTRAEA FORM TWO|&#x1f778;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYGIEA FORM TWO|&#x1f779;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARTHENOPE FORM TWO|&#x1f77a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HAUMEA|&#x1f77B;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAKEMAKE|&#x1f77C;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GONGGONG|&#x1f77D;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|QUAOAR|&#x1f77E;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCUS|&#x1f77F;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Geometric Shapes Extended''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F78x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK LEFT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f780;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK UP-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f781;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK RIGHT-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f782;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK DOWN-POINTING ISOSCELES RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f783;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f784;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f785;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f786;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f787;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f788;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f789;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CIRCLE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL CIRCLE|&#x1f78a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROUND TARGET|&#x1f78b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY SQUARE|&#x1f78c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SLIGHTLY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f78d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f78f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F79x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f790;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f791;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f792;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY WHITE SQUARE|&#x1f793;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f794;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM SQUARE|&#x1f795;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUARE TARGET|&#x1f796;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY DIAMOND|&#x1f797;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f798;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f799;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK VERY SMALL DIAMOND|&#x1f79a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE DIAMOND CONTAINING BLACK MEDIUM DIAMOND|&#x1f79b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DIAMOND TARGET|&#x1f79c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK TINY LOZENGE|&#x1f79d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK VERY SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK MEDIUM SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f79f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE LOZENGE CONTAINING BLACK SMALL LOZENGE|&#x1f7a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY BOLD GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY GREEK CROSS|&#x1f7a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIN SALTIRE|&#x1f7a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SALTIRE|&#x1f7a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SALTIRE|&#x1f7aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SALTIRE|&#x1f7ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SALTIRE|&#x1f7ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY FIVE SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7b9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EXTREMELY HEAVY SIX SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7ba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOLD EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7be;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT SPOKED ASTERISK|&#x1f7bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Cx |{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM THREE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOUR POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|REVERSE LIGHT FOUR POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY FIVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ca;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY SIX POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIX POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MEDIUM EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Dx |style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|VERY HEAVY EIGHT POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d0;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EIGHT POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d1;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d2;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED BLACK STAR|&#x1f7d3;}}||style="background:#87abff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY TWELVE POINTED PINWHEEL STAR|&#x1f7d4;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d5;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED TRIANGLE|&#x1f7d6;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d7;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE CIRCLED SQUARE|&#x1f7d8;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINE POINTED WHITE STAR|&#x1f7d9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CIRCLE WITH WHITE VERTICAL BAR|&#x1f7da;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BULLET IN DOUBLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7db;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Ex |{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW CIRCLE|&#x1f7e1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE CIRCLE|&#x1f7e3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN CIRCLE|&#x1f7e4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE RED SQUARE|&#x1f7e5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BLUE SQUARE|&#x1f7e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE ORANGE SQUARE|&#x1f7e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE YELLOW SQUARE|&#x1f7e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE GREEN SQUARE|&#x1f7e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE PURPLE SQUARE|&#x1f7ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LARGE BROWN SQUARE|&#x1f7eb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY NOT EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7ec;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F7Fx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY EQUALS SIGN|&#x1f7f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLE WITH DOUBLE HORIZONTAL LINE|&#x1f7f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED BOTTOM RIGHT OBLIQUE HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1f7f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1f7f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRANSPARENT CUBE|&#x1f7f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CUBE|&#x1f7f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL DOUBLE WHITE SMALL SQUARE|&#x1f7f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH BOTTOM HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH TOP HALF BISECTED|&#x1f7fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE SQUARE WITH HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL BISECTING LINES|&#x1f7fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT FLATTENED RIGHT TRIANGLE|&#x1f7fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHOMBUS|&#x1f7ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Arrows-C''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F80x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f800;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f801;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f802;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f803;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f804;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f805;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f806;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH MEDIUM TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f807;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f808;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f809;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f80b;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F81x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f810;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f811;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f812;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH SMALL EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f813;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f814;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f815;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f816;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f817;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f818;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f819;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY UPWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH LARGE EQUILATERAL ARROWHEAD|&#x1f81f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F82x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f820;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f821;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f822;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH NARROW SHAFT|&#x1f823;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f824;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f825;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f826;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH MEDIUM SHAFT|&#x1f827;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f828;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f829;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH BOLD SHAFT|&#x1f82b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f82f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F83x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f830;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f831;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f832;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE-HEADED ARROW WITH VERY HEAVY SHAFT|&#x1f833;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f834;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f835;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f836;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS FINGER-POST ARROW|&#x1f837;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f838;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f839;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f83a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SQUARED ARROW|&#x1f83b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f83f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F84x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f840;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f841;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f842;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY COMPRESSED ARROW|&#x1f843;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f844;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f845;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f846;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS HEAVY ARROW|&#x1f847;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F85x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f850;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f851;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f852;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f853;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f854;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f855;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f856;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f857;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT RIGHT SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f858;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UP DOWN SANS-SERIF ARROW|&#x1f859;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F86x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f860;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f861;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f862;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f863;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f864;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f865;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f866;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST LIGHT BARB ARROW|&#x1f867;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f868;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f869;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS BARB ARROW|&#x1f86b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST BARB ARROW|&#x1f86f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F87x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f870;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f871;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f872;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f873;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f874;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f875;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f876;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST MEDIUM BARB ARROW|&#x1f877;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f878;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f879;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f87f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F88x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED LEFTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f880;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED UPWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f881;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED RIGHTWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f882;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED DOWNWARDS VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f883;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f884;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED NORTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f885;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH EAST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f886;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WIDE-HEADED SOUTH WEST VERY HEAVY BARB ARROW|&#x1f887;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F89x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f890;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f891;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f892;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f893;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f894;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f895;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f896;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS WHITE ARROW WITHIN TRIANGLE ARROWHEAD|&#x1f897;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f898;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f899;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH NOTCHED TAIL|&#x1f89b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f89c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f89d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE HALF|&#x1f89e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE THIRD|&#x1f89f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#87abff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ax |{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BOTTOM-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BOTTOM SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS TOP SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS RIGHT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS LEFT-SHADED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS BACK-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8aa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS FRONT-TILTED SHADOWED WHITE ARROW|&#x1f8ab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH ONE|&#x1f8ac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE ARROW SHAFT WIDTH TWO THIRDS|&#x1f8ad;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Bx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING UPWARDS THEN NORTH WEST|&#x1f8b0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROW POINTING RIGHTWARDS THEN CURVING SOUTH WEST|&#x1f8b1;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH LOWER HOOK|&#x1f8b2;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS BLACK ARROW TO BAR|&#x1f8b3;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b4;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED UPWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b5;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED RIGHTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b6;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8b7;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b8;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NORTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8b9;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH EAST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8ba;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOUTH WEST ARROW FROM BAR|&#x1f8bb;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Cx |style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c0;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW FROM DOWNWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8c1;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Dx |style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW OVER LONG LEFTWARDS ARROW|&#x1f8d0;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON OVER LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d1;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d2;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d3;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE SHORT LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d4;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORT RIGHTWARDS HARPOON ABOVE LONG LEFTWARDS HARPOON|&#x1f8d5;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW THROUGH X|&#x1f8d6;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG RIGHTWARDS ARROW WITH DOUBLE SLASH|&#x1f8d7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG LEFT RIGHT ARROW WITH DEPENDENT LOBE|&#x1f8d8;}}||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F8Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Supplemental Symbols and Pictographs''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F90x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f900;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f901;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED CROSS FORMEE|&#x1f902;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH FOUR DOTS|&#x1f903;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH THREE DOTS|&#x1f904;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH TWO DOTS|&#x1f905;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE WITH DOT|&#x1f906;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF CIRCLE|&#x1f907;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK|&#x1f908;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK|&#x1f909;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARD FACING NOTCHED HOOK WITH DOT|&#x1f90b;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHED FINGERS|&#x1f90c;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEART|&#x1f90d;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BROWN HEART|&#x1f90e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINCHING HAND|&#x1f90f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F91x |{{H:title|dotted=no|ZIPPER-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f910;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MONEY-MOUTH FACE|&#x1f911;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH THERMOMETER|&#x1f912;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NERD FACE|&#x1f913;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THINKING FACE|&#x1f914;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH HEAD-BANDAGE|&#x1f915;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROBOT FACE|&#x1f916;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HUGGING FACE|&#x1f917;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SIGN OF THE HORNS|&#x1f918;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CALL ME HAND|&#x1f919;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED BACK OF HAND|&#x1f91a;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91b;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT-FACING FIST|&#x1f91c;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDSHAKE|&#x1f91d;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX AND MIDDLE FINGERS CROSSED|&#x1f91e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|I LOVE YOU HAND SIGN|&#x1f91f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F92x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH COWBOY HAT|&#x1f920;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLOWN FACE|&#x1f921;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAUSEATED FACE|&#x1f922;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLLING ON THE FLOOR LAUGHING|&#x1f923;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DROOLING FACE|&#x1f924;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LYING FACE|&#x1f925;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE PALM|&#x1f926;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SNEEZING FACE|&#x1f927;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH ONE EYEBROW RAISED|&#x1f928;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH STAR EYES|&#x1f929;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GRINNING FACE WITH ONE LARGE AND ONE SMALL EYE|&#x1f92a;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH FINGER COVERING CLOSED LIPS|&#x1f92b;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SERIOUS FACE WITH SYMBOLS COVERING MOUTH|&#x1f92c;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND HAND COVERING MOUTH|&#x1f92d;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN MOUTH VOMITING|&#x1f92e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOCKED FACE WITH EXPLODING HEAD|&#x1f92f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F93x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT WOMAN|&#x1f930;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BREAST-FEEDING|&#x1f931;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALMS UP TOGETHER|&#x1f932;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SELFIE|&#x1f933;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRINCE|&#x1f934;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAN IN TUXEDO|&#x1f935;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTHER CHRISTMAS|&#x1f936;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRUG|&#x1f937;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON DOING CARTWHEEL|&#x1f938;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JUGGLING|&#x1f939;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FENCER|&#x1f93a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MODERN PENTATHLON|&#x1f93b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WRESTLERS|&#x1f93c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WATER POLO|&#x1f93d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HANDBALL|&#x1f93e;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIVING MASK|&#x1f93f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F94x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WILTED FLOWER|&#x1f940;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DRUM WITH DRUMSTICKS|&#x1f941;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CLINKING GLASSES|&#x1f942;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TUMBLER GLASS|&#x1f943;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOON|&#x1f944;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOAL NET|&#x1f945;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIFLE|&#x1f946;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRST PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f947;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SECOND PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f948;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|THIRD PLACE MEDAL|&#x1f949;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOXING GLOVE|&#x1f94a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MARTIAL ARTS UNIFORM|&#x1f94b;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CURLING STONE|&#x1f94c;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LACROSSE STICK AND BALL|&#x1f94d;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOFTBALL|&#x1f94e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLYING DISC|&#x1f94f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F95x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CROISSANT|&#x1f950;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|AVOCADO|&#x1f951;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUCUMBER|&#x1f952;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BACON|&#x1f953;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|POTATO|&#x1f954;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARROT|&#x1f955;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGUETTE BREAD|&#x1f956;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GREEN SALAD|&#x1f957;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHALLOW PAN OF FOOD|&#x1f958;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STUFFED FLATBREAD|&#x1f959;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EGG|&#x1f95a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GLASS OF MILK|&#x1f95b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEANUTS|&#x1f95c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWIFRUIT|&#x1f95d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PANCAKES|&#x1f95e;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DUMPLING|&#x1f95f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F96x |{{H:title|dotted=no|FORTUNE COOKIE|&#x1f960;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TAKEOUT BOX|&#x1f961;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHOPSTICKS|&#x1f962;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOWL WITH SPOON|&#x1f963;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUP WITH STRAW|&#x1f964;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COCONUT|&#x1f965;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROCCOLI|&#x1f966;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PIE|&#x1f967;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PRETZEL|&#x1f968;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CUT OF MEAT|&#x1f969;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SANDWICH|&#x1f96a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CANNED FOOD|&#x1f96b;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFY GREEN|&#x1f96c;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANGO|&#x1f96d;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOON CAKE|&#x1f96e;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BAGEL|&#x1f96f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F97x |{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH SMILING EYES AND THREE HEARTS|&#x1f970;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YAWNING FACE|&#x1f971;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SMILING FACE WITH TEAR|&#x1f972;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PARTY HORN AND PARTY HAT|&#x1f973;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH UNEVEN EYES AND WAVY MOUTH|&#x1f974;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OVERHEATED FACE|&#x1f975;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FREEZING FACE|&#x1f976;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NINJA|&#x1f977;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISGUISED FACE|&#x1f978;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE HOLDING BACK TEARS|&#x1f979;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PLEADING EYES|&#x1f97a;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SARI|&#x1f97b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LAB COAT|&#x1f97c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GOGGLES|&#x1f97d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIKING BOOT|&#x1f97e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAT SHOE|&#x1f97f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F98x |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRAB|&#x1f980;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LION FACE|&#x1f981;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCORPION|&#x1f982;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TURKEY|&#x1f983;}}||style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|UNICORN FACE|&#x1f984;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EAGLE|&#x1f985;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DUCK|&#x1f986;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAT|&#x1f987;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SHARK|&#x1f988;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OWL|&#x1f989;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOX FACE|&#x1f98a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTERFLY|&#x1f98b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEER|&#x1f98c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GORILLA|&#x1f98d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LIZARD|&#x1f98e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RHINOCEROS|&#x1f98f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F99x |style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHRIMP|&#x1f990;}}||style="background:#9c8dff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SQUID|&#x1f991;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GIRAFFE FACE|&#x1f992;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ZEBRA FACE|&#x1f993;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEDGEHOG|&#x1f994;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAUROPOD|&#x1f995;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|T-REX|&#x1f996;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRICKET|&#x1f997;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KANGAROO|&#x1f998;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LLAMA|&#x1f999;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PEACOCK|&#x1f99a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HIPPOPOTAMUS|&#x1f99b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PARROT|&#x1f99c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RACCOON|&#x1f99d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOBSTER|&#x1f99e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOSQUITO|&#x1f99f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Ax |style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MICROBE|&#x1f9a0;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BADGER|&#x1f9a1;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SWAN|&#x1f9a2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAMMOTH|&#x1f9a3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DODO|&#x1f9a4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SLOTH|&#x1f9a5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OTTER|&#x1f9a6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGUTAN|&#x1f9a7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SKUNK|&#x1f9a8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FLAMINGO|&#x1f9a9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OYSTER|&#x1f9aa;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEAVER|&#x1f9ab;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BISON|&#x1f9ac;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SEAL|&#x1f9ad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GUIDE DOG|&#x1f9ae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PROBING CANE|&#x1f9af;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Bx |{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT RED HAIR|&#x1f9b0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT CURLY HAIR|&#x1f9b1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT BALD|&#x1f9b2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|EMOJI COMPONENT WHITE HAIR|&#x1f9b3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BONE|&#x1f9b4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG|&#x1f9b5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FOOT|&#x1f9b6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTH|&#x1f9b7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERHERO|&#x1f9b8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SUPERVILLAIN|&#x1f9b9;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY VEST|&#x1f9ba;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EAR WITH HEARING AID|&#x1f9bb;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOTORIZED WHEELCHAIR|&#x1f9bc;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MANUAL WHEELCHAIR|&#x1f9bd;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MECHANICAL ARM|&#x1f9be;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MECHANICAL LEG|&#x1f9bf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Cx |style="background:#8a94ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHEESE WEDGE|&#x1f9c0;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CUPCAKE|&#x1f9c1;}}||style="background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SALT SHAKER|&#x1f9c2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEVERAGE BOX|&#x1f9c3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GARLIC|&#x1f9c4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ONION|&#x1f9c5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FALAFEL|&#x1f9c6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WAFFLE|&#x1f9c7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUTTER|&#x1f9c8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MATE DRINK|&#x1f9c9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ICE CUBE|&#x1f9ca;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLE TEA|&#x1f9cb;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROLL|&#x1f9cc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STANDING PERSON|&#x1f9cd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNEELING PERSON|&#x1f9ce;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DEAF PERSON|&#x1f9cf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Dx |{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH MONOCLE|&#x1f9d0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ADULT|&#x1f9d1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHILD|&#x1f9d2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|OLDER ADULT|&#x1f9d3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BEARDED PERSON|&#x1f9d4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH HEADSCARF|&#x1f9d5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON IN STEAMY ROOM|&#x1f9d6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON CLIMBING|&#x1f9d7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON IN LOTUS POSITION|&#x1f9d8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGE|&#x1f9d9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FAIRY|&#x1f9da;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VAMPIRE|&#x1f9db;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MERPERSON|&#x1f9dc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ELF|&#x1f9dd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|GENIE|&#x1f9de;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ZOMBIE|&#x1f9df;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Ex |style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRAIN|&#x1f9e0;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORANGE HEART|&#x1f9e1;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BILLED CAP|&#x1f9e2;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SCARF|&#x1f9e3;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GLOVES|&#x1f9e4;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COAT|&#x1f9e5;}}||style="background:#b690ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SOCKS|&#x1f9e6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RED GIFT ENVELOPE|&#x1f9e7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRECRACKER|&#x1f9e8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|JIGSAW PUZZLE PIECE|&#x1f9e9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEST TUBE|&#x1f9ea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PETRI DISH|&#x1f9eb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DNA DOUBLE HELIX|&#x1f9ec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COMPASS|&#x1f9ed;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ABACUS|&#x1f9ee;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FIRE EXTINGUISHER|&#x1f9ef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1F9Fx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOLBOX|&#x1f9f0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BRICK|&#x1f9f1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGNET|&#x1f9f2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LUGGAGE|&#x1f9f3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTION BOTTLE|&#x1f9f4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPOOL OF THREAD|&#x1f9f5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BALL OF YARN|&#x1f9f6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SAFETY PIN|&#x1f9f7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TEDDY BEAR|&#x1f9f8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BROOM|&#x1f9f9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BASKET|&#x1f9fa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROLL OF PAPER|&#x1f9fb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BAR OF SOAP|&#x1f9fc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SPONGE|&#x1f9fd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RECEIPT|&#x1f9fe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NAZAR AMULET|&#x1f9ff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Chess Symbols''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING|&#x1fa00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN|&#x1fa01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK|&#x1fa02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP|&#x1fa03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT|&#x1fa04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN|&#x1fa05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREE|&#x1fa06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED FORTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa0f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED ONE HUNDRED THIRTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KING|&#x1fa2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED QUEEN|&#x1fa2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED ROOK|&#x1fa2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED BISHOP|&#x1fa2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED KNIGHT|&#x1fa2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS TURNED PAWN|&#x1fa2f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED TWENTY-FIVE DEGREES|&#x1fa32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KING ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa3f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS QUEEN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS ROOK ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS BISHOP ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS PAWN ROTATED TWO HUNDRED SEVENTY DEGREES|&#x1fa44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS KNIGHT ROTATED THREE HUNDRED FIFTEEN DEGREES|&#x1fa47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER|&#x1fa4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEUTRAL CHESS EQUIHOPPER ROTATED NINETY DEGREES|&#x1fa4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA5x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa50;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-QUEEN|&#x1fa51;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-ROOK|&#x1fa52;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS KNIGHT-BISHOP|&#x1fa53;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa54;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa55;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS FERZ|&#x1fa56;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS ALFIL|&#x1fa57;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa58;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS WAZIR|&#x1fa59;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5a;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS CAMEL|&#x1fa5b;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS GIRAFFE|&#x1fa5d;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5e;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK CHESS DABBABA|&#x1fa5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#d093ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED GENERAL|&#x1fa60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED MANDARIN|&#x1fa61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED ELEPHANT|&#x1fa62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED HORSE|&#x1fa63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CHARIOT|&#x1fa64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED CANNON|&#x1fa65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI RED SOLDIER|&#x1fa66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK GENERAL|&#x1fa67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK MANDARIN|&#x1fa68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK ELEPHANT|&#x1fa69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK HORSE|&#x1fa6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CHARIOT|&#x1fa6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK CANNON|&#x1fa6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|XIANGQI BLACK SOLDIER|&#x1fa6d;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols and Pictographs Extended-A''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA7x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BALLET SHOES|&#x1fa70;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ONE-PIECE SWIMSUIT|&#x1fa71;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BRIEFS|&#x1fa72;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHORTS|&#x1fa73;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THONG SANDAL|&#x1fa74;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIGHT BLUE HEART|&#x1fa75;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GREY HEART|&#x1fa76;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINK HEART|&#x1fa77;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DROP OF BLOOD|&#x1fa78;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ADHESIVE BANDAGE|&#x1fa79;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STETHOSCOPE|&#x1fa7a;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|X-RAY|&#x1fa7b;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRUTCH|&#x1fa7c;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOOD BAG|&#x1fa7d;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INHALER|&#x1fa7e;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX OF PILLS|&#x1fa7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA8x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|YO-YO|&#x1fa80;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KITE|&#x1fa81;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARACHUTE|&#x1fa82;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BOOMERANG|&#x1fa83;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MAGIC WAND|&#x1fa84;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PINATA|&#x1fa85;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NESTING DOLLS|&#x1fa86;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MARACAS|&#x1fa87;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLUTE|&#x1fa88;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HARP|&#x1fa89;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TROMBONE|&#x1fa8a;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|METEOR|&#x1fa8b;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ERASER|&#x1fa8c;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NET WITH HANDLE|&#x1fa8d;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TREASURE CHEST|&#x1fa8e;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHOVEL|&#x1fa8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FA9x |style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RINGED PLANET|&#x1fa90;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CHAIR|&#x1fa91;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAZOR|&#x1fa92;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|AXE|&#x1fa93;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DIYA LAMP|&#x1fa94;}}||style="background:#e896ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BANJO|&#x1fa95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MILITARY HELMET|&#x1fa96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ACCORDION|&#x1fa97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LONG DRUM|&#x1fa98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|COIN|&#x1fa99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CARPENTRY SAW|&#x1fa9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SCREWDRIVER|&#x1fa9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LADDER|&#x1fa9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HOOK|&#x1fa9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR|&#x1fa9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WINDOW|&#x1fa9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|PLUNGER|&#x1faa0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SEWING NEEDLE|&#x1faa1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|KNOT|&#x1faa2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUCKET|&#x1faa3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MOUSE TRAP|&#x1faa4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOOTHBRUSH|&#x1faa5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEADSTONE|&#x1faa6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|PLACARD|&#x1faa7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|ROCK|&#x1faa8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MIRROR BALL|&#x1faa9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|IDENTIFICATION CARD|&#x1faaa;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOW BATTERY|&#x1faab;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAMSA|&#x1faac;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FOLDING HAND FAN|&#x1faad;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIR PICK|&#x1faae;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KHANDA|&#x1faaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FABx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLY|&#x1fab0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WORM|&#x1fab1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEETLE|&#x1fab2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|COCKROACH|&#x1fab3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POTTED PLANT|&#x1fab4;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WOOD|&#x1fab5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FEATHER|&#x1fab6;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LOTUS|&#x1fab7;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CORAL|&#x1fab8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|EMPTY NEST|&#x1fab9;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|NEST WITH EGGS|&#x1faba;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HYACINTH|&#x1fabb;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JELLYFISH|&#x1fabc;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WING|&#x1fabd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEAFLESS TREE|&#x1fabe;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GOOSE|&#x1fabf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FACx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ANATOMICAL HEART|&#x1fac0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LUNGS|&#x1fac1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEOPLE HUGGING|&#x1fac2;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT MAN|&#x1fac3;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PREGNANT PERSON|&#x1fac4;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PERSON WITH CROWN|&#x1fac5;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FINGERPRINT|&#x1fac6;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LIVER|&#x1fac7;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAIRY CREATURE|&#x1fac8;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CENTAUR|&#x1fac9;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DRAGONFLY|&#x1faca;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|KIWI BIRD|&#x1facb;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MONARCH BUTTERFLY|&#x1facc;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ORCA|&#x1facd;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|MOOSE|&#x1face;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DONKEY|&#x1facf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FADx |style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLUEBERRIES|&#x1fad0;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BELL PEPPER|&#x1fad1;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|OLIVE|&#x1fad2;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FLATBREAD|&#x1fad3;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TAMALE|&#x1fad4;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FONDUE|&#x1fad5;}}||style="background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|TEAPOT|&#x1fad6;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|POURING LIQUID|&#x1fad7;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BEANS|&#x1fad8;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|JAR|&#x1fad9;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|GINGER ROOT|&#x1fada;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PEA POD|&#x1fadb;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|ROOT VEGETABLE|&#x1fadc;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PICKLE|&#x1fadd;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RASPBERRY|&#x1fade;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SPLATTER|&#x1fadf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|MELTING FACE|&#x1fae0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|SALUTING FACE|&#x1fae1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH OPEN EYES AND HAND OVER MOUTH|&#x1fae2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PEEKING EYE|&#x1fae3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH DIAGONAL MOUTH|&#x1fae4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOTTED LINE FACE|&#x1fae5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BITING LIP|&#x1fae6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BUBBLES|&#x1fae7;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|SHAKING FACE|&#x1fae8;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH BAGS UNDER EYES|&#x1fae9;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|DISTORTED FACE|&#x1faea;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CRACKING FACE|&#x1faeb;}}||style="background:#bba757;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH SQUINTING EYES|&#x1faec;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|CLEVER FACE|&#x1faed;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FACE WITH PALM ON CHEEK|&#x1faee;}}||style="background:#ddb495;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|FIGHT CLOUD|&#x1faef;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FAFx |style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB CROSSED|&#x1faf0;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf1;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS HAND|&#x1faf2;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM DOWN HAND|&#x1faf3;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PALM UP HAND|&#x1faf4;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|INDEX POINTING AT THE VIEWER|&#x1faf5;}}||style="background:#ffc0e0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HEART HANDS|&#x1faf6;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf7;}}||style="background:#ffc0c0;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS PUSHING HAND|&#x1faf8;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1faf9;}}||style="background:#c8a36f;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS THUMB SIGN|&#x1fafa;}}||style="background:#aeaf4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|THREE FINGER SALUTE|&#x1fafb;}}||style="background:#97a24a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND SNAPPING FINGERS|&#x1fafc;}}||style="background:#5d7e4a;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|HAND WITH INDEX FINGER AND THUMB FORMING CIRCLE|&#x1fafd;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEG KICKING|&#x1fafe;}}||style="background:#457d6d;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|STOMP|&#x1faff;}} |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Symbols for Legacy Computing''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB0x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1|&#x1fb00;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2|&#x1fb01;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12|&#x1fb02;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3|&#x1fb03;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13|&#x1fb04;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23|&#x1fb05;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-123|&#x1fb06;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-4|&#x1fb07;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-14|&#x1fb08;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-24|&#x1fb09;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-124|&#x1fb0a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-34|&#x1fb0b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-134|&#x1fb0c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-234|&#x1fb0d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1234|&#x1fb0e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-5|&#x1fb0f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB1x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-15|&#x1fb10;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-25|&#x1fb11;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-125|&#x1fb12;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-35|&#x1fb13;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-235|&#x1fb14;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1235|&#x1fb15;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-45|&#x1fb16;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-145|&#x1fb17;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-245|&#x1fb18;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1245|&#x1fb19;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-345|&#x1fb1a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1345|&#x1fb1b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2345|&#x1fb1c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12345|&#x1fb1d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-6|&#x1fb1e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-16|&#x1fb1f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB2x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-26|&#x1fb20;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-126|&#x1fb21;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-36|&#x1fb22;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-136|&#x1fb23;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-236|&#x1fb24;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1236|&#x1fb25;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-46|&#x1fb26;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-146|&#x1fb27;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1246|&#x1fb28;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-346|&#x1fb29;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1346|&#x1fb2a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2346|&#x1fb2b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12346|&#x1fb2c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-56|&#x1fb2d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-156|&#x1fb2e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-256|&#x1fb2f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB3x |{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1256|&#x1fb30;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-356|&#x1fb31;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1356|&#x1fb32;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2356|&#x1fb33;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12356|&#x1fb34;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-456|&#x1fb35;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-1456|&#x1fb36;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-2456|&#x1fb37;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-12456|&#x1fb38;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-3456|&#x1fb39;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-13456|&#x1fb3a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BLOCK SEXTANT-23456|&#x1fb3b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb3c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb3d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb3e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb3f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fb56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb59;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE|&#x1fb5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT BLOCK DIAGONAL LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fb61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO UPPER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fb66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT BLOCK DIAGONAL UPPER MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fb67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND RIGHT AND LOWER TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND LOWER AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb69;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LEFT AND LOWER TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND UPPER AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER TRIANGULAR ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb6f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-2|&#x1fb70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-3|&#x1fb71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-4|&#x1fb72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-5|&#x1fb73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-6|&#x1fb74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VERTICAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-7|&#x1fb75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-2|&#x1fb76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-3|&#x1fb77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-4|&#x1fb78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-5|&#x1fb79;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-6|&#x1fb7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-7|&#x1fb7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND UPPER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT AND UPPER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fb80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HORIZONTAL ONE EIGHTH BLOCK-1358|&#x1fb81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fb87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT FIVE EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb89;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THREE QUARTERS BLOCK|&#x1fb8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT SEVEN EIGHTHS BLOCK|&#x1fb8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER HALF MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FB9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF BLOCK AND LOWER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND LOWER HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb92;}}||style="background:#777777;{{text default color}};"|&nbsp;||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF INVERSE MEDIUM SHADE AND RIGHT HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb94;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CHECKER BOARD FILL|&#x1fb95;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECKER BOARD FILL|&#x1fb96;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|HEAVY HORIZONTAL FILL|&#x1fb97;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT FILL|&#x1fb98;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT FILL|&#x1fb99;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER AND LOWER TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb9a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT AND RIGHT TRIANGULAR HALF BLOCK|&#x1fb9b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER RIGHT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER LEFT TRIANGULAR MEDIUM SHADE|&#x1fb9f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBAx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fba0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fba7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT AND MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT AND MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fba9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbaa;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbab;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbac;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO UPPER CENTRE TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbad;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbae;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT HORIZONTAL WITH VERTICAL STROKE|&#x1fbaf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBBx |{{H:title|dotted=no|ARROWHEAD-SHAPED POINTER|&#x1fbb0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE CHECK MARK|&#x1fbb1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF RUNNING MAN|&#x1fbb3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|INVERSE DOWNWARDS ARROW WITH TIP LEFTWARDS|&#x1fbb4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHTWARDS ARROW AND UPPER AND LOWER ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOWNWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPWARDS ARROW AND RIGHT ONE EIGHTH BLOCK|&#x1fbb8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbb9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT HALF FOLDER|&#x1fbba;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|VOIDED GREEK CROSS|&#x1fbbb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT OPEN SQUARED DOT|&#x1fbbc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL CROSS|&#x1fbbd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbbe;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE DIAGONAL DIAMOND|&#x1fbbf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#ffb0ff;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBCx |{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE HEAVY SALTIRE WITH ROUNDED CORNERS|&#x1fbc0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT THIRD WHITE RIGHT POINTING INDEX|&#x1fbc3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|NEGATIVE SQUARED QUESTION MARK|&#x1fbc4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE|&#x1fbc5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH ARMS RAISED|&#x1fbc6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING LEFT|&#x1fbc7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE LEANING RIGHT|&#x1fbc8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|STICK FIGURE WITH DRESS|&#x1fbc9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbca;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|WHITE CROSS MARK|&#x1fbcb;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|RAISED SMALL LEFT SQUARE BRACKET|&#x1fbcc;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|BLACK SMALL UP-POINTING CHEVRON|&#x1fbcd;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT TWO THIRDS BLOCK|&#x1fbce;}}||style="background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT ONE THIRD BLOCK|&#x1fbcf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBDx |{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT|&#x1fbd1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT|&#x1fbd2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO LOWER CENTRE|&#x1fbd6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbd7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fbd8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbd9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbda;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE CENTRE TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO LOWER CENTRE TO UPPER RIGHT|&#x1fbdc;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER RIGHT TO MIDDLE LEFT TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbdd;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL LOWER LEFT TO UPPER CENTRE TO LOWER RIGHT|&#x1fbde;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DIAGONAL UPPER LEFT TO MIDDLE RIGHT TO LOWER LEFT|&#x1fbdf;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#edc3b4;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FBEx |{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe0;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED RIGHT HALF WHITE CIRCLE|&#x1fbe3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|UPPER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LOWER CENTRE ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE LEFT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|MIDDLE RIGHT ONE QUARTER BLOCK|&#x1fbe7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TOP JUSTIFIED LOWER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|RIGHT JUSTIFIED LEFT HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbe9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|BOTTOM JUSTIFIED UPPER HALF BLACK CIRCLE|&#x1fbea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|LEFT JUSTIFIED 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!style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FF9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|1FFFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white"|&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white;"|&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} 4bm60kwjtosdgiyks5qq2mxkwy2zavr 4 155682 4673865 4673775 2026-10-03T13:41:04Z TechVindicator 3626296 /* FlaggedRevs again */ 4673865 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{n}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) qmxtdch7x4kf6291j2g9frg8jhmr1kz 4673866 4673865 2026-10-03T13:41:33Z TechVindicator 3626296 correct template 4673866 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) h8b8z9rni98vks7zwlu7ixxkmxgpqyu 4673891 4673866 2026-10-03T16:28:05Z GladTuna 3627509 /* Gladxlord hotel */ new section 4673891 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) == Gladxlord hotel == Booking.com [[User:GladTuna|GladTuna]] ([[User talk:GladTuna|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GladTuna|contribs]]) 16:28, 3 October 2026 (UTC) 7eb0tjfjdsa5wqk96u3lizrba26hm8v 4673892 4673891 2026-10-03T16:30:05Z Koavf 16549 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/GladTuna|GladTuna]] ([[User talk:GladTuna|talk]]) to last version by TechVindicator 4673866 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) h8b8z9rni98vks7zwlu7ixxkmxgpqyu 4673921 4673892 2026-10-03T19:22:53Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* FlaggedRevs again */ reply to TechVindicator ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4673921 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :: There was the outdated [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] before this project used FlaggedRevs. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:22, 3 October 2026 (UTC) == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) c6t4dmd6z3y8qm3t9xi7l9f5frq9uu9 4673948 4673921 2026-10-03T21:53:28Z Agusbou2015 3085664 /* FlaggedRevs again */ 4673948 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :: There was the outdated [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] before this project used FlaggedRevs. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:22, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} the removal of FlaggedRevs from Wikibooks. It's a redundant extension that's not useful in this wiki. --[[User:Agusbou2015|Agusbou2015]] ([[User talk:Agusbou2015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Agusbou2015|contribs]]) 21:53, 3 October 2026 (UTC) == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) 7n0y3vz8aqgewp9nfic16f53ct39yin 0 169014 4674053 1933272 2026-10-04T11:54:42Z Alexey Vazhnov 120729 Deleted external link: the domain "vectorsite.net" is on sell; adjust internal links; use [[en:w:Wikipedia:Naming conventions (capitalization)]] 4674053 wikitext text/x-wiki {{A Little C Primer/Page}} == Wikimedia resources == * [[C programming]] * [[C++ Programming/Code/Standard C Library]] == Other resources == * [http://www.studiesinn.com/learn/Programming-Languages/C-Language.html Learn C Language] rrc2iavvtz3ogshoex1hsr9plub8tfr 0 176088 4673918 4638304 2026-10-03T19:05:15Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4673918 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|= |Bishop's Opening| |rd| |bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|= |pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd|= | | |nd| | | | | |= | | | | |pd| | | |= | | |bl| |pl| | | |= | | | | | | | | |= |pl|pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl|= |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl|= }} = Bishop's Opening = ===2...Nc6=== Black's Queen's Knight defends the e5-pawn and can be a possible threat to move to a5 attacking the White Bishop. ==Theory table== {{Chess Opening Theory/Table}}. '''1. e4 e5 2.Bc4 Nc6''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">3</th> <th align="left">4</th> <th align="left">5</th> <th align="left">6</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Italian Game|Italian Game]]</th> <td>[[../../2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4|Nf3]] </td> <td colspan=4>See 2.Nf3 Nc6 [[../../2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4|3.Bc4]]</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Vienna Game|Vienna Game]]</th> <td>[[../../../../1. e4/1...e5/2. Nc3/2...Nc6/3. Bc4|Nc3]]<br>Nf6</td> <td>d3<br>Na5</td> <td>Nge2<br>Nxc4</td> <td>dxc4<br>Bc5</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Giuoco Pianissimo|Giuoco Pianissimo]]</th> <td>[[/3. d3|d3]]<br>Nf6</td> <td>Nf3<br>Bc5</td> <td>c3<br>a6</td> <td>Bb3<br>d6</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right">[[Chess/Parham Attack|Parham Attack]]</th> <td>[[../../2. Qh5/2...Nc6/3. Bc4|Qh5]]<br>g6</td> <td>Qf3<br>Nf6</td> <td>Ne2<br>Bg7</td> <td><br></td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{Wikipedia|Italian Game}} [[fi:Shakki/r1bqkbnr;pppp1ppp;2n5;4p3;2B1P3;8;PPPP1PPP;RNBQK1NR w KQkq]] {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} kzakc3c99hnvatams9368h6wif4oa9u 110 178276 4673978 3040069 2026-10-04T07:15:29Z ~2026-51118-27 3626547 /* */ 4673978 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''Y''' is for '''Y'''ogurtPG [[File:Yogurt of the Bulgarija Pavilion of Expo 2005 Aichi Japan.jpg|center|500px]] {{FoodNav}} 77vlrdlkd0yx21xoidv894fcpseql7f 4673984 4673978 2026-10-04T07:27:26Z EggRoll97 3178669 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|talk]]) to last version by Atcovi 3040069 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''Y''' is for '''Y'''ogurt</div> [[File:Yogurt of the Bulgarija Pavilion of Expo 2005 Aichi Japan.jpg|center|500px]] {{FoodNav}} lty66aol3ykyprsb6slku8da5wcwyld 0 190793 4673966 3371458 2026-10-04T04:59:13Z Kai Burghardt 153973 use {{[[Template: equation|equation]]}}, use [[mw: Help: Tables#class="wikitable"|class='wikitable']], use {{[[Template: abbr|abbr]]}}, use {{[[Template: tooltip|tooltip]]}}, unify source code style [no blank line after headings] 4673966 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Risk== Radioactivity results in risk. This could be a risk of death, or a risk of developing cancer. In physics, risk is what you expect, on average, to happen: {{equation|risk&nbsp;&#x00003D; probability&nbsp;× consequence|risk}} So, if there is a 1 in 500 chance that someone gets run over by a car when crossing the road, the risk involved in allowing 500 people to cross the road is one accident. ==Absorbed Dose== Absorbed dose is measured in grays, commonly denoted Gy. One gray is defined as one joule absorbed per kilogram. The equation for absorbed dose is: {{equation|{{var|D}}&nbsp;&#x00003D; {{sfrac|{{var|E}}|{{var|m}}}}|AD}} where {{var|E}} is the energy given off by the source, and {{var|m}} is the mass of the affected thing. To calculate the absorbed dose in terms of numbers of particles with a given frequency, wavelength or energy (in {{abbr|eV|electronvolts}}, you may be expected to use the equations {{equation|{{var|E}}&nbsp;&#x00003D; {{var|h}}&#x00202F;&sdot;&#x00202F;{{var|f}}&nbsp;&#x00003D; {{sfrac|{{var|h}}&#x00202F;&sdot;&#x00202F;{{var|c}}₀|{{var|&lambda;}}}}|E(γ)}} where {{var|h}} is the Planck constant, {{var|f}} the frequency of the photon, {{var|c}}₀ the speed of light in free space, and {{var|&lambda;}} the wavelength of the photon, or {{equation|{{var|E}}&nbsp;&#x00003D; {{var|n}}&#x00202F;&sdot;&#x00202F;{{var|e}}|Q}} where {{var|n}} is the number of particles, and {{var|e}} is the magnitude of the charge of one electron. If someone is exposed to a certain activity (particles per second) over a period of time, the absorbed dose accumulates. ==Dose Equivalent== [[Image:Sievert-sigle.png|right|thumb|200px|Worlwide hourly dose equivalent due to cosmic rays per hour (in sievert).]] Absorbed dose does not give a full picture of the potential harm radioactivity can do to you. Different types of radiation do different amounts of damage. ''Absorbed dose equivalent'', measured in sieverts (denoted Sv) attempts to compensate. To calculate the dose equivalent, multiply the dose in grays by the quality factor of the particles absorbed. These quality factors are given in the table below. {| class='wikitable' |- ! Radiation Type ! Quality Factor |- | photons and {{tooltip|leptons|electrons among other particles}} | style='text-align: right;' | 1 |- | neutrons with an energy > 10 MeV or < 10 keV, protons | style='text-align: right;' | 5 |- | neutrons with an energy between 10 and 100 keV, or between 2 and 20 MeV | style='text-align: right;' | 10 |- | neutrons with an energy between 100 keV and 2 MeV and atomic nuclei | style='text-align: right;' | 20 |} The equation for the effective dose (ED) received is: {{equation|effective absorbed&nbsp;&#x00003D; absorbed dose&nbsp;× quality factor|H}} ==Questions== # A mobile phone emits electromagnetic radiation. 1.2&nbsp;{{abbr|W|watts}} of power are absorbed per kilogram. Assuming that the radiation is absorbed uniformly across a 5&nbsp;{{abbr|kg|kilogramme}} head, what dose of radiation would be delivered to the head when making a 10‐minute telephone call? # What dose equivalent does this correspond to? # How many nuclei are there in 1&nbsp;{{abbr|mg|milligramme}} of americium‑241? # A ham sandwich becomes contaminated with 1&nbsp;{{abbr|μg|microgramme}} of americium‑241, and is eaten by an 80&nbsp;{{abbr|kg|kilogramme}} person. The half‐life of americium‑241 is 432&nbsp;years. Given that americium‑241 gives off 5.638&nbsp;{{abbr|MeV|megaelectronevoltes}} alpha particles, how long would it be before a dose equivalent of 6&nbsp;{{abbr|Sv|sievert}} is absorbed, making death certain? # What assumptions have you made? [[/Worked Solutions/|Worked solutions]]. {{BookCat}} qbuxvdyiif2xq6ugbes8zigbjuqfuda 0 229477 4673951 4436452 2026-10-03T23:57:06Z ~2026-53199-47 3627537 /* 2. Name the two main orders of amphibia and tell how to distinguish between them. */ 4673951 wikitext text/x-wiki {{honor_header|1|1945|Nature|General Conference}} {{AY Master|Naturalist|Options}} {{AY Master|Zoology|Options}} ==1. What are the characteristics of amphibians?== Amphibians live half of their lives in water and half on land. They are cold-blooded vertebrates. Amphibians are able to breathe through their skin, making them very sensitive to anything they come in contact with, including human hands. When observing amphibians, one should never touch them. Amphibians have toes rather than claws. ==2. Name the two main orders of amphibia and tell how to distinguish between them.== ;Order Anura (frogs and toads): Adult frogs and toads are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. : Most have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes; and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water. ;Order Caudata (newts and salamanders): Cuadata have slender bodies, short legs, and long tails. The moist skin of the amphibians fits them to habitats either near water or under some protection on moist ground, usually in a forest. Some species are aquatic throughout life, some take to the water intermittently, and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Salamanders superficially resemble lizards, but are easily distinguished by their lack of scales. They are capable of regenerating lost limbs. ==3. Distinguish between toads and frogs.== The use of the common names "frog" and "toad" has no taxonomic justification. From a taxonomic perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered "true toads". The use of the term "frog" in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi-aquatic with smooth or moist skins, and the term "toad" generally refers to species that tend to be terrestrial with dry, warty skin. An exception is the Fire-bellied toad (''Bombina bombina''): while its skin is slightly warty, it prefers a watery habitat. ==4. How do amphibians protect themselves?== The first line of defense for amphibians is to not be seen by a potential predator. The small size and coloration of many species help in this regard, but sometimes, rather than blending in, frogs are very brightly colored. The coloration in this case serves as a warning, for these frogs are poisonous. Many frogs contain mild toxins that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some poison dart frogs, are especially toxic. Salamanders have the ability to detach their tails at will. When a predator captures a salamander by the tail, the salamander detaches its tail and escapes. The tail ''regenerates'' or grows back. ==5. Make a list of amphibians that should be found in your locality. Identify five and tell where you found them. OR Collect pictures or sketch five different amphibians which you can identify and tell where they are found.== {{TODO|Expand this section to include more species, such as giant salamander and newts.}} {{Species id | latin_name=Gymnophiona | common_name=Caecilians | image =Dermophis mexicanus.jpg | range =Caecilians are found in wet tropical regions of Southeast Asia, India and Sri Lanka, parts of East and West Africa, the Seychelles islands in the Indian Ocean and in northern and eastern South America. | description=Caecilians completely lack limbs, making the smaller species resemble worms, while the larger species with lengths up to {{units|1.5 meters |5 feet}} resemble snakes. The tail is short or absent. They have a strong skull, with a pointed snout used to force their way through soil or mud.[2] In most species, the number of bones in the skull are reduced and fused together, and the mouth is recessed under the head. Owing to their underground life, the eyes are small and covered by skin for protection, which has led to the misconception that they are blind. This is not strictly true, although their sight is limited to simple dark-light perception. All caecilians possess a pair of tentacles, located between their eyes and nostrils. These are probably used for a second olfactory capability, in addition to the normal sense of smell based in the nose. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Lithobates (Rana) catesbeianus | common_name = Bullfrog | image = Bullfrog - natures pics.jpg | range = The American Bull Frog is native to North America. They are found in the United States, Canada and Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains, but have been introduced to many other localities throughout the world. In Europe and the western U.S., measures are often taken to control its spread because it competes with, and often drives out, native species. |description = The bull frog is a large species that has many similarities to its 'sister species' of toad, and can grow to a length of 6 inches (15 cm) with a weight of up to 1.5 lb (750 g). Females are typically larger than males. They are generally varying shades of green or brown, with dark brown, dark green, or black blotching and a yellow or white underside. Bull frogs are carnivorous and will consume almost anything that fits into their mouth which they can overpower, including insects, small mammals, fish, snakes, and even other frogs. They tend to eat more dragonflies than flies. The adult frog can live up to 13 years. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Anaxyrus (Bufo) americanus | common_name = American Toad | image = Bufo americanusPCCA20060417-3352B.jpg | range = The American toad is a common species of toad found throughout the eastern United States and Canada. |description = The American toad is a medium sized toad usually found in the range from 2 to over 3 1/2 inches. The color and pattern is somewhat variable. The Eastern American toad has spots that contain only one to two warts. It also has enlarged warts on the tibia or lower leg below the knee. While the belly is usually spotted, it is generally more so on the forward half (in some rare individuals there may be few or no spots). }} {{Species id | latin_name = Hyla versicolor | common_name = Grey Tree Frog | image = Hyla gray treefrog.jpg | range = Grey tree frogs inhabit a wide range, and can be found in most of the eastern half of the United States, as far west as central Texas. They also range into Canada in the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, with an isolated population in New Brunswick. | description = Grey tree frogs live primarily in trees, spending time in wooded areas, usually not far from a permanent water source. On rainy evenings they can often be found calling in or near shallow, temporary pools of water. They are nocturnal and insectivorous, consuming most any small arthropod they can catch. Mating occurs throughout the spring and summer months. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Hyla crucifer | common_name = Spring Peeper | image = H crucifer USGS.jpg | range = There are two subspecies of the spring peeper, the northern (P. c. crucifer) and the southern spring peeper (P. c. bartramiana). The northern is similar to the southern except for a strong dark marking on the southern frog's belly. The southern spring peeper is limited to northern Florida and southern Georgia, while the northern can be found all over the east of the USA and eastern Canada. | description = The spring peeper is a small frog, attaining an adult size between 0.75 and 1.5 inches (up to 40mm) long. They have a dark cross on their backs roughly in the shape of an "X", though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. The color variations of the spring peeper are mostly tan, brown, olive green, or gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males are slightly smaller and usually have dark throats. Spring peepers are nocturnal frogs, so they are mostly heard but not seen. And they are especially easy to hear due to their extremely loud mating call which gives them the name "peeper". }} {{Species id | latin_name = Lithobates sylvaticus | common_name = Wood Frog | image = Rana sylvatica.jpg | range = Wood Frogs are found from northern Georgia and in isolated colonies in the central highlands in the eastern to central parts of Alabama, up through the northeastern United States, and all the way across Canada into Alaska. It is the most widely distributed frog in Alaska. They can be found from southeastern Alaska to north of the Brooks Range. | description = Wood Frog is the common name given to Lithobates sylvaticus, previously Rana sylvatica. They are the only frogs found north of the Arctic Circle. In winter, as much as 35-45% of the frog's body may freeze, and turn to ice. Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins, glucose and perhaps accumulation of urea, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration. Wood Frogs primarily breed in ephemeral pools rather than permanent water bodies such as ponds or lakes. Adults emerge from hibernation in early spring and migrate to nearby pools. There, males chorus (a quacking sound) and mating occurs. Adult Wood Frogs spend summer months in moist woodlands, forested swamps, and bogs where they forage and maintain body moisture as surrounding environments dry out. Females' eggs are formed by late fall. By late fall or early winter, they leave forested swamps and travel to neighboring uplands to overwinter. Some may remain in moist areas to overwinter. They tend to hibernate in the upper organic layers of the soil, under leaf litter, and in close proximity to breeding pools. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Rana | common_name = Leopard Frog | image = Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg | range = Once abundant in North America and Canada, their population has declined in recent years because of pollution and deforestation. Leopard frogs are often used as environmental indicator species because of their heightened sensitivity to chemical pollutants found in the air and water. | description = Leopard frogs, which are also called meadow frogs and grass frogs, are a collection of so-called true frog within the genus Rana. They are commonly used as dissection specimens in biology classrooms. Leopard frogs are recognized by their green or brown coloration with distinct light-edged dark spots across the back and white underside. They also have a characteristic line of raised glandular skin extending from each eye to the groin. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Pseudacris regilla | common_name =Pacific Chorus Frog | image = Pseudacris regilla.png | range = The Pacific Chorus Frog, formerly the Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla) is a species of chorus frog native to the pacific coast of North America from Baja California in Mexico, through the states of California, Oregon, Washington (it is the Washington state frog), and into Canada and extreme southern Alaska. It ranges east into Nevada and Idaho. | description = This is probably the most commonly heard and encountered frog in California and its call is often heard as a nighttime background sound in Hollywood movies. The Pacific tree frog can reach up to about 5 cm in length. The males are often smaller than the females. These frogs can have highly variable color on their bodies anywhere from gray, brown, tan or bright green and can even change between them. They are usually a pale or white color on their bellies. They have many variations of markings on their back and sides that are usually dark and spotty. The one identifiable mark is a dark stripe that goes over the eye from the nose to the shoulder. Their skin is covered in small bumps. They have long legs compared to their bodies and they tend to be slender. Their toes are long and are only very slightly webbed. On the end of each toe, there is a round sticky pad that is used for climbing and sticking to surfaces. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Litoria caerulea | common_name =Australian Green Tree Frog | image = Magnificent tree frog (Litoria splendida) crop.jpg | range = The Australian Green Tree Frog, simply Green Tree Frog in Australia, White's Tree Frog, or Dumpy Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand and the United States. | description = The Green Tree Frog can grow up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) in length. Its color depends on the temperature and color of the environment, ranging from brown to green; the ventral surface is white. The frog occasionally has small, white, irregularly shaped spots on its back, up to five millimeters in diameter, which increase in number with age. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis | common_name = Eastern Hellbender | image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg | range = The range of the Eastern Hellbender (C. a. alleganiensis) in North America extends from southwestern and south central New York, west to southern Illinois, and south to extreme northeastern Mississippi and the northern parts of Alabama and Georgia. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The Ozark Hellbender (C. a. bishopi) subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern Missouri and adjacent northwest Arkansas. Hellbenders are considered endangered in Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Ohio and rare or of "special concern" in Georgia, New York, North Carolina and Virginia. |description = The Hellbender is a large aquatic salamander native to North America whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms. Common names include the "snot otter" and "devil dog." Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all salamanders, they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Necturus maculosus | common_name = Common Mudpuppy | image = Necturus maculosus maculosus.jpg | range = The Common Mudpuppy is a species of aquatic salamander found throughout the northeastern United States, and parts of Canada. |description = Mudpuppies prefer shallow water with lots of places to hide, but have been found at depths of up to 90 feet. The mating season is late autumn however eggs are not laid until late spring when 50 to 100 eggs are deposited in a nest cavity under a rock or other object. It takes 1 to 2 months for the eggs to hatch and 4 to 6 years for the young to reach maturity. Mudpuppies may live for up to 20 years. The common mudpuppy is nocturnal, but can be active in the day in muddy or weed-choked waters. It is carnivorous and feeds on fish, fish eggs, crayfish, insects, and molluscs. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Siren intermedia | common_name = Lesser Siren | image = Siren intermedia 2.jpg | range = The Lesser Siren is found in the United States, primarily from Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas (ranging into northeastern Mexico as far as Vera Cruz), and north to Illinois, Indiana and Michigan. |description = The Lesser Siren appears distinctly eel-like, with an elongated body, 7-26 inches (18-68 cm) in length. They have a pair of greatly reduced front legs, but no back legs. Their head is flattened and blunt with feather-like external gills on each side. They vary in color, from olive green to black, sometimes with darker colored speckling. The Lesser Siren is nocturnal, spending its days hidden in the debris and mud at the bottom of slow moving bodies of water. They feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates, including various kinds of worms, snails, and crustaceans. They will also eat the tadpoles and eggs of other amphibians. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Pseudobranchus striatus | common_name = Northern Dwarf Siren | image = P striatus USGS.jpg | range = South-eastern United States |description = The Northern Dwarf Sirenis a salamander lacking hind legs. It retains its gills into adulthood. }} ==6. Describe the life history of some amphibian.== {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Life cycle of a frog}} ==7. Explain the economic value of amphibians.== Amphibians are insect eaters, so they are very valuable for controlling mosquito populations. They are also the preferred dinner for several mammal, bird, fish, and reptile species. Amphibians are valuable for medical research. They are raised and sold to research institutions. The larvae of newts and salamanders are sold as fish bait. Amphibians are closely monitored by ecologists, because they are among the first animals affected by environmental problems such as pollution and the destruction of the ozone layer. ==8. Where do toads spend the winter or dry season? == Toads burrow below the frost line and hibernate for the winter. Plant matter actually generates a bit of heat as it decays, so toads prefer areas with plenty of leaf litter and fallen logs. ==9. Identify two species of frogs by their sound or imitate the sounds of two different species of frogs.== Here are the calls of three frogs. {| |- |[[File:Bufo bufo sitting-Iric2006.jpg|thumb|200px|European toad (''Bufo bufo'')]] |[[File:Pseudacris crucifer01.jpg|thumb|200px|Spring Peeper (''Pseudacris crucifer'')]] |[[File:Leptopelis vermiculatus2.jpg|thumb|200px|Big-eyed Tree Frog (''Leptopelis vermiculatus'')]] |- |align=center|[[File:Bufo bufo call1.ogg]] |align=center|[[File:Pseudacris-crucifer-002.ogg]] |align=center|[[File:Leptopelis vermiculatus call.ogg]] |} For more frog calls, [http://www.folkways.si.edu/search/AlbumDetails.aspx?ID=2421# Smithsonian Folkways Recordings] has several frog calls available on CD or for download. ==10. How do frogs and toads sing? What makes the noise so loud?== Frogs call by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that bulge out during the amplification of the call. Some frogs lack vocal sacs, but these species can still produce a loud call. Their mouths are enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a resonance chamber that amplifies their call. The body of a guitar does much the same thing, having a large hollow section that causes the sound to resonate inside before escaping to the outside atmosphere. ==11. Do one of the following== ;IMPORTANT: In the 1990's, amphibian populations in the United States and Canada began a precipitous and mysterious decline. Many frogs were discovered in Minnesota with unexplained deformities, including extra limbs, missing limbs, deformed limbs, and missing eyes. As a result, many species of amphibians are now protected by state and federal laws. When observing wild amphibians, it is extremely important that they not be handled. Doing so can spread disease to these creatures, causing further decline. Before venturing out, make sure your Pathfinders understand and appreciate the danger facing amphibians today. Do not allow your group to capture or otherwise harass them, and do not destroy their environment. Rather than pursuing the two options (a and b) listed for this requirement, it may be wiser to substitute an alternate requirement. One possibility is to have your Pathfinders research the amphibian population crash. ===a. Observe a toad in your yard or neighborhood to find out.(1) Where and when it sleeps,(2) When it leaves its home for food,(3) How fast it can travel,(4) How far it can jump, and as many other interesting things as you can find out about it, and write an essay covering the details requested in the first section of this question.=== It is recommended that instead of investigating wild amphibians, the student should research them using other available resources, including the Internet, books, and encyclopedias. It is recognized that observing them in the wild is by far more fascinating, but it also carries the potential to do great harm to the amphibian population. See the notes in section b for more details. ===b. Hatch some amphibian eggs and watch them through their growth cycle and write an essay covering the details.=== Frog eggs can be purchased from http://www.nilesbio.com/subcat367.html - but only in the spring. According to [http://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/mknutson_5003869_field_guide.html Field Guide of Amphibian Larvae and Eggs of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa], a publication of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ''"State and federal laws protect amphibians from exploitation. Collection permits are required from the appropriate state or federal authorities before capturing, handling, or collecting amphibians."'' It is therefore recommended that you not attempt to collect amphibian eggs on your own. You can download this book as a PDF from the page cited above. Even if you do not live in Minnesota, Wisconsin, or Iowa, the species covered in this book may be indigenous to your area. The USGS publication further states, ''"To prevent the spread of disease to native populations, any frogs or salamanders you raise should not be released back into the environment. Lab-raised amphibians can be anesthetized and euthanized with benzocaine or tricaine methanesulfonate (MS 222, Green 2001). If you anticipate difficulty complying with this guidance, you should not undertake raising larvae in captivity."'' ==References== *[[w:Frogs|Wikipedia article on frogs]] *[[w:Salamander|Wikipedia article on salamanders]] * http://www.wnrmag.com/stories/1996/apr96/frog.htm * http://www.californiaherps.com/index.html [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}/Nature|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] mrw0ei0lsms0jpk1o7k4szns2ky0fp3 4673989 4673951 2026-10-04T07:29:56Z EggRoll97 3178669 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4673951|4673951]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-53199-47|~2026-53199-47]] ([[User talk:~2026-53199-47|discuss]]): unconstructive 4673989 wikitext text/x-wiki {{honor_header|1|1945|Nature|General Conference}} {{AY Master|Naturalist|Options}} {{AY Master|Zoology|Options}} ==1. What are the characteristics of amphibians?== Amphibians live half of their lives in water and half on land. They are cold-blooded vertebrates. Amphibians are able to breathe through their skin, making them very sensitive to anything they come in contact with, including human hands. When observing amphibians, one should never touch them. Amphibians have toes rather than claws. ==2. Name the two main orders of amphibia and tell how to distinguish between them.== ;Order Anura (frogs and toads): Adult frogs and toads are characterized by long hind legs, a short body, webbed digits, protruding eyes and the absence of a tail. Most have a semi-aquatic lifestyle, but move easily on land by jumping or climbing. They typically lay their eggs in puddles, ponds or lakes; and their larvae, called tadpoles, have gills and develop in water. ;Order Caudata (newts and salamanders): Cuadata have slender bodies, short legs, and long tails. The moist skin of the amphibians fits them to habitats either near water or under some protection on moist ground, usually in a forest. Some species are aquatic throughout life, some take to the water intermittently, and some are entirely terrestrial as adults. Salamanders superficially resemble lizards, but are easily distinguished by their lack of scales. They are capable of regenerating lost limbs. ==3. Distinguish between toads and frogs.== The use of the common names "frog" and "toad" has no taxonomic justification. From a taxonomic perspective, all members of the order Anura are frogs, but only members of the family Bufonidae are considered "true toads". The use of the term "frog" in common names usually refers to species that are aquatic or semi-aquatic with smooth or moist skins, and the term "toad" generally refers to species that tend to be terrestrial with dry, warty skin. An exception is the Fire-bellied toad (''Bombina bombina''): while its skin is slightly warty, it prefers a watery habitat. ==4. How do amphibians protect themselves?== The first line of defense for amphibians is to not be seen by a potential predator. The small size and coloration of many species help in this regard, but sometimes, rather than blending in, frogs are very brightly colored. The coloration in this case serves as a warning, for these frogs are poisonous. Many frogs contain mild toxins that make them distasteful to potential predators. For example, all toads have large poison glands—the parotid glands—located behind the eyes on the top of the head. Some frogs, such as some poison dart frogs, are especially toxic. Salamanders have the ability to detach their tails at will. When a predator captures a salamander by the tail, the salamander detaches its tail and escapes. The tail ''regenerates'' or grows back. ==5. Make a list of amphibians that should be found in your locality. Identify five and tell where you found them. OR Collect pictures or sketch five different amphibians which you can identify and tell where they are found.== {{TODO|Expand this section to include more species, such as giant salamander and newts.}} {{Species id | latin_name=Gymnophiona | common_name=Caecilians | image =Dermophis mexicanus.jpg | range =Caecilians are found in wet tropical regions of Southeast Asia, India and Sri Lanka, parts of East and West Africa, the Seychelles islands in the Indian Ocean and in northern and eastern South America. | description=Caecilians completely lack limbs, making the smaller species resemble worms, while the larger species with lengths up to {{units|1.5 meters |5 feet}} resemble snakes. The tail is short or absent. They have a strong skull, with a pointed snout used to force their way through soil or mud.[2] In most species, the number of bones in the skull are reduced and fused together, and the mouth is recessed under the head. Owing to their underground life, the eyes are small and covered by skin for protection, which has led to the misconception that they are blind. This is not strictly true, although their sight is limited to simple dark-light perception. All caecilians possess a pair of tentacles, located between their eyes and nostrils. These are probably used for a second olfactory capability, in addition to the normal sense of smell based in the nose. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Lithobates (Rana) catesbeianus | common_name = Bullfrog | image = Bullfrog - natures pics.jpg | range = The American Bull Frog is native to North America. They are found in the United States, Canada and Mexico, east of the Rocky Mountains, but have been introduced to many other localities throughout the world. In Europe and the western U.S., measures are often taken to control its spread because it competes with, and often drives out, native species. |description = The bull frog is a large species that has many similarities to its 'sister species' of toad, and can grow to a length of 6 inches (15 cm) with a weight of up to 1.5 lb (750 g). Females are typically larger than males. They are generally varying shades of green or brown, with dark brown, dark green, or black blotching and a yellow or white underside. Bull frogs are carnivorous and will consume almost anything that fits into their mouth which they can overpower, including insects, small mammals, fish, snakes, and even other frogs. They tend to eat more dragonflies than flies. The adult frog can live up to 13 years. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Anaxyrus (Bufo) americanus | common_name = American Toad | image = Bufo americanusPCCA20060417-3352B.jpg | range = The American toad is a common species of toad found throughout the eastern United States and Canada. |description = The American toad is a medium sized toad usually found in the range from 2 to over 3 1/2 inches. The color and pattern is somewhat variable. The Eastern American toad has spots that contain only one to two warts. It also has enlarged warts on the tibia or lower leg below the knee. While the belly is usually spotted, it is generally more so on the forward half (in some rare individuals there may be few or no spots). }} {{Species id | latin_name = Hyla versicolor | common_name = Grey Tree Frog | image = Hyla gray treefrog.jpg | range = Grey tree frogs inhabit a wide range, and can be found in most of the eastern half of the United States, as far west as central Texas. They also range into Canada in the provinces of Ontario and Manitoba, with an isolated population in New Brunswick. | description = Grey tree frogs live primarily in trees, spending time in wooded areas, usually not far from a permanent water source. On rainy evenings they can often be found calling in or near shallow, temporary pools of water. They are nocturnal and insectivorous, consuming most any small arthropod they can catch. Mating occurs throughout the spring and summer months. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Hyla crucifer | common_name = Spring Peeper | image = H crucifer USGS.jpg | range = There are two subspecies of the spring peeper, the northern (P. c. crucifer) and the southern spring peeper (P. c. bartramiana). The northern is similar to the southern except for a strong dark marking on the southern frog's belly. The southern spring peeper is limited to northern Florida and southern Georgia, while the northern can be found all over the east of the USA and eastern Canada. | description = The spring peeper is a small frog, attaining an adult size between 0.75 and 1.5 inches (up to 40mm) long. They have a dark cross on their backs roughly in the shape of an "X", though sometimes the marking may be indistinct. The color variations of the spring peeper are mostly tan, brown, olive green, or gray. Females are lighter-colored, while males are slightly smaller and usually have dark throats. Spring peepers are nocturnal frogs, so they are mostly heard but not seen. And they are especially easy to hear due to their extremely loud mating call which gives them the name "peeper". }} {{Species id | latin_name = Lithobates sylvaticus | common_name = Wood Frog | image = Rana sylvatica.jpg | range = Wood Frogs are found from northern Georgia and in isolated colonies in the central highlands in the eastern to central parts of Alabama, up through the northeastern United States, and all the way across Canada into Alaska. It is the most widely distributed frog in Alaska. They can be found from southeastern Alaska to north of the Brooks Range. | description = Wood Frog is the common name given to Lithobates sylvaticus, previously Rana sylvatica. They are the only frogs found north of the Arctic Circle. In winter, as much as 35-45% of the frog's body may freeze, and turn to ice. Ice crystals form beneath the skin and become interspersed among the body's skeletal muscles. During the freeze the frog's breathing, blood flow, and heartbeat cease. Freezing is made possible by specialized proteins, glucose and perhaps accumulation of urea, which prevent intracellular freezing and dehydration. Wood Frogs primarily breed in ephemeral pools rather than permanent water bodies such as ponds or lakes. Adults emerge from hibernation in early spring and migrate to nearby pools. There, males chorus (a quacking sound) and mating occurs. Adult Wood Frogs spend summer months in moist woodlands, forested swamps, and bogs where they forage and maintain body moisture as surrounding environments dry out. Females' eggs are formed by late fall. By late fall or early winter, they leave forested swamps and travel to neighboring uplands to overwinter. Some may remain in moist areas to overwinter. They tend to hibernate in the upper organic layers of the soil, under leaf litter, and in close proximity to breeding pools. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Rana | common_name = Leopard Frog | image = Green-leopard-frog-in-swamp.jpg | range = Once abundant in North America and Canada, their population has declined in recent years because of pollution and deforestation. Leopard frogs are often used as environmental indicator species because of their heightened sensitivity to chemical pollutants found in the air and water. | description = Leopard frogs, which are also called meadow frogs and grass frogs, are a collection of so-called true frog within the genus Rana. They are commonly used as dissection specimens in biology classrooms. Leopard frogs are recognized by their green or brown coloration with distinct light-edged dark spots across the back and white underside. They also have a characteristic line of raised glandular skin extending from each eye to the groin. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Pseudacris regilla | common_name =Pacific Chorus Frog | image = Pseudacris regilla.png | range = The Pacific Chorus Frog, formerly the Pacific Tree Frog (Hyla regilla) is a species of chorus frog native to the pacific coast of North America from Baja California in Mexico, through the states of California, Oregon, Washington (it is the Washington state frog), and into Canada and extreme southern Alaska. It ranges east into Nevada and Idaho. | description = This is probably the most commonly heard and encountered frog in California and its call is often heard as a nighttime background sound in Hollywood movies. The Pacific tree frog can reach up to about 5 cm in length. The males are often smaller than the females. These frogs can have highly variable color on their bodies anywhere from gray, brown, tan or bright green and can even change between them. They are usually a pale or white color on their bellies. They have many variations of markings on their back and sides that are usually dark and spotty. The one identifiable mark is a dark stripe that goes over the eye from the nose to the shoulder. Their skin is covered in small bumps. They have long legs compared to their bodies and they tend to be slender. Their toes are long and are only very slightly webbed. On the end of each toe, there is a round sticky pad that is used for climbing and sticking to surfaces. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Litoria caerulea | common_name =Australian Green Tree Frog | image = Magnificent tree frog (Litoria splendida) crop.jpg | range = The Australian Green Tree Frog, simply Green Tree Frog in Australia, White's Tree Frog, or Dumpy Tree Frog (Litoria caerulea) is a species of tree frog native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand and the United States. | description = The Green Tree Frog can grow up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) in length. Its color depends on the temperature and color of the environment, ranging from brown to green; the ventral surface is white. The frog occasionally has small, white, irregularly shaped spots on its back, up to five millimeters in diameter, which increase in number with age. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis | common_name = Eastern Hellbender | image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg | range = The range of the Eastern Hellbender (C. a. alleganiensis) in North America extends from southwestern and south central New York, west to southern Illinois, and south to extreme northeastern Mississippi and the northern parts of Alabama and Georgia. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The Ozark Hellbender (C. a. bishopi) subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern Missouri and adjacent northwest Arkansas. Hellbenders are considered endangered in Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Ohio and rare or of "special concern" in Georgia, New York, North Carolina and Virginia. |description = The Hellbender is a large aquatic salamander native to North America whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms. Common names include the "snot otter" and "devil dog." Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all salamanders, they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Necturus maculosus | common_name = Common Mudpuppy | image = Necturus maculosus maculosus.jpg | range = The Common Mudpuppy is a species of aquatic salamander found throughout the northeastern United States, and parts of Canada. |description = Mudpuppies prefer shallow water with lots of places to hide, but have been found at depths of up to 90 feet. The mating season is late autumn however eggs are not laid until late spring when 50 to 100 eggs are deposited in a nest cavity under a rock or other object. It takes 1 to 2 months for the eggs to hatch and 4 to 6 years for the young to reach maturity. Mudpuppies may live for up to 20 years. The common mudpuppy is nocturnal, but can be active in the day in muddy or weed-choked waters. It is carnivorous and feeds on fish, fish eggs, crayfish, insects, and molluscs. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Siren intermedia | common_name = Lesser Siren | image = Siren intermedia 2.jpg | range = The Lesser Siren is found in the United States, primarily from Virginia to Florida, and west to Texas (ranging into northeastern Mexico as far as Vera Cruz), and north to Illinois, Indiana and Michigan. |description = The Lesser Siren appears distinctly eel-like, with an elongated body, 7-26 inches (18-68 cm) in length. They have a pair of greatly reduced front legs, but no back legs. Their head is flattened and blunt with feather-like external gills on each side. They vary in color, from olive green to black, sometimes with darker colored speckling. The Lesser Siren is nocturnal, spending its days hidden in the debris and mud at the bottom of slow moving bodies of water. They feed primarily on aquatic invertebrates, including various kinds of worms, snails, and crustaceans. They will also eat the tadpoles and eggs of other amphibians. }} {{Species id | latin_name = Pseudobranchus striatus | common_name = Northern Dwarf Siren | image = P striatus USGS.jpg | range = South-eastern United States |description = The Northern Dwarf Sirenis a salamander lacking hind legs. It retains its gills into adulthood. }} ==6. Describe the life history of some amphibian.== {{:Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book/Nature/Life cycle of a frog}} ==7. Explain the economic value of amphibians.== Amphibians are insect eaters, so they are very valuable for controlling mosquito populations. They are also the preferred dinner for several mammal, bird, fish, and reptile species. Amphibians are valuable for medical research. They are raised and sold to research institutions. The larvae of newts and salamanders are sold as fish bait. Amphibians are closely monitored by ecologists, because they are among the first animals affected by environmental problems such as pollution and the destruction of the ozone layer. ==8. Where do toads spend the winter or dry season? == Toads burrow below the frost line and hibernate for the winter. Plant matter actually generates a bit of heat as it decays, so toads prefer areas with plenty of leaf litter and fallen logs. ==9. Identify two species of frogs by their sound or imitate the sounds of two different species of frogs.== Here are the calls of three frogs. {| |- |[[File:Bufo bufo sitting-Iric2006.jpg|thumb|200px|European toad (''Bufo bufo'')]] |[[File:Pseudacris crucifer01.jpg|thumb|200px|Spring Peeper (''Pseudacris crucifer'')]] |[[File:Leptopelis vermiculatus2.jpg|thumb|200px|Big-eyed Tree Frog (''Leptopelis vermiculatus'')]] |- |align=center|[[File:Bufo bufo call1.ogg]] |align=center|[[File:Pseudacris-crucifer-002.ogg]] |align=center|[[File:Leptopelis vermiculatus call.ogg]] |} For more frog calls, [http://www.folkways.si.edu/search/AlbumDetails.aspx?ID=2421# Smithsonian Folkways Recordings] has several frog calls available on CD or for download. ==10. How do frogs and toads sing? What makes the noise so loud?== Frogs call by passing air through the larynx in the throat. In most calling frogs, the sound is amplified by one or more vocal sacs, membranes of skin under the throat or on the corner of the mouth that bulge out during the amplification of the call. Some frogs lack vocal sacs, but these species can still produce a loud call. Their mouths are enlarged and dome-shaped, acting as a resonance chamber that amplifies their call. The body of a guitar does much the same thing, having a large hollow section that causes the sound to resonate inside before escaping to the outside atmosphere. ==11. Do one of the following== ;IMPORTANT: In the 1990's, amphibian populations in the United States and Canada began a precipitous and mysterious decline. Many frogs were discovered in Minnesota with unexplained deformities, including extra limbs, missing limbs, deformed limbs, and missing eyes. As a result, many species of amphibians are now protected by state and federal laws. When observing wild amphibians, it is extremely important that they not be handled. Doing so can spread disease to these creatures, causing further decline. Before venturing out, make sure your Pathfinders understand and appreciate the danger facing amphibians today. Do not allow your group to capture or otherwise harass them, and do not destroy their environment. Rather than pursuing the two options (a and b) listed for this requirement, it may be wiser to substitute an alternate requirement. One possibility is to have your Pathfinders research the amphibian population crash. ===a. Observe a toad in your yard or neighborhood to find out.(1) Where and when it sleeps,(2) When it leaves its home for food,(3) How fast it can travel,(4) How far it can jump, and as many other interesting things as you can find out about it, and write an essay covering the details requested in the first section of this question.=== It is recommended that instead of investigating wild amphibians, the student should research them using other available resources, including the Internet, books, and encyclopedias. It is recognized that observing them in the wild is by far more fascinating, but it also carries the potential to do great harm to the amphibian population. See the notes in section b for more details. ===b. Hatch some amphibian eggs and watch them through their growth cycle and write an essay covering the details.=== Frog eggs can be purchased from http://www.nilesbio.com/subcat367.html - but only in the spring. According to [http://www.umesc.usgs.gov/terrestrial/amphibians/mknutson_5003869_field_guide.html Field Guide of Amphibian Larvae and Eggs of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa], a publication of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), ''"State and federal laws protect amphibians from exploitation. Collection permits are required from the appropriate state or federal authorities before capturing, handling, or collecting amphibians."'' It is therefore recommended that you not attempt to collect amphibian eggs on your own. You can download this book as a PDF from the page cited above. Even if you do not live in Minnesota, Wisconsin, or Iowa, the species covered in this book may be indigenous to your area. The USGS publication further states, ''"To prevent the spread of disease to native populations, any frogs or salamanders you raise should not be released back into the environment. Lab-raised amphibians can be anesthetized and euthanized with benzocaine or tricaine methanesulfonate (MS 222, Green 2001). If you anticipate difficulty complying with this guidance, you should not undertake raising larvae in captivity."'' ==References== *[[w:Frogs|Wikipedia article on frogs]] *[[w:Salamander|Wikipedia article on salamanders]] * http://www.wnrmag.com/stories/1996/apr96/frog.htm * http://www.californiaherps.com/index.html [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}/Nature|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] [[{{BOOKCATEGORY|Adventist Youth Honors Answer Book}}/Completed Honors|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]] 72nus44lrrozi5k34v4ou9ge40uaf5y 0 261296 4673945 4662582 2026-10-03T21:20:33Z ~2026-53542-12 3627528 /* Annotations */ 4673945 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Ulysses, 1922.djvu|thumb|600px|center|page=394]] <br> ==Annotations== '''''Sturzgeburt'''''{{spaces|5}}(''German'') ''sudden birth'', a term used in legal medicine to describe a precipitate delivery in which the foetus falls out of the birth canal. Use of the term arises in cases where the foetus has been injured or killed during birth, either as a result of ''Sturzgeburt'' or through ill-treatment following delivery. The term is also used to describe any birth that occurs almost immediately after the onset of labour, with few contractions. '''''primafacie'''''{{spaces|5}}(''Latin'') ''[[wikt:prima facie|prima facie]]'' is a Latin expression meaning ''at first sight'', ''on the face of it''. In English it may be used as an adjective meaning ''obvious'', ''not requiring proof''. Hans Walter Gabler amended Joyce's ''primafacie'' to ''prima facie''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Ulysses: The Corrected Text |last=Joyce |first=James |editor=Hans Walter Gabler |others=With Wolfhard Steppe and Claus Melchior |year=1986 |publisher=The Bodley Head |location=London |page=336}}</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {|style="width: 23%; margin: 0px auto;" class="noprint" |style="background-color: #efe;{{Text default color}}; border: 1px solid SteelBlue; padding: 0.5em; font-size: small; text-align: center;"|'''[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses]]'''<br />[[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Oxen of the Sun/390|Preceding Page]] | [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Page Index|Page Index]] | [[Annotations to James Joyce's Ulysses/Oxen of the Sun/392|Next Page]] |} {{BookCat}} 99g027hrgubvq03yp24f3kr6p0kt6ky 2 277238 4673883 4673616 2026-10-03T15:20:49Z DVD206 724793 cheesboard 4673883 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> <!--[[File:Graph test.jpg|thumbnail| On 2D verse Problems]]--> The maths to Nicole: [[ On 2D Inverse Problems|On 3D Problems ]] of [http://www.mapquest.com the Universe] (plus/minus virus) {{Template:User serial comma:No}} {{user blank|en|These users can read and write '''[[English language|English]]'''. }} {{user blank|ru|These users can read and write '''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''. }} [[File:Material promotion.png|thumb|]] [[File:Roots in the complex plane-6.png|thumb|the view in complex plane]] m0bnvt669ucxix9slwxey58kbagcdjs 4673884 4673883 2026-10-03T15:24:20Z DVD206 724793 tempo communication 4673884 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- EDIT BELOW THIS LINE --> <!--[[File:Graph test.jpg|thumbnail| On 2D verse Problems]]--> The maths to Nicole: [[ On 2D Inverse Problems|On 3D Problems ]] of [http://www.mapquest.com the Universe] (plus/minus virus) {{Template:User serial comma:No}} {{user blank|en|These users can read and write '''[[English language|English]]'''. }} {{user blank|ru|These users can read and write '''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''. }} [[File:Material promotion.png|thumb|]] [[File:Roots in the complex plane-6.png|thumb|the view in complex plane]] Most animals, including humans, may share a natural tempo of life. Researchers surveyed 124 recordings from the vast wildlife sound archive xeno-canto and identified 50 species that communicate with each other (calls, tweets, croaks) in regular rhythmic signals at around 180 beats per minute. The team examined other animal communication studies that revealed that a broader range—around 0.5 to 4 hertz, or 30 to 240 beats per minute—appeared repeatedly across animals varying enormously in size, from fireflies and fiddler crabs to fish, birds, apes and humans. gizldawa3t7o2w6wx7wl3n77f9fuy3h 0 277791 4673862 3660252 2026-10-03T13:29:06Z Systemsdev 3627496 /* Hexadecimal Numbers */ 4673862 wikitext text/x-wiki This chapter introduces the basics of computer architecture and computer arithmetic. == What Computers Do == In order to explore how computers operate, we must first arrive at an explanation of what computers actually do. No doubt, you have some idea of what computers are capable of. After all, odds are high that you are reading this on a computer right now! If we tried to list all the functions of computers, we would come up with a staggeringly complex array of functions and features. Instead, what we need to do is peal back all the layers of functionality and see what's going on in the background. [[File:BasicComputer.png|frame|right|A Basic Computer]] If we look at a computer at its most abstract level, what they do is process information. We could represent this sort of abstract machine as some sort of memory and some sort of processor. The processor can read and write items in the memory according to some list of instructions, while the memory simply remembers the data it has been given. The list of instructions executed by the processor are known as a '''computer program'''. The details of how this arrangement is accomplished determines the nature of the computer itself. Using this definition, quite a wide range of devices can be classified as computers. Most of the devices we call "computers" are, in fact, universal computers. That is, if they were given an infinite amount of memory, they would be able to compute any computable function. The requirements for a universal computer are actually very simple. Basically, a machine is universal if it is able to do the following: # Read a value from memory. # Based on the read value, determine a new value to write to memory. # Based on the read value, determine which instruction to execute next. A machine following these rules is said to be "Turing Complete." A complete definition of Turing Completeness is beyond the scope of this book. If you are interested, please see the articles on [[w:Turing_Machine|Turing Machines]] and [[w:Turing_Complete|Turing Completeness]]. Trying to create programs in terms of the constraints of universal computers would be very difficult. It would be more convenient to create a list of more useful instructions such as "add", "subtract", "multiply", and "divide." The list of instructions that the processor can execute is called the machine's '''instruction set'''. This instruction set helps to define the behavior of the machine, and further define the nature of the programs which will run on the machine. Another defining characteristic of the machine answers the question of "Where does the program get stored?" You'll note that in our diagram of the basic computer, we did not show where the program resides. This was done with purpose as answering this question helps to define the different types of computers. Breaking down the components of the system further is the topic of the next section. == Computer Architecture == Another defining characteristic of computers is the logical layout of the system. This property is called the computer's architecture. '''Computer architecture''' describes how a machine is logically organized and how its instruction set is actually implemented. One of the most important architectural decision made in designing a computer is how its memory is organized, and how programs are loaded into the machine. In the early history of computers, there was a distinction between stored program and hardwired computers. For example, the first general purpose electronic computer, the ENIAC, was programmed by wiring units of the machine to devices called function tables. Later machines, like the EDSAC, stored programs as data in program memory. Of course, stored programs proved to be much more convenient. Rewiring a machine simply takes too long when compared to the process of simply loading new data into the machine. In the current era of computing, almost all computers are stored program computers. In this book, we will be focusing on stored program computer architectures. Having settled on storing programs as data, we now have to turn our attention to where, and how, programs are stored in memory. In the past, many different solutions to this problem have been proposed, but today there are two main high level variants. These are the Von Neumann architecture, and the Harvard Architecture. === Von Neumann Architecture === The '''Von Neumann Architecture''' is, by far, the most common architecture in existence today. PCs, Macs, and even Android phones are examples of Von Neumann computers. The Von Neumann Architecture is a stored program computer which consists of the following components: # A CPU (Central Processing Unit) which executes program instructions. # A Memory which stores both programs and data. # Input and Output Devices The defining characteristic of the Von Neumann Architecture is that the both data and instructions are stored in the same memory device. Programs are stored as a collection of binary patterns which the CPU decodes in order to execute instructions. Of course, the data are stored as bit patterns in memory as well. The CPU can only distinguish between data and program code by the context in which it encounters the data in memory. The CPU in this architecture begins executing instructions at some memory location, and continues to step through instructions. Anything it encounters while stepping through the program is treated as program instructions. When the CPU is issued instructions to read or write data in the memory, the CPU treats the numbers in memory as data. Of course, this also means that a Von Neumann machine is perfectly capable of modifying its own program. == Computer Arithmetic == Computers spend a great deal of their time working out simple arithmetic expressions. In fact if we were to think in terms of "computation" arithmetic is what immediately springs to mind. How computers deal with numbers is, therefore, an important part of the study of computer architecture. The earliest electronic computer, ENIAC, represented numbers in much the same way that humans do, using decimal arithmetic with its operations. The problem with this approach is that you have to have 10 distinguishable states (0 through 9) which greatly increases the complexity of the machines that operates on them. Representing and distinguishing 10 states requires very precise electronics. If we want to produce easy representation with electronics, the simplest and easiest to distinguish is two states "on" and "off." This does not require nearly as much precision to detect and propogate so it greatly simplifies the physical implementation of a machine, however it does bring up the question of "How do we do math with only two symbols?" The answer to this is that we use the binary number system where these states map to 0 and 1. So we could think of 0 as being "off" and 1 being "on". This section explains how this system of numbers works and introduces convenient methods of representing these numbers. === Representation of Numbers and Basis === In order to understand binary we need to first understand the nature of integers themselves. We will have to delve a little bit into the realm of number theory, but I promise it will be painless! We'll start off with a simple example. What do you see below? <math>145</math> In words, you may say that this is the number "one hundred and forty-five." However, this would not be be accurate. What you are really seeing is a representation of this quantity. From grade school on up, you are taught a specific way of writing numbers down. This system is called the "base 10" or "decimal" number system. When you see "145" you are really seeing a convention where: <math>145 = 1 \cdot 100 + 4 \cdot 10 + 5 \cdot 1</math> Notice that each of these terms is a power of ten. So we could rewrite this as: <math>145 = 1 \cdot 10^2 + 4 \cdot 10^1 + 5 \cdot 10^0</math> Colloquially, we call the positions in a number the "Ones, Tens, and Hundreds" places. If we extended on, each position takes on a power of 10 one greater than the one before it. Thus we could build the sort of table, which I am sure you have seen before. <math> \begin{array}{|c|r|l|} \hline \textrm{Exponent} & \textrm{Number} & \textrm{Place Name} \\ \hline 10^0 & 1 & \textrm{Ones}\\ 10^1 & 10 & \textrm{Tens}\\ 10^2 & 100 & \textrm{Hundreds}\\ 10^3 & 1,000 & \textrm {Thousands}\\ 10^4 & 10,000 & \textrm{Ten Thousands}\\ 10^5 & 100,000 & \textrm{Hundred Thousands}\\ \hline \end{array} </math> Of course, we can continue this on into infinity adding new place values by simply incrementing the exponent. We could generalize this for the decimal system by saying that the value of a sequence of <math>k</math> digits is expressed as a polynomial: <math> \langle d_k \ldots d_2 d_1 d_0 \rangle = \sum_{i=0}^{k} 10^i </math> Note that we can express this for any arbitrary number base. So we could generalize the above and say that for an arbitrary base <math>b</math> the value of a sequence of <math>k</math> digits is: <math> \langle d_k \ldots d_2 d_1 d_0 \rangle = \sum_{i=0}^{k} b^i </math> This opens up the door to many possibilities of representing numbers. You can choose any arbitrary base you like. The numeric base you are working in determines what symbols are used in representing numbers and how those symbols are interpreted. Generally speaking, for a base <math>b</math> we must have <math>b</math> symbols to represent it. For base 10, we have 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Notice that the highest valued symbol used in each place has the value <math>b-1</math>. Hence we can come up with any base of numbers we choose, so long as we have a set of symbols to support it. === Binary Numbers === We can now turn our attention to a number base which matches the two easily detectable states of "on" and "off". This is the binary, or base 2, number system. From the above observations, the binary number system consists only of the symbols (0, 1). And its "places" are defined as shown in the following table: <math> \begin{array}{|c|r|l|} \hline \textrm{Exponent} & \textrm{Number} & \textrm{Place Name} \\ \hline 2^0 & 1 & \textrm{Ones} \\ 2^1 & 2 & \textrm{Twos} \\ 2^2 & 4 & \textrm{Fours} \\ 2^3 & 8 & \textrm{Eights} \\ 2^4 & 16 & \textrm{Sixteens} \\ 2^5 & 32 & \textrm{Thirty-Twos} \\ 2^6 & 64 & \textrm{Sixty-Fours}\\ 2^7 & 128 & \textrm{One Hundred Twenty Eights}\\ \hline \end{array} </math> Just like in decimal, we can continue this on into infinity by simply increasing the exponent. I have left it off after 8 digits because this is the unit we most often work with in computers, as we shall see later. So then, suppose we had the following binary number: <math>10010001</math> How can we determine its value? Remember this follows the same rules as a decimal number, so working from left to right we can convert this number to decimal as: <math>1 \cdot 128 + 0 \cdot 64 + 0 \cdot 32 + 1 \cdot 16 + 0 \cdot 8 + 0 \cdot 4 + 0 \cdot 2 + 1 \cdot 1 = 145</math> Now that we've seen how to convert from binary (or really any number base) into decimal, you are probably wondering how we can go in the other direction. That is, how can we convert a decimal number into binary (or any arbitrary base.) The answer is quite simple. We can change from decimal to any number base by repeatedly dividing by the target base. The remainder of each division for the digits, from right to left, of the converted number. Proving why this works is left as an exercise to the reader. Let's test this out by converting our good friend, 145, into binary. <math> \begin{align} 145 \div 2 & = & 72 ~ & R=1 \\ 72 \div 2 & = & 36 ~ & R=0 \\ 36 \div 2 & = & 18 ~ & R=0 \\ 18 \div 2 & = & 9 ~ & R=0 \\ 9 \div 2 & = & 4 ~ & R=1 \\ 4 \div 2 & = & 2 ~ & R=0 \\ 2 \div 2 & = & 1 ~ & R=0 \\ 1 \div 2 & = & 0 ~ & R=1 \\ \end{align} </math> Note we can stop once the quotient is 0 as it will remain 0 from here on out. Thus, we can read the binary number by reading the remainders in reverse order: <math>10010001</math> === Hexadecimal Numbers === Hexadecimal Numbers Hexadecimal, or hex, is a positional number system with base 16. It uses sixteen symbols: '''0–9 represent the values zero through nine. A–F represent the values ten through fifteen. ''' The hexadecimal digits correspond to four binary bits, making hexadecimal convenient for representing binary data. For example: 2F₁₆ = 2 × 16¹ + 15 × 16⁰ = 47₁₀ The binary representation of 2F₁₆ is: 0010 1111₂ ''' Hexadecimal is commonly used in computer science to represent memory addresses, machine instructions, color values, and other binary data in a more compact form. ''' === Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles === === Arithmetic in Arbitrary Bases === {{BookCat}} 8wegy93gcdektb37dwlccs6kdij47ro 4673863 4673862 2026-10-03T13:30:44Z Systemsdev 3627496 /* Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles */ 4673863 wikitext text/x-wiki This chapter introduces the basics of computer architecture and computer arithmetic. == What Computers Do == In order to explore how computers operate, we must first arrive at an explanation of what computers actually do. No doubt, you have some idea of what computers are capable of. After all, odds are high that you are reading this on a computer right now! If we tried to list all the functions of computers, we would come up with a staggeringly complex array of functions and features. Instead, what we need to do is peal back all the layers of functionality and see what's going on in the background. [[File:BasicComputer.png|frame|right|A Basic Computer]] If we look at a computer at its most abstract level, what they do is process information. We could represent this sort of abstract machine as some sort of memory and some sort of processor. The processor can read and write items in the memory according to some list of instructions, while the memory simply remembers the data it has been given. The list of instructions executed by the processor are known as a '''computer program'''. The details of how this arrangement is accomplished determines the nature of the computer itself. Using this definition, quite a wide range of devices can be classified as computers. Most of the devices we call "computers" are, in fact, universal computers. That is, if they were given an infinite amount of memory, they would be able to compute any computable function. The requirements for a universal computer are actually very simple. Basically, a machine is universal if it is able to do the following: # Read a value from memory. # Based on the read value, determine a new value to write to memory. # Based on the read value, determine which instruction to execute next. A machine following these rules is said to be "Turing Complete." A complete definition of Turing Completeness is beyond the scope of this book. If you are interested, please see the articles on [[w:Turing_Machine|Turing Machines]] and [[w:Turing_Complete|Turing Completeness]]. Trying to create programs in terms of the constraints of universal computers would be very difficult. It would be more convenient to create a list of more useful instructions such as "add", "subtract", "multiply", and "divide." The list of instructions that the processor can execute is called the machine's '''instruction set'''. This instruction set helps to define the behavior of the machine, and further define the nature of the programs which will run on the machine. Another defining characteristic of the machine answers the question of "Where does the program get stored?" You'll note that in our diagram of the basic computer, we did not show where the program resides. This was done with purpose as answering this question helps to define the different types of computers. Breaking down the components of the system further is the topic of the next section. == Computer Architecture == Another defining characteristic of computers is the logical layout of the system. This property is called the computer's architecture. '''Computer architecture''' describes how a machine is logically organized and how its instruction set is actually implemented. One of the most important architectural decision made in designing a computer is how its memory is organized, and how programs are loaded into the machine. In the early history of computers, there was a distinction between stored program and hardwired computers. For example, the first general purpose electronic computer, the ENIAC, was programmed by wiring units of the machine to devices called function tables. Later machines, like the EDSAC, stored programs as data in program memory. Of course, stored programs proved to be much more convenient. Rewiring a machine simply takes too long when compared to the process of simply loading new data into the machine. In the current era of computing, almost all computers are stored program computers. In this book, we will be focusing on stored program computer architectures. Having settled on storing programs as data, we now have to turn our attention to where, and how, programs are stored in memory. In the past, many different solutions to this problem have been proposed, but today there are two main high level variants. These are the Von Neumann architecture, and the Harvard Architecture. === Von Neumann Architecture === The '''Von Neumann Architecture''' is, by far, the most common architecture in existence today. PCs, Macs, and even Android phones are examples of Von Neumann computers. The Von Neumann Architecture is a stored program computer which consists of the following components: # A CPU (Central Processing Unit) which executes program instructions. # A Memory which stores both programs and data. # Input and Output Devices The defining characteristic of the Von Neumann Architecture is that the both data and instructions are stored in the same memory device. Programs are stored as a collection of binary patterns which the CPU decodes in order to execute instructions. Of course, the data are stored as bit patterns in memory as well. The CPU can only distinguish between data and program code by the context in which it encounters the data in memory. The CPU in this architecture begins executing instructions at some memory location, and continues to step through instructions. Anything it encounters while stepping through the program is treated as program instructions. When the CPU is issued instructions to read or write data in the memory, the CPU treats the numbers in memory as data. Of course, this also means that a Von Neumann machine is perfectly capable of modifying its own program. == Computer Arithmetic == Computers spend a great deal of their time working out simple arithmetic expressions. In fact if we were to think in terms of "computation" arithmetic is what immediately springs to mind. How computers deal with numbers is, therefore, an important part of the study of computer architecture. The earliest electronic computer, ENIAC, represented numbers in much the same way that humans do, using decimal arithmetic with its operations. The problem with this approach is that you have to have 10 distinguishable states (0 through 9) which greatly increases the complexity of the machines that operates on them. Representing and distinguishing 10 states requires very precise electronics. If we want to produce easy representation with electronics, the simplest and easiest to distinguish is two states "on" and "off." This does not require nearly as much precision to detect and propogate so it greatly simplifies the physical implementation of a machine, however it does bring up the question of "How do we do math with only two symbols?" The answer to this is that we use the binary number system where these states map to 0 and 1. So we could think of 0 as being "off" and 1 being "on". This section explains how this system of numbers works and introduces convenient methods of representing these numbers. === Representation of Numbers and Basis === In order to understand binary we need to first understand the nature of integers themselves. We will have to delve a little bit into the realm of number theory, but I promise it will be painless! We'll start off with a simple example. What do you see below? <math>145</math> In words, you may say that this is the number "one hundred and forty-five." However, this would not be be accurate. What you are really seeing is a representation of this quantity. From grade school on up, you are taught a specific way of writing numbers down. This system is called the "base 10" or "decimal" number system. When you see "145" you are really seeing a convention where: <math>145 = 1 \cdot 100 + 4 \cdot 10 + 5 \cdot 1</math> Notice that each of these terms is a power of ten. So we could rewrite this as: <math>145 = 1 \cdot 10^2 + 4 \cdot 10^1 + 5 \cdot 10^0</math> Colloquially, we call the positions in a number the "Ones, Tens, and Hundreds" places. If we extended on, each position takes on a power of 10 one greater than the one before it. Thus we could build the sort of table, which I am sure you have seen before. <math> \begin{array}{|c|r|l|} \hline \textrm{Exponent} & \textrm{Number} & \textrm{Place Name} \\ \hline 10^0 & 1 & \textrm{Ones}\\ 10^1 & 10 & \textrm{Tens}\\ 10^2 & 100 & \textrm{Hundreds}\\ 10^3 & 1,000 & \textrm {Thousands}\\ 10^4 & 10,000 & \textrm{Ten Thousands}\\ 10^5 & 100,000 & \textrm{Hundred Thousands}\\ \hline \end{array} </math> Of course, we can continue this on into infinity adding new place values by simply incrementing the exponent. We could generalize this for the decimal system by saying that the value of a sequence of <math>k</math> digits is expressed as a polynomial: <math> \langle d_k \ldots d_2 d_1 d_0 \rangle = \sum_{i=0}^{k} 10^i </math> Note that we can express this for any arbitrary number base. So we could generalize the above and say that for an arbitrary base <math>b</math> the value of a sequence of <math>k</math> digits is: <math> \langle d_k \ldots d_2 d_1 d_0 \rangle = \sum_{i=0}^{k} b^i </math> This opens up the door to many possibilities of representing numbers. You can choose any arbitrary base you like. The numeric base you are working in determines what symbols are used in representing numbers and how those symbols are interpreted. Generally speaking, for a base <math>b</math> we must have <math>b</math> symbols to represent it. For base 10, we have 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Notice that the highest valued symbol used in each place has the value <math>b-1</math>. Hence we can come up with any base of numbers we choose, so long as we have a set of symbols to support it. === Binary Numbers === We can now turn our attention to a number base which matches the two easily detectable states of "on" and "off". This is the binary, or base 2, number system. From the above observations, the binary number system consists only of the symbols (0, 1). And its "places" are defined as shown in the following table: <math> \begin{array}{|c|r|l|} \hline \textrm{Exponent} & \textrm{Number} & \textrm{Place Name} \\ \hline 2^0 & 1 & \textrm{Ones} \\ 2^1 & 2 & \textrm{Twos} \\ 2^2 & 4 & \textrm{Fours} \\ 2^3 & 8 & \textrm{Eights} \\ 2^4 & 16 & \textrm{Sixteens} \\ 2^5 & 32 & \textrm{Thirty-Twos} \\ 2^6 & 64 & \textrm{Sixty-Fours}\\ 2^7 & 128 & \textrm{One Hundred Twenty Eights}\\ \hline \end{array} </math> Just like in decimal, we can continue this on into infinity by simply increasing the exponent. I have left it off after 8 digits because this is the unit we most often work with in computers, as we shall see later. So then, suppose we had the following binary number: <math>10010001</math> How can we determine its value? Remember this follows the same rules as a decimal number, so working from left to right we can convert this number to decimal as: <math>1 \cdot 128 + 0 \cdot 64 + 0 \cdot 32 + 1 \cdot 16 + 0 \cdot 8 + 0 \cdot 4 + 0 \cdot 2 + 1 \cdot 1 = 145</math> Now that we've seen how to convert from binary (or really any number base) into decimal, you are probably wondering how we can go in the other direction. That is, how can we convert a decimal number into binary (or any arbitrary base.) The answer is quite simple. We can change from decimal to any number base by repeatedly dividing by the target base. The remainder of each division for the digits, from right to left, of the converted number. Proving why this works is left as an exercise to the reader. Let's test this out by converting our good friend, 145, into binary. <math> \begin{align} 145 \div 2 & = & 72 ~ & R=1 \\ 72 \div 2 & = & 36 ~ & R=0 \\ 36 \div 2 & = & 18 ~ & R=0 \\ 18 \div 2 & = & 9 ~ & R=0 \\ 9 \div 2 & = & 4 ~ & R=1 \\ 4 \div 2 & = & 2 ~ & R=0 \\ 2 \div 2 & = & 1 ~ & R=0 \\ 1 \div 2 & = & 0 ~ & R=1 \\ \end{align} </math> Note we can stop once the quotient is 0 as it will remain 0 from here on out. Thus, we can read the binary number by reading the remainders in reverse order: <math>10010001</math> === Hexadecimal Numbers === Hexadecimal Numbers Hexadecimal, or hex, is a positional number system with base 16. It uses sixteen symbols: '''0–9 represent the values zero through nine. A–F represent the values ten through fifteen. ''' The hexadecimal digits correspond to four binary bits, making hexadecimal convenient for representing binary data. For example: 2F₁₆ = 2 × 16¹ + 15 × 16⁰ = 47₁₀ The binary representation of 2F₁₆ is: 0010 1111₂ ''' Hexadecimal is commonly used in computer science to represent memory addresses, machine instructions, color values, and other binary data in a more compact form. ''' === Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles === A bit is the '''smallest unit''' of digital information. It can have one of two values: 0 or 1 A byte consists of 8 bits. An 8-bit byte can represent 256 different values, from 0 to 255 when interpreted as an unsigned integer. A nibble is a group of 4 bits. Since four bits can represent 16 different values, one hexadecimal digit corresponds exactly to one nibble. For example: 1010 1101₂ can be divided into two nibbles: 1010 | 1101 These correspond to the hexadecimal digits A and D, giving: AD₁₆ Thus: 1 nibble = 4 bits 1 byte = 8 bits 1 byte = 2 nibbles 1 hexadecimal digit = 1 nibble === Arithmetic in Arbitrary Bases === {{BookCat}} 6gdp37r1f7y6zuoyen049zxit59gcod 4673864 4673863 2026-10-03T13:34:10Z Systemsdev 3627496 /* Arithmetic in Arbitrary Bases */ 4673864 wikitext text/x-wiki This chapter introduces the basics of computer architecture and computer arithmetic. == What Computers Do == In order to explore how computers operate, we must first arrive at an explanation of what computers actually do. No doubt, you have some idea of what computers are capable of. After all, odds are high that you are reading this on a computer right now! If we tried to list all the functions of computers, we would come up with a staggeringly complex array of functions and features. Instead, what we need to do is peal back all the layers of functionality and see what's going on in the background. [[File:BasicComputer.png|frame|right|A Basic Computer]] If we look at a computer at its most abstract level, what they do is process information. We could represent this sort of abstract machine as some sort of memory and some sort of processor. The processor can read and write items in the memory according to some list of instructions, while the memory simply remembers the data it has been given. The list of instructions executed by the processor are known as a '''computer program'''. The details of how this arrangement is accomplished determines the nature of the computer itself. Using this definition, quite a wide range of devices can be classified as computers. Most of the devices we call "computers" are, in fact, universal computers. That is, if they were given an infinite amount of memory, they would be able to compute any computable function. The requirements for a universal computer are actually very simple. Basically, a machine is universal if it is able to do the following: # Read a value from memory. # Based on the read value, determine a new value to write to memory. # Based on the read value, determine which instruction to execute next. A machine following these rules is said to be "Turing Complete." A complete definition of Turing Completeness is beyond the scope of this book. If you are interested, please see the articles on [[w:Turing_Machine|Turing Machines]] and [[w:Turing_Complete|Turing Completeness]]. Trying to create programs in terms of the constraints of universal computers would be very difficult. It would be more convenient to create a list of more useful instructions such as "add", "subtract", "multiply", and "divide." The list of instructions that the processor can execute is called the machine's '''instruction set'''. This instruction set helps to define the behavior of the machine, and further define the nature of the programs which will run on the machine. Another defining characteristic of the machine answers the question of "Where does the program get stored?" You'll note that in our diagram of the basic computer, we did not show where the program resides. This was done with purpose as answering this question helps to define the different types of computers. Breaking down the components of the system further is the topic of the next section. == Computer Architecture == Another defining characteristic of computers is the logical layout of the system. This property is called the computer's architecture. '''Computer architecture''' describes how a machine is logically organized and how its instruction set is actually implemented. One of the most important architectural decision made in designing a computer is how its memory is organized, and how programs are loaded into the machine. In the early history of computers, there was a distinction between stored program and hardwired computers. For example, the first general purpose electronic computer, the ENIAC, was programmed by wiring units of the machine to devices called function tables. Later machines, like the EDSAC, stored programs as data in program memory. Of course, stored programs proved to be much more convenient. Rewiring a machine simply takes too long when compared to the process of simply loading new data into the machine. In the current era of computing, almost all computers are stored program computers. In this book, we will be focusing on stored program computer architectures. Having settled on storing programs as data, we now have to turn our attention to where, and how, programs are stored in memory. In the past, many different solutions to this problem have been proposed, but today there are two main high level variants. These are the Von Neumann architecture, and the Harvard Architecture. === Von Neumann Architecture === The '''Von Neumann Architecture''' is, by far, the most common architecture in existence today. PCs, Macs, and even Android phones are examples of Von Neumann computers. The Von Neumann Architecture is a stored program computer which consists of the following components: # A CPU (Central Processing Unit) which executes program instructions. # A Memory which stores both programs and data. # Input and Output Devices The defining characteristic of the Von Neumann Architecture is that the both data and instructions are stored in the same memory device. Programs are stored as a collection of binary patterns which the CPU decodes in order to execute instructions. Of course, the data are stored as bit patterns in memory as well. The CPU can only distinguish between data and program code by the context in which it encounters the data in memory. The CPU in this architecture begins executing instructions at some memory location, and continues to step through instructions. Anything it encounters while stepping through the program is treated as program instructions. When the CPU is issued instructions to read or write data in the memory, the CPU treats the numbers in memory as data. Of course, this also means that a Von Neumann machine is perfectly capable of modifying its own program. == Computer Arithmetic == Computers spend a great deal of their time working out simple arithmetic expressions. In fact if we were to think in terms of "computation" arithmetic is what immediately springs to mind. How computers deal with numbers is, therefore, an important part of the study of computer architecture. The earliest electronic computer, ENIAC, represented numbers in much the same way that humans do, using decimal arithmetic with its operations. The problem with this approach is that you have to have 10 distinguishable states (0 through 9) which greatly increases the complexity of the machines that operates on them. Representing and distinguishing 10 states requires very precise electronics. If we want to produce easy representation with electronics, the simplest and easiest to distinguish is two states "on" and "off." This does not require nearly as much precision to detect and propogate so it greatly simplifies the physical implementation of a machine, however it does bring up the question of "How do we do math with only two symbols?" The answer to this is that we use the binary number system where these states map to 0 and 1. So we could think of 0 as being "off" and 1 being "on". This section explains how this system of numbers works and introduces convenient methods of representing these numbers. === Representation of Numbers and Basis === In order to understand binary we need to first understand the nature of integers themselves. We will have to delve a little bit into the realm of number theory, but I promise it will be painless! We'll start off with a simple example. What do you see below? <math>145</math> In words, you may say that this is the number "one hundred and forty-five." However, this would not be be accurate. What you are really seeing is a representation of this quantity. From grade school on up, you are taught a specific way of writing numbers down. This system is called the "base 10" or "decimal" number system. When you see "145" you are really seeing a convention where: <math>145 = 1 \cdot 100 + 4 \cdot 10 + 5 \cdot 1</math> Notice that each of these terms is a power of ten. So we could rewrite this as: <math>145 = 1 \cdot 10^2 + 4 \cdot 10^1 + 5 \cdot 10^0</math> Colloquially, we call the positions in a number the "Ones, Tens, and Hundreds" places. If we extended on, each position takes on a power of 10 one greater than the one before it. Thus we could build the sort of table, which I am sure you have seen before. <math> \begin{array}{|c|r|l|} \hline \textrm{Exponent} & \textrm{Number} & \textrm{Place Name} \\ \hline 10^0 & 1 & \textrm{Ones}\\ 10^1 & 10 & \textrm{Tens}\\ 10^2 & 100 & \textrm{Hundreds}\\ 10^3 & 1,000 & \textrm {Thousands}\\ 10^4 & 10,000 & \textrm{Ten Thousands}\\ 10^5 & 100,000 & \textrm{Hundred Thousands}\\ \hline \end{array} </math> Of course, we can continue this on into infinity adding new place values by simply incrementing the exponent. We could generalize this for the decimal system by saying that the value of a sequence of <math>k</math> digits is expressed as a polynomial: <math> \langle d_k \ldots d_2 d_1 d_0 \rangle = \sum_{i=0}^{k} 10^i </math> Note that we can express this for any arbitrary number base. So we could generalize the above and say that for an arbitrary base <math>b</math> the value of a sequence of <math>k</math> digits is: <math> \langle d_k \ldots d_2 d_1 d_0 \rangle = \sum_{i=0}^{k} b^i </math> This opens up the door to many possibilities of representing numbers. You can choose any arbitrary base you like. The numeric base you are working in determines what symbols are used in representing numbers and how those symbols are interpreted. Generally speaking, for a base <math>b</math> we must have <math>b</math> symbols to represent it. For base 10, we have 10 symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Notice that the highest valued symbol used in each place has the value <math>b-1</math>. Hence we can come up with any base of numbers we choose, so long as we have a set of symbols to support it. === Binary Numbers === We can now turn our attention to a number base which matches the two easily detectable states of "on" and "off". This is the binary, or base 2, number system. From the above observations, the binary number system consists only of the symbols (0, 1). And its "places" are defined as shown in the following table: <math> \begin{array}{|c|r|l|} \hline \textrm{Exponent} & \textrm{Number} & \textrm{Place Name} \\ \hline 2^0 & 1 & \textrm{Ones} \\ 2^1 & 2 & \textrm{Twos} \\ 2^2 & 4 & \textrm{Fours} \\ 2^3 & 8 & \textrm{Eights} \\ 2^4 & 16 & \textrm{Sixteens} \\ 2^5 & 32 & \textrm{Thirty-Twos} \\ 2^6 & 64 & \textrm{Sixty-Fours}\\ 2^7 & 128 & \textrm{One Hundred Twenty Eights}\\ \hline \end{array} </math> Just like in decimal, we can continue this on into infinity by simply increasing the exponent. I have left it off after 8 digits because this is the unit we most often work with in computers, as we shall see later. So then, suppose we had the following binary number: <math>10010001</math> How can we determine its value? Remember this follows the same rules as a decimal number, so working from left to right we can convert this number to decimal as: <math>1 \cdot 128 + 0 \cdot 64 + 0 \cdot 32 + 1 \cdot 16 + 0 \cdot 8 + 0 \cdot 4 + 0 \cdot 2 + 1 \cdot 1 = 145</math> Now that we've seen how to convert from binary (or really any number base) into decimal, you are probably wondering how we can go in the other direction. That is, how can we convert a decimal number into binary (or any arbitrary base.) The answer is quite simple. We can change from decimal to any number base by repeatedly dividing by the target base. The remainder of each division for the digits, from right to left, of the converted number. Proving why this works is left as an exercise to the reader. Let's test this out by converting our good friend, 145, into binary. <math> \begin{align} 145 \div 2 & = & 72 ~ & R=1 \\ 72 \div 2 & = & 36 ~ & R=0 \\ 36 \div 2 & = & 18 ~ & R=0 \\ 18 \div 2 & = & 9 ~ & R=0 \\ 9 \div 2 & = & 4 ~ & R=1 \\ 4 \div 2 & = & 2 ~ & R=0 \\ 2 \div 2 & = & 1 ~ & R=0 \\ 1 \div 2 & = & 0 ~ & R=1 \\ \end{align} </math> Note we can stop once the quotient is 0 as it will remain 0 from here on out. Thus, we can read the binary number by reading the remainders in reverse order: <math>10010001</math> === Hexadecimal Numbers === Hexadecimal Numbers Hexadecimal, or hex, is a positional number system with base 16. It uses sixteen symbols: '''0–9 represent the values zero through nine. A–F represent the values ten through fifteen. ''' The hexadecimal digits correspond to four binary bits, making hexadecimal convenient for representing binary data. For example: 2F₁₆ = 2 × 16¹ + 15 × 16⁰ = 47₁₀ The binary representation of 2F₁₆ is: 0010 1111₂ ''' Hexadecimal is commonly used in computer science to represent memory addresses, machine instructions, color values, and other binary data in a more compact form. ''' === Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles === A bit is the '''smallest unit''' of digital information. It can have one of two values: 0 or 1 A byte consists of 8 bits. An 8-bit byte can represent 256 different values, from 0 to 255 when interpreted as an unsigned integer. A nibble is a group of 4 bits. Since four bits can represent 16 different values, one hexadecimal digit corresponds exactly to one nibble. For example: 1010 1101₂ can be divided into two nibbles: 1010 | 1101 These correspond to the hexadecimal digits A and D, giving: AD₁₆ Thus: 1 nibble = 4 bits 1 byte = 8 bits 1 byte = 2 nibbles 1 hexadecimal digit = 1 nibble === Arithmetic in Arbitrary Bases === {{BookCat}} A number base, or radix, defines the set of symbols available and the way positional values are determined. In base b, each position represents a power of b. For instance, in base 10: 345₁₀ = 3 × 10² + 4 × 10¹ + 5 × 10⁰ In base 2: 1011₂ = 1 × 2³ + 0 × 2² + 1 × 2¹ + 1 × 2⁰ = 11₁₀ Arithmetic operations can be executed directly within any positional number system, with the key distinction being that carrying and borrowing occur when a digit reaches the base value. Addition In base b, a carry happens when the sum of two digits is at least b. Example in hexadecimal: 2A + 17 ---- 41 Here, A₁₆ + 7₁₆ = 17₁₆, so 7 is written and 1 carried to the next position. Then: 2 + 1 + 1 = 4, resulting in 41₁₆. Subtraction Subtraction follows the same positional logic. When a digit is too small, a unit is borrowed from the next position, worth b units in the current position. Multiplication Multiplication in any base resembles decimal multiplication, with intermediate results expressed in that base’s digits. Example in binary: 101 × 11 ----- 101 101 ----- 1111 Thus: 101₂ × 11₂ = 1111₂ Base Conversion Conversion between bases can be achieved through positional expansion or repeated division. Example: converting 45₁₀ to hexadecimal: 45 ÷ 16 = 2 remainder 13 The remainder 13 corresponds to D in hexadecimal, giving: 45₁₀ = 2D₁₆ Binary and hexadecimal conversions are straightforward since each hexadecimal digit maps precisely to four binary bits. c6uq5xcimxr0v5hrhxu7amqg2a3j8oa 0 286123 4673861 4673822 2026-10-03T13:25:14Z Jeff1138 301139 4673861 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c * Pi500+ keyboard wedge - working * Pi500 wedge - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 D0 (rev1.1) - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) - untested * Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi02W - Quad A53 64bit - boots but [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 usb not working but did in the past], * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' A [https://archive.org/details/piAROS Pi Distribution (Distro) has started] and the contents copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be drawers/folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi. And power on. [https://pi.amiga.icu/ Repository] [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 nightly builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] which is a test beta limited apps version with both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd to a SD or SSD as appropriate. 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Remember Aros Arm uses FAT32 and Aros can detect issues with this format very acutely (once fault found, FAT 0x0FFFFFF7 bad cluster so no files written after that, no repair). Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen i.e. the title bar, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and the cursor will appear again. Then you can drag the screen up again. Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every power off *if asking for password again - press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again *...waiting for an address - Disconnect and try Connect Until, Connected to <router> - 192.168.x.x For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested *5 *500 *500+ Type in 'aarch64' in the [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=search&tool=simple search box] and you will see available software packages apps. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser (JS 1.6 ES9 ECMASCript 2018)] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb JavaScript 1.5 (ECMAScript 3)] as css and javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from facebook, reddit etc. Doubtful, on any Web3d WebGL or WebXR support. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) aka Google Chrome 126 or iPhone aka Safari 17 setting in menus. Html5test gives 189, 190 and 184 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (Menu -> Page -> Delete cache) to fully retest big Amelinium updates 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 youtube video and audio - js button for javascript must be on/shaded *if Playing the soundtrack; nothing heard... ? *if playing in own screen; cursor trapped in box top left but blank display... ? *choose Play here button; Youtube did not answer for http://inv.nadeko.net/watch?v= ... ? *choose Original page button; Page script is waiting for a result - please wait, Esc aborts ... ? *This video has no 360p stream or no separate stream... ? *audio streams aac/mp3; Playing the live stream and Ready but only play button and time 00:00 shown but nothing else happens *stream.radioparadise.com/mp3-192; Painting, then, cannot reach the movie... ? * identify #?.mp4 shows as system/binary where ArosOne has Pictures/MP4, identify #?.aac shows as SOUND/AAC Telegram https://t.me/s/channel_name There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ time.cloudflare.com pool.ntp.org or Cloudflare 162.159.200.1, 162.159.200.123, 2606:4700:f1::1, 2606:4700:f1::123 or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. Can use in a shell e.g. date 24-Dec-2026 23:59:59 but this will need to be done again after every reset/power off. Maybe [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/28674a157bc56175aa668e7b62dca6fa740578dc ds3231 rtc] It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/misc/timidity.lha timidity], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options (not implemented yet) that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] The vcgencmd can be used to inspect and dump the current system configuration. vcgencmd runs on top of VCHIQ as an RPC. The mailbox interface is an alternate but much simpler RPC. VCHIQ is a bridge (queue) between the CPU and the GPU so they can communicate with the firmware. Loads of [https://github.com/6by9/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf/blob/master/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf.c mailbox] which uses the GPIO control calls. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/wiki/Mailboxes may also be of interest] A fair number of vcgencmd examples (search for vc_vchi_gencmd_init). [https://www.raspberrypi.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=229203#p1406112 sends the relevant vcgencmd commands] to update the scaling kernel, but the [https://github.com/raspberrypi/userland/blob/master/host_applications/linux/apps/gencmd/gencmd.c command] is just a text string. Parsing and execution of the instructions is performed by the VideoCore firmware. The Raspberry Pi runs two separate operating systems: Linux/Aros on the ARM, and a threedx RTOS called vcos running on the Videocore 4 VPU: vcos is commonly called "the firmware". Vcos is tasked with performing certain system services, for example running the display and audio outputs. The VCHI driver provides an interface to allow drivers to talk to vcos. Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3. x265 HEVC accelerated untested, x264/h.264 and VP9 cpu only. *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. h264/x264 as Pi3 All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 and x.264/h.264 accelerated untested only and VP9 on cpu or neon help ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted *Black [ Seeed Studio with BigTreeTech BTT pad 7] - bin blobs? CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} 6evqiwr2t5g8rm2pq2p47hb1vnf64c3 4673868 4673861 2026-10-03T13:44:57Z Jeff1138 301139 4673868 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c * Pi500+ keyboard wedge - working * Pi500 wedge - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 D0 (rev1.1) - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) - untested * Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi02W - Quad A53 64bit - boots but [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 usb not working but did in the past], * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' A [https://archive.org/details/piAROS Pi Distribution (Distro) has started] and the contents copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be drawers/folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi. And power on. [https://pi.amiga.icu/ Repository] [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 nightly builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] which is a test beta limited apps version with both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd to a SD or SSD as appropriate. 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Remember Aros Arm uses FAT32 and Aros can detect issues with this format very acutely (once fault found, FAT 0x0FFFFFF7 bad cluster so no files written after that, no repair). Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen i.e. the title bar, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and the cursor will appear again. Then you can drag the screen up again. Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every power off *if asking for password again - press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again *...waiting for an address - Disconnect and try Connect Until, Connected to <router> - 192.168.x.x For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested *5 *500 *500+ Type in 'aarch64' in the [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=search&tool=simple search box] and you will see available software packages apps. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser (JS 1.6 ES9 ECMASCript 2018)] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb JavaScript 1.5 (ECMAScript 3)] as css and javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from facebook, reddit etc. Doubtful, on any Web3d WebGL or WebXR support. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) aka Google Chrome 126 or iPhone aka Safari 17 setting in menus. Html5test gives 189, 190 and 184 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (Menu -> Page -> Delete cache) to fully retest big Amelinium updates 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 youtube video and audio - js button for javascript must be on/shaded *if Playing the soundtrack; nothing heard... ? *if playing in own screen; cursor trapped in box top left but blank display... ? *choose Play here button; Youtube did not answer for http://inv.nadeko.net/watch?v= ... ? *choose Original page button; Page script is waiting for a result - please wait, Esc aborts ... ? *This video has no 360p stream or no separate stream... ? *audio streams aac/mp3; Playing the live stream and Ready but only play button and time 00:00 shown but nothing else happens *stream.radioparadise.com/mp3-192; Painting, then, cannot reach the movie... ? * identify #?.mp4 shows as system/binary where ArosOne has Pictures/MP4, identify #?.aac shows as SOUND/AAC Telegram https://t.me/s/channel_name for public easy to view messages only There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ time.cloudflare.com pool.ntp.org or Cloudflare 162.159.200.1, 162.159.200.123, 2606:4700:f1::1, 2606:4700:f1::123 or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. Can use in a shell e.g. date 24-Dec-2026 23:59:59 but this will need to be done again after every reset/power off. Maybe [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/28674a157bc56175aa668e7b62dca6fa740578dc ds3231 rtc] It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/misc/timidity.lha timidity], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options (not implemented yet) that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] The vcgencmd can be used to inspect and dump the current system configuration. vcgencmd runs on top of VCHIQ as an RPC. The mailbox interface is an alternate but much simpler RPC. VCHIQ is a bridge (queue) between the CPU and the GPU so they can communicate with the firmware. Loads of [https://github.com/6by9/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf/blob/master/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf.c mailbox] which uses the GPIO control calls. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/wiki/Mailboxes may also be of interest] A fair number of vcgencmd examples (search for vc_vchi_gencmd_init). [https://www.raspberrypi.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=229203#p1406112 sends the relevant vcgencmd commands] to update the scaling kernel, but the [https://github.com/raspberrypi/userland/blob/master/host_applications/linux/apps/gencmd/gencmd.c command] is just a text string. Parsing and execution of the instructions is performed by the VideoCore firmware. The Raspberry Pi runs two separate operating systems: Linux/Aros on the ARM, and a threedx RTOS called vcos running on the Videocore 4 VPU: vcos is commonly called "the firmware". Vcos is tasked with performing certain system services, for example running the display and audio outputs. The VCHI driver provides an interface to allow drivers to talk to vcos. Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3. x265 HEVC accelerated untested, x264/h.264 and VP9 cpu only. *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. h264/x264 as Pi3 All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 and x.264/h.264 accelerated untested only and VP9 on cpu or neon help ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted *Black [ Seeed Studio with BigTreeTech BTT pad 7] - bin blobs? CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} 1lo99647hdwtcgtaqnkod5i9nhkwx9f 4673879 4673868 2026-10-03T15:07:10Z Jeff1138 301139 4673879 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c * Pi500+ keyboard wedge - working * Pi500 wedge - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 D0 (rev1.1) - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) - untested * Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi02W - Quad A53 64bit - boots but [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 usb not working but did in the past], * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' A [https://archive.org/details/piAROS Pi Distribution (Distro) has started] and the contents copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be drawers/folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi. And power on. [https://pi.amiga.icu/ Repository] [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 nightly builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] which is a test beta limited apps version with both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd to a SD or SSD as appropriate. 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Remember Aros Arm uses FAT32 and Aros can detect issues with this format very acutely (once fault found, FAT 0x0FFFFFF7 bad cluster so no files written after that, no repair). Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen i.e. the title bar, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and the cursor will appear again. Then you can drag the screen up again. Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every power off *if asking for password again - press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again *...waiting for an address - Disconnect and try Connect Until, Connected to <router> - 192.168.x.x For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested *5 *500 *500+ Type in 'aarch64' in the [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=search&tool=simple search box] and you will see available software packages apps. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser (JS 1.6 ES9 ECMASCript 2018)] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb JavaScript 1.5 (ECMAScript 3)] as css and javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from facebook, reddit etc. Doubtful, on any Web3d WebGL or WebXR support. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) aka Google Chrome 126 or iPhone aka Safari 17 setting in menus. Html5test gives 189, 190 and 184 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (Menu -> Page -> Delete cache) to fully retest big Amelinium updates or free up space Be aware [https://pianetaamiga.it/en/reportage-pianeta-amiga-2026/ some site pages] can use up tens of megs of cache very quickly 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 youtube video and audio - js button for javascript must be on/shaded *if Playing the soundtrack; nothing heard... ? *if playing in own screen; cursor trapped in box top left but blank display... ? *choose Play here button; Youtube did not answer for http://inv.nadeko.net/watch?v= ... ? *choose Original page button; Page script is waiting for a result - please wait, Esc aborts ... ? *This video has no 360p stream or no separate stream... ? *audio streams aac/mp3; Playing the live stream and Ready but only play button and time 00:00 shown but nothing else happens *stream.radioparadise.com/mp3-192; Painting, then, cannot reach the movie... ? * identify #?.mp4 shows as system/binary where ArosOne has Pictures/MP4, identify #?.aac shows as SOUND/AAC Telegram https://t.me/s/channel_name for public easy to view messages only There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ time.cloudflare.com pool.ntp.org or Cloudflare 162.159.200.1, 162.159.200.123, 2606:4700:f1::1, 2606:4700:f1::123 or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. Can use in a shell e.g. date 24-Dec-2026 23:59:59 but this will need to be done again after every reset/power off. Maybe [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/28674a157bc56175aa668e7b62dca6fa740578dc ds3231 rtc] It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/misc/timidity.lha timidity], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options (not implemented yet) that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] The vcgencmd can be used to inspect and dump the current system configuration. vcgencmd runs on top of VCHIQ as an RPC. The mailbox interface is an alternate but much simpler RPC. VCHIQ is a bridge (queue) between the CPU and the GPU so they can communicate with the firmware. Loads of [https://github.com/6by9/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf/blob/master/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf.c mailbox] which uses the GPIO control calls. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/wiki/Mailboxes may also be of interest] A fair number of vcgencmd examples (search for vc_vchi_gencmd_init). [https://www.raspberrypi.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=229203#p1406112 sends the relevant vcgencmd commands] to update the scaling kernel, but the [https://github.com/raspberrypi/userland/blob/master/host_applications/linux/apps/gencmd/gencmd.c command] is just a text string. Parsing and execution of the instructions is performed by the VideoCore firmware. The Raspberry Pi runs two separate operating systems: Linux/Aros on the ARM, and a threedx RTOS called vcos running on the Videocore 4 VPU: vcos is commonly called "the firmware". Vcos is tasked with performing certain system services, for example running the display and audio outputs. The VCHI driver provides an interface to allow drivers to talk to vcos. Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3. x265 HEVC accelerated untested, x264/h.264 and VP9 cpu only. *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. h264/x264 as Pi3 All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 and x.264/h.264 accelerated untested only and VP9 on cpu or neon help ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted *Black [ Seeed Studio with BigTreeTech BTT pad 7] - bin blobs? CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} gh8mtodsxn5uomx9i9ne4ncthgw71l4 4673880 4673879 2026-10-03T15:09:21Z Jeff1138 301139 4673880 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c * Pi500+ keyboard wedge - working * Pi500 wedge - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 D0 (rev1.1) - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) - untested * Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi02W - Quad A53 64bit - boots but [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 usb not working but did in the past], * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' A [https://archive.org/details/piAROS Pi Distribution (Distro) has started] and the contents copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be drawers/folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi. And power on. [https://pi.amiga.icu/ Repository] [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 nightly builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] which is a test beta limited apps version with both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd to a SD or SSD as appropriate. 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Remember Aros Arm uses FAT32 and Aros can detect issues with this format very acutely (once fault found, FAT 0x0FFFFFF7 bad cluster so no files written after that, no repair). Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen i.e. the title bar, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and the cursor will appear again. Then you can drag the screen up again. Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every power off *if asking for password again - press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again *...waiting for an address - Disconnect and try Connect Until, Connected to <router> - 192.168.x.x For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested *5 *500 *500+ Type in 'aarch64' in the [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=search&tool=simple search box] and you will see available software packages apps. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser (JS 1.6 ES9 ECMASCript 2018)] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb JavaScript 1.5 (ECMAScript 3)] as css and javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from facebook, reddit etc. Doubtful, on any Web3d WebGL or WebXR support. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) aka Google Chrome 126 or iPhone aka Safari 17 setting in menus. Html5test gives 189, 190 and 184 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (Menu -> Page -> Delete cache) to fully retest big Amelinium updates or free up space Be aware [https://pianetaamiga.it/en/reportage-pianeta-amiga-2026/ some site pages] can use up hundreds of MBs of cache very quickly 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 youtube video and audio - js button for javascript must be on/shaded *if Playing the soundtrack; nothing heard... ? *if playing in own screen; cursor trapped in box top left but blank display... ? *choose Play here button; Youtube did not answer for http://inv.nadeko.net/watch?v= ... ? *choose Original page button; Page script is waiting for a result - please wait, Esc aborts ... ? *This video has no 360p stream or no separate stream... ? *audio streams aac/mp3; Playing the live stream and Ready but only play button and time 00:00 shown but nothing else happens *stream.radioparadise.com/mp3-192; Painting, then, cannot reach the movie... ? * identify #?.mp4 shows as system/binary where ArosOne has Pictures/MP4, identify #?.aac shows as SOUND/AAC Telegram https://t.me/s/channel_name for public easy to view messages only There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ time.cloudflare.com pool.ntp.org or Cloudflare 162.159.200.1, 162.159.200.123, 2606:4700:f1::1, 2606:4700:f1::123 or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. Can use in a shell e.g. date 24-Dec-2026 23:59:59 but this will need to be done again after every reset/power off. Maybe [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/28674a157bc56175aa668e7b62dca6fa740578dc ds3231 rtc] It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/misc/timidity.lha timidity], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options (not implemented yet) that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] The vcgencmd can be used to inspect and dump the current system configuration. vcgencmd runs on top of VCHIQ as an RPC. The mailbox interface is an alternate but much simpler RPC. VCHIQ is a bridge (queue) between the CPU and the GPU so they can communicate with the firmware. Loads of [https://github.com/6by9/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf/blob/master/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf.c mailbox] which uses the GPIO control calls. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/wiki/Mailboxes may also be of interest] A fair number of vcgencmd examples (search for vc_vchi_gencmd_init). [https://www.raspberrypi.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=229203#p1406112 sends the relevant vcgencmd commands] to update the scaling kernel, but the [https://github.com/raspberrypi/userland/blob/master/host_applications/linux/apps/gencmd/gencmd.c command] is just a text string. Parsing and execution of the instructions is performed by the VideoCore firmware. The Raspberry Pi runs two separate operating systems: Linux/Aros on the ARM, and a threedx RTOS called vcos running on the Videocore 4 VPU: vcos is commonly called "the firmware". Vcos is tasked with performing certain system services, for example running the display and audio outputs. The VCHI driver provides an interface to allow drivers to talk to vcos. Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3. x265 HEVC accelerated untested, x264/h.264 and VP9 cpu only. *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. h264/x264 as Pi3 All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 and x.264/h.264 accelerated untested only and VP9 on cpu or neon help ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted *Black [ Seeed Studio with BigTreeTech BTT pad 7] - bin blobs? CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} 673zcoxnufw6osdofl12vpgt9equqqh 4673881 4673880 2026-10-03T15:10:00Z Jeff1138 301139 4673881 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c * Pi500+ keyboard wedge - working * Pi500 wedge - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 D0 (rev1.1) - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) - untested * Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi02W - Quad A53 64bit - boots but [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 usb not working but did in the past], * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' A [https://archive.org/details/piAROS Pi Distribution (Distro) has started] and the contents copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be drawers/folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi. And power on. [https://pi.amiga.icu/ Repository] [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 nightly builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] which is a test beta limited apps version with both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd to a SD or SSD as appropriate. 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Remember Aros Arm uses FAT32 and Aros can detect issues with this format very acutely (once fault found, FAT 0x0FFFFFF7 bad cluster so no files written after that, no repair). Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen i.e. the title bar, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and the cursor will appear again. Then you can drag the screen up again. Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every power off *if asking for password again - press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again *...waiting for an address - Disconnect and try Connect Until, Connected to <router> - 192.168.x.x For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested *5 *500 *500+ Type in 'aarch64' in the [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=search&tool=simple search box] and you will see available software packages apps. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser (JS 1.6 ES9 ECMASCript 2018)] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb JavaScript 1.5 (ECMAScript 3)] as css and javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from facebook, reddit etc. Doubtful, on any Web3d WebGL or WebXR support. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) aka Google Chrome 126 or iPhone aka Safari 17 setting in menus. Html5test gives 189, 190 and 184 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (Menu -> Page -> Delete cache) to fully retest big Amelinium updates or free up space. Be aware [https://pianetaamiga.it/en/reportage-pianeta-amiga-2026/ some site pages] can use up hundreds of MBs of cache very quickly 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 youtube video and audio - js button for javascript must be on/shaded *if Playing the soundtrack; nothing heard... ? *if playing in own screen; cursor trapped in box top left but blank display... ? *choose Play here button; Youtube did not answer for http://inv.nadeko.net/watch?v= ... ? *choose Original page button; Page script is waiting for a result - please wait, Esc aborts ... ? *This video has no 360p stream or no separate stream... ? *audio streams aac/mp3; Playing the live stream and Ready but only play button and time 00:00 shown but nothing else happens *stream.radioparadise.com/mp3-192; Painting, then, cannot reach the movie... ? * identify #?.mp4 shows as system/binary where ArosOne has Pictures/MP4, identify #?.aac shows as SOUND/AAC Telegram https://t.me/s/channel_name for public easy to view messages only There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ time.cloudflare.com pool.ntp.org or Cloudflare 162.159.200.1, 162.159.200.123, 2606:4700:f1::1, 2606:4700:f1::123 or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. Can use in a shell e.g. date 24-Dec-2026 23:59:59 but this will need to be done again after every reset/power off. Maybe [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/28674a157bc56175aa668e7b62dca6fa740578dc ds3231 rtc] It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/misc/timidity.lha timidity], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options (not implemented yet) that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] The vcgencmd can be used to inspect and dump the current system configuration. vcgencmd runs on top of VCHIQ as an RPC. The mailbox interface is an alternate but much simpler RPC. VCHIQ is a bridge (queue) between the CPU and the GPU so they can communicate with the firmware. Loads of [https://github.com/6by9/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf/blob/master/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf.c mailbox] which uses the GPIO control calls. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/wiki/Mailboxes may also be of interest] A fair number of vcgencmd examples (search for vc_vchi_gencmd_init). [https://www.raspberrypi.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=229203#p1406112 sends the relevant vcgencmd commands] to update the scaling kernel, but the [https://github.com/raspberrypi/userland/blob/master/host_applications/linux/apps/gencmd/gencmd.c command] is just a text string. Parsing and execution of the instructions is performed by the VideoCore firmware. The Raspberry Pi runs two separate operating systems: Linux/Aros on the ARM, and a threedx RTOS called vcos running on the Videocore 4 VPU: vcos is commonly called "the firmware". Vcos is tasked with performing certain system services, for example running the display and audio outputs. The VCHI driver provides an interface to allow drivers to talk to vcos. Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3. x265 HEVC accelerated untested, x264/h.264 and VP9 cpu only. *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. h264/x264 as Pi3 All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 and x.264/h.264 accelerated untested only and VP9 on cpu or neon help ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted *Black [ Seeed Studio with BigTreeTech BTT pad 7] - bin blobs? CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} cdupa2749i431brqx7tv5f0l6xhc3y9 4673992 4673881 2026-10-04T07:44:18Z Jeff1138 301139 4673992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} [[#Native]] [[#Hosted]] [[#Build]] [[#Hardware]] [[#References]] [[#Future]] ==Introduction== [[File:Scalos00.png|thumb|Scalos on Aros Pi3b]] Aros aims to cover Pi 3 to 5 1Gb+ RAM ideally as you may have to switch to 256Mb gfx mode depending on the application running Options to boot from using a good power source to prevent the yellow lightning symbol. *With Pi3b+ the max you can get is 5.1V 2.5A with micro usb. *With Pi4 5.1V 3A with usb-c *With Pi5 5.1V 5A, the amps went ever upwards, even to 5.1V 9A with usb-c * Pi500+ keyboard wedge - working * Pi500 wedge - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 D0 (rev1.1) - untested * Pi 5 - Quad A76 64bit ARMv8 and RP1 "southbridge" with VideoCore 7 Pre-D0 (Rev1.0) - untested * Pi400 RPI-400 keyboard wedge - resolution changing and audio from micro hdmi0 (near 40pin) and micro hdmi1 (near usb-c psu) - Fn F10 0x5e power on and off works or held down for over 7 seconds auto shutdown - keyboard ok - wifi and lan ethernet testing - * Pi 4 - Quad A72 64bit ARMv8 with VideoCore 6 * Pi 3 - Quad A53 [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/processors.html 64 bit] ARMv8 with VideoCore 4 with heatsink/fan on 3b to prevent cpu 82C+ throttling * Pi02W - Quad A53 64bit - boots but [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 usb not working but did in the past], * Pi 2 - Quad 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - mostly not 64bit compatible * Pi Model B+ 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible * Pi Model A and B 32bit ARMv6 with VideoCore 4 - not 64bit compatible ===Native=== * 2013-03 Kalamatee starts work * 2015-04 Work continues with mschulz on the kernel and Kalamatee (NicJA) on gpio and usb * 2018 [https://www.patreon.com/posts/i-owe-you-some-20956961 mschulz resume adding BE big endian support], [https://www.patreon.com/michal_schulz/posts Big endian on Pi] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bsek latest commits for pi 3b, 4 and 5 64bit] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=metaneutrons latest commits for Pi5] * 2026 [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commits?author=bitplane latest commits for ARM] '''Download''' A [https://archive.org/details/piAROS Pi Distribution (Distro) has started] and the contents copied to fat32 8GB+ microSD card (there will be drawers/folders - boot c Classes Demos Developer Devs Extras etc only showing). The SD can be plugged in to the Pi. And power on. [https://pi.amiga.icu/ Repository] [https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html RaspberryPi 3, 3+, 4 and 5 64bit ArmV8 nightly builds] [https://sourceforge.net/projects/aros/files/ Alternative site and nightly2] which is a test beta limited apps version with both raspi-aarch64-system and raspi-aarch64-contrib can be unbz2'd to a SD or SSD as appropriate. 64bit build works well on a single core LE little endian. Multicore [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/1df0747c2bda3523a43029725a709b1f377d84ec may follow]. Any issues booting could be down to the SD card so please use another SD to see if it is resolved. Remember Aros Arm uses FAT32 and Aros can detect issues with this format very acutely (once fault found, FAT 0x0FFFFFF7 bad cluster so no files written after that, no repair). Please report your experiences in the [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80 Aros Raspberry pi 3 64bit thread] and on the [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?p=2387984#p2387984 Raspberry Pi forum thread]. Any bugs or issues can be [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/issues described here to fix] Boots with '''USB3''' port based sata3 ssd on Pi400 but untested on Pi4 (may need eeprom update from PiOS or Pi SD Imager) and Pi5 Pi 3 B+ is pre-configured for USB sata3 boot - untested Pi 3 B may need [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ubnwvxF3Klc PiOS to set OTP to boot from usb - do so at your own risk] - if OTP set to usb, boot works but slower than SD card Speed write wise (top faster) <pre> *NVME Pi5 untested >1000MB/sec or faster if matched correctly *Sata3 ssd 500MB/sec *SD V90 90MB/sec 4K maybe 8K *SD V60 60MB/sec 1080p *SD U3 V30 30MB/sec 720p *SD C10 U1 V10 A1 A2 10MB/sec minimum should be used now *SD C06 6MB/sec *SD C04 4MB/sec </pre> As a homage to the past, Aros shows a reduced number of icons but this can be changed by left mouse click in the window and then right click down to Window -> View -> All files Windows can be manipulated by the top (moving) and the bottom right corner (resizing) only. Zune like MUI gui interface, has a unique quirk in that after changing a setting in a text box, you may sometimes need to press Enter/Return before clicking OK, Save, etc Double left mouse click on most picture (Developer/Debug/Tests/Datatypes), audio and video files are supported, via datatypes, by the multiview application. Esc escape key usually closes open windows even the desktop In Prefs/Appearance some decorative theming elements need work. There is a few Mason icons in /Prefs/Presets/Icons/Mason/ and the ever present default Gorilla - Icon exchange in works For more intensive graphics applications, you may need to edit config.txt in the root folder and change 128M to 256M to adjust more memory to graphics usage If your cursor should '''appear''' to vanish, fear not it is still there. Please head to the top of the screen i.e. the title bar, hold down the left click mouse and drag the screen down a little and the cursor will appear again. Then you can drag the screen up again. Like most amiga like OSs the audio and networking need to be setup manually Audio AHI prefs - Mode settings tab - needs both Music unit and Unit 0 set to RPiHDMI:16 bit stereo++ or RPiPWM:16 bit stereo++ at 44100Hz. Press '''Save or Use''' button after each choice For wireless, please use the Wifi prefs and already selected device bwfm.device. Press Scan and double right click on the router and enter password. You may need to setup after every power off *if asking for password again - press cancel and go to Network Prefs, Wireless Networks tab and highlight the router line and hit the remove button and press the cancel button. Retry with Wifi prefs again *...waiting for an address - Disconnect and try Connect Until, Connected to <router> - 192.168.x.x For lan ethernet port, please use Network prefs and the following hardware is *lan9514 Pi3b Pi2 no support at the moment *lan7515 Pi3b+ type into Device usblan78xx.device as net0: remove other device(s) *bcmgenet Pi4 Pi400 choose for Device bcmgenet.device (network prefs still forgets random information when rebooted) Summary *3b ethernet not supported, usb ethernet not working but wifi prefs setup works *3b+ wifi working but ethernet untested *4 untested *400 wifi and ethernet untested *5 *500 *500+ Type in 'aarch64' in the [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=search&tool=simple search box] and you will see available software packages apps. [http://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network/browser amelinium web browser (JS 1.6 ES9 ECMASCript 2018)] is available with an [https://eab.abime.net/showthread.php?t=122494&page=51 eab thread] reminiscent of [https://github.com/zapek/Voyager Voyager] and to a lesser extent [https://github.com/amigazen/aweb3/ Aweb JavaScript 1.5 (ECMAScript 3)] as css and javascript websites can be slow to load and nothing from facebook, reddit etc. Doubtful, on any Web3d WebGL or WebXR support. Press Cancel at screenmode selector or -wb argument to get windowed version. You could use the Shift + Del shortcut or mouse wheel should work to delete all text at once. To view wikibooks set Agent to Android (telefon) aka Google Chrome 126 or iPhone aka Safari 17 setting in menus. Html5test gives 189, 190 and 184 out of 555. You may have to delete the cache (Menu -> Page -> Delete cache) to fully retest big Amelinium updates or free up space. Be aware [https://pianetaamiga.it/en/reportage-pianeta-amiga-2026/ some site pages] can use up hundreds of MBs of cache very quickly 1.27, 1.28, 1.29 youtube video and audio - js button for javascript must be on/shaded *if Playing the soundtrack; nothing heard... ? *if playing in own screen; cursor trapped in box top left but blank display... ? *choose Play here button; Youtube did not answer for http://inv.nadeko.net/watch?v= ... ? *choose Original page button; Page script is waiting for a result - please wait, Esc aborts ... ? *This video has no 360p stream or no separate stream... ? *audio streams aac/mp3; Playing the live stream and Ready but only play button and time 00:00 shown but nothing else happens *stream.radioparadise.com/mp3-192; Painting, then, cannot reach the movie... ? * identify #?.mp4 shows as system/binary where ArosOne has Pictures/MP4, identify #?.aac shows as SOUND/AAC Telegram https://t.me/s/channel_name for public easy to view messages only There is normally no Bluetooth support for most amiga like OSs but Aros has one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/6942cbfbf66426d21963a7fcd8aba6aff611a9e0 work in progress] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=338466 firmware] *Bluetooth 4.1 BCM43430A1.hcd Pi3B, Pi3A, Zero 2W *Bluetooth 4.2 BCM4345C0.hcd Pi3B+, Pi4 *Bluetooth 5.0 BCM4345C5.hcd Pi4B rev, CM4 and maybe Pi5 and CM5 *bthid keyboard mouse support *btserial serial *btpan short range wireless connecting devices Only the Pi5 has a RTC real time clock, the other Pis will need to use Extras:Networking/utils/ntpsync/ time.cloudflare.com pool.ntp.org or Cloudflare 162.159.200.1, 162.159.200.123, 2606:4700:f1::1, 2606:4700:f1::123 or [https://archives.arosworld.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=network PiNTP -s goodtime.ijs.si or ntp1.ptb.de] to get the date and time from the internet. Can use date in a shell e.g. date 24-Dec-2026 23:59:59 but this will need to be done again after every reset/power off. Maybe [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/28674a157bc56175aa668e7b62dca6fa740578dc ds3231 rtc] It helps to have all usb devices already plugged in before power on to detect at the moment. Even then some usb devices will freeze the mouse cursor and the only resolution is to remove the offending usb device and reinsert. Sometimes, the reinsert leads to the mouse cursor vanishing, it is still there and responds to left mouse clicks, top of the screen and pull down the screen. USB classes support from Prefs/Trident is still work in process *usbaudio working on usb3 port (blue) on pi4, 400 but not working (no rt isochronous) on usb2otg (white or black) for pi3b, zero 2w *[https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camd camdusbmidi] detects midi devices without a preferences file (Prefs/Env-Archive/sys/midi.prefs) as [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RBxHkwy4Nrw auto setup now] possibly with [https://github.com/metaneutrons/mt32-pi metaneutrons mt32-pi] [https://github.com/rtzor/mt32-pi mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/ahmadexp/mt32-pi fork] [https://github.com/gmcn42/mt32-pi-control control of] [https://github.com/dwhinham/mt32-pi mt32-pi pi3+], [https://homspace.nl/samplerbox/ SamplerBox] or [] as well as need developer gcc tools to look at 64bit ports of [https://archives.arosworld.org/?function=showfile&file=driver/audio/usbmidi.i386-aros.lha usbmidi], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/CAMD_Toolkit CAMD_Toolkit], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/camdtools camdtools], [https://github.com/cnvogelg/amiditools amiditools], [https://github.com/timoinutilis/midi-sequencer-amigaos horny src], [https://aminet.net/package/mus/midi/horny-base horny-base], [http://bnp.hansfaust.de/index.html BnP], [https://arosarchives.os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/misc/timidity.lha timidity], Regarding 680x0 emulation, there are several options (not implemented yet) that could be considered *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/blob/6722a0ae9e03fe5d26e32703360bd2059e0864cc/rom/m68kemu/README.md?plain=1#L424 m68kemu.library] for some Amiga productivity where the cpu is emulated and the system calls are redirected to Aros ones *[https://github.com/BlitterStudio/amiberry amiberry] (winuae) for everything else like games *[https://github.com/jonx/AROS/tree/aarch64-darwin-graft/arch/all-darwin/libs/emu68k emu68k] *[https://scriptedamigaemulator.net/ Scripted Amiga] with [https://github.com/naTmeg/ScriptedAmigaEmulator ScriptedAmigaEmulator] or older [https://github.com/gbraad-amiga/ScriptedAmigaEmulator2 ScriptedAmigaEmulator2] [https://pinout.xyz/ GPIO 40 pins] [https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/raspberry-gpio/gpio-pinout pinout] Some exceptions: *Physical pins 27, 28 (GPIO0, 1) are an internal I2C bus and should not be used *The other I2C on pins 3, 5 (GPIO 2, 3) can be used generally, but be aware they have permanent pull-up resistors to 3.3V *For MIDI use USB but there are dedicated UART pins 8, 10 (GPIO 14, 15). With a HAT it's more awkward -- you need to know which pins are used by the HAT and avoid them. Hopefully this will be documented. Remember all GPIOs are 3.3V (not 5V tolerant), floating/noisy inputs can cause odd behavior, and that shorting the power supplies can cause instant death of the Pi. In the shell (Cntrl + C to end) GPIO PIN/A/N,SET/N,GET/S,MODE/K,PULL/K Controls and queries hardware GPIO pins via gpio.resource which is stored in the rom or Devs/ '''please test''' *PIN -- (Required) Target GPIO pin number (e.g. 12). *SET -- Set pin output value to 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH). *GET -- Read and print current digital input level (0 or 1). *MODE -- Configure pin mode: IN (Input), OUT (Output), ALT (Alternate). *PULL -- Configure pull resistor: NONE, UP, DOWN. EXAMPLES <pre> GPIO 12 MODE OUT GPIO 12 SET 1 GPIO 12 GET GPIO 13 PULL UP </pre> [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/stable/installing.html Current] [https://gpiozero.readthedocs.io/en/v1.2.0/api_boards.html old support for gpiozero is unknown at present] [https://energenie4u.co.uk/res/pdfs/ENER314%20UM.pdf and associated 433MHz equipment] [ USA X10 security and lights via USB] [ OpenHab with Shelly Smart Plug connected over Wi-Fi, controlled by MQTT or HTTP] Printing only with Postscript but [https://github.com/bohunamiga/MintPRINT one] of [https://github.com/boingball/MintPRINT two] [https://github.com/Andiweli/AmiAirPrint/tree/main AirPrint] IPP has been attempted with [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2061&pid=13954#post_13954 discussion] The vcgencmd can be used to inspect and dump the current system configuration. vcgencmd runs on top of VCHIQ as an RPC. The mailbox interface is an alternate but much simpler RPC. VCHIQ is a bridge (queue) between the CPU and the GPU so they can communicate with the firmware. Loads of [https://github.com/6by9/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf/blob/master/rpi3-gpiovirtbuf.c mailbox] which uses the GPIO control calls. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/wiki/Mailboxes may also be of interest] A fair number of vcgencmd examples (search for vc_vchi_gencmd_init). [https://www.raspberrypi.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=229203#p1406112 sends the relevant vcgencmd commands] to update the scaling kernel, but the [https://github.com/raspberrypi/userland/blob/master/host_applications/linux/apps/gencmd/gencmd.c command] is just a text string. Parsing and execution of the instructions is performed by the VideoCore firmware. The Raspberry Pi runs two separate operating systems: Linux/Aros on the ARM, and a threedx RTOS called vcos running on the Videocore 4 VPU: vcos is commonly called "the firmware". Vcos is tasked with performing certain system services, for example running the display and audio outputs. The VCHI driver provides an interface to allow drivers to talk to vcos. Youtube [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X4fmWAIv7FE Aros native on Pi3b], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSxlYb1eQWU Installed on Pi3b+], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NFF1H3jCoz8 testing Aros native on Pi400], [], [], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIVx7mh1E1Q&pp=ygUHYXJvcyBwadIHCQkTDAGHKiGM7w%3D%3D Aros on Thumb 2 based 32bit-ish ARM STM32H743 board], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQM4CD64xDE&t=612s&pp=ugUEEgJlbg%3D%3D Performance under Linux] but on Aros... {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" |Pi ! width="10%" |Single Core 2D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |Single Core 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 2D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="10%" |SMP 3D ! width="35%" |Comments |- | <!--Pi-->Pi3 | <!--Single Core 2D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--Single Core 3D--> | <!--SMP 2D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--SMP 3D--> | <!--Comments--> |- |} For the Pi1 Pi2 Pi2B the status of AROS native ARMv6 for 32bit RasPi was OK. System booting, USB working (although with some issues but plans to fix them). 32bit native [http://www.aros.org/nightly1.html ARMv6 32bit nightlys] raspi-armhf-system raspi-armhf-contrib unbz2'd to fat32 microSD ===Hosted=== AArch64 CPU backend for AROS, a Cocoa/Metal display, clipboard / host-volume / CoreAudio / BSD-sockets bridges, GPU 2D via gpufx.library, a 68k→AArch64 JIT (run68k), and a full Rust std port. On [https://www.jkn.me/blog/macaros-aros-on-apple-silicon/ latest Apple Silicon] [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros early buggy alpha version of hosted Aros .dmg on MacOS12+]. Please use [https://github.com/jonx/Macaros/issues MACAros github] for issues, features etc and possibly [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2030&pid=13910#post_13910 here] [http://www.aros.org/snapshots1.html old linux and android hosted 32bit] ==== Hosted ==== =====64bit===== [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=2019&rowstart=80&pid=13667#post_13667 Ubuntu Linux PC hosted Pi compiler build] [https://github.com/BlitterStudio/aros-compiler-docker Docker based cross compiler for various Aros systems], =====32bit===== Ubuntu VM approach to compiling [http://lallafa.de/blog/2013/06/building-aros-hosted-for-raspbian/ Linux hosted AROS June 04, 2013] ../AROS/configure --target=linux-armhf --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include --x-libraries=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/lib arm-elf- is symbol-linked to arm-linux-gnueabi- (arm-linux-gnueabi- is more correct in this case, because it's going to be compiling the ARM AROSBootstrap for ARM Linux) *armel - many of the "android" machines require since the entire OS is made for soft float VFP. *armfp - Efika MX target, Raspberry PI, EfikaMX, Pandora and virtually everything (VFP) Keep in mind it's possible to start hardfp AROS hosted on softfp system, though, as long as no calls between AROS and host require floating point parameters. NOTE: hardfloat objects *cannot* be linked with softfloat objects - they have a different ABI. Just keep in mind the arm nightly build machine is quite complex beast. It needs the x86_64 host compiler to compile AROS tools. The arm version is built every night using gcc-4.6.2 crosscompiler (built together with AROS) and successfully builds armel and armhf linux hosted targets. *needs an AROS code compiler for ARM target *as well as unix compiler for ARM linux host (would be best to have both softfp and armhf, we have softfp only now) with full set of libraries and includes. with—disable-crosstools $AROS_CC is always a wrapper around $KERNEL_CC ? If so, this is wrong for some ports. This can break Darwin, Windows and Android port. Yes, Android port will build. And even work. But it's not good because the port will not be ABI-compatible with other ARM ports. Android's ABI is different from GNUEABI. For example: <pre> enum test {foo, bar}; enum test testvar; </pre> sizeof(testvar) will be equal to sizeof(int) in GNUEABI (Linux and AROS) and sizeof(short) on Android. This affects linking objects from static linklibs, for example. Previously everything worked because $AROS_CC was a wrapper on top of $HOST_CC. And a real crosscompiler was used on non-ELF hosts. Android is the same. $KERNEL_CC is incompatible with AROS. compiler=kernel is appropriate _ONLY FOR CODE WHICH RUNS ON HOST OS_ (or barebone hardware, if we talk about native). This includes bootstraps, their linklibs, and host-side dynamic libraries (Windows makes extensive use of them because of architectural considerations. No single AROS object should be compiled with this setting. $KERNEL_CC is really compatible with AROS *ONLY IN LINUX-HOSTED* and no more. On other systems (Darwin, Windows, Android) this is not true any more, and compiler=kernel is never going to work. If you want to compile your AROS module against host OS includes, append the following to USER_INCLUDES (or USER_CFLAGS, this is effectively the same): -isystem $(GENINCDIR) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) expands to: -isystem <your_os_includes> -isystem <host_OS_gcc_private_includes> -nostdinc This makes AROS compiler adhering to host OS APIs. If you want some preprocessor symbols based on what your host OS actually is, add something like -DHOST_OS_$(AROS_HOST_ARCH). Why is there $(GENINCDIR) at all? Because host OS has its own libc includes, which would conflict with AROS ones. And the host OS libc is not binary-compatible with AROS one. Why doesn't Windows-hosted port use $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) ? Because WinAPI includes conflict with AROS ones in fundamental typedefs, like WORD, BYTE and BOOL. It's almost impossible to deal with this in any other way than rewriting WinAPI definitions using AROS types. Building under centos 6.3 (i386) currently, and AROS creates the toolchain itself. haven't yet committed the necessary changes but "./configure --target=raspi-armhf" is enough to start, then "make arosboot-raspi" will generate arosraspi.img (containing the bootstrap, kernel.resource, and exec.library) as well as arosraspi.rom (containing all the other essentials components such as dos, graphics etc). It will also copy over a config.txt file to make the raspi bootstrap code load the correct kernel, and a cmdline.txt that enables exec debug output. *armel = typically Debian 6, Ubuntu Maverick, Android, *armhf = typically Debian 7, Debian 8, Ubuntu Precise, Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM softfp <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armel' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armel] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armel.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabi libx11-dev:armel libsdl-dev:armel </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-arm --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabi/include </pre> Cross-compiling Ubuntu ARM hard-float <pre> sudo sh echo 'foreign-architecture armhf' >>/etc/dpkg/dpkg.cfg.d/multiarch echo 'deb [arch=armhf] http://ports.ubuntu.com/ precise main universe' >/etc/apt/sources.list.d/armhf.list apt-get update apt-get install gcc-arm-linux-gnueabihf libx11-dev:armhf libsdl-dev:armhf </pre> <pre> ./configure --target=linux-armhf --x-includes=/usr/include \ --enable-includes=/usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf/include </pre> Now, the AROS build is configured properly and all you need to do is: make ==Build== ===64bit=== ===32bit=== # download/checkout the source someplace, e.g. /build/AROS-Src/ # make a directory to store external sources AROS downloads, e.g. /build/Ports # make a build directory, e.g. /build/aros-raspi-armhf # cd into the build dir, configure, and then run make -: <pre> >cd /build/aros-raspi-armhf >/build/AROS-Src/configure --target=raspberrypi-armhf --with-serial-debug --enable-ccache --with-portssources=/build/Ports >make >make arosboot-raspi </pre> then copy the files from /build/aros-raspi-armhf/bin/raspi-armhf/AROS/ onto an sdcard, and download/copy the Raspi firmware files onto it. You should then be able to boot the sdcard on your RasPi. The current W.I.P tree to svn. it can be built as follows .. <pre> ./configure --target=raspi-armhf make arosboot-raspi </pre> That will generate arosraspi.img, arosraspi.rom and config.txt in bin/raspi-arm/AROS - so either copy just those files to a fat formatted SD card (with the firmware files on), or copy the whole contents of the AROS folder. NB - if you have a Linux/other install, backup the existing config.txt first arosraspi.img contains the bootstrap (which has very basic mailbox code, framebuffer/gpio init, and console "emulation" via code pinched from our libbootconsole), kernel.resource, and exec.library arosraspi.rom contains all the other components needed to boot AROS. The config.txt file will tell the RasPI bootstrap to load the arosraspi kernel and ramdisk (rom). the bootstrap has minimal mailbox code, planning on adding either a resource or library that driver/app code will use to access it (likewise for GPIO) Help building AROS hosted on Linux ARM Was looking a way to use more my Handheld ARM based called Pyra (Dragonbox Pyra) an ARM (Omap5 cpu with 4GB ram) linux based machine (Debian Buster v10 with kernel 5.6.19 adapted) and have a try to compile the latest Aros sources by Deadwood directly on this device. Compilation stops after build libpopupmenu.a and trying to build libatomic have this error: <pre> Configuring build in bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic configure: WARNING: unrecognized options: --disable-nls, --without-x checking for --enable-version-specific-runtime-libs... no checking for --enable-generated-files-in-srcdir... no checking build system type... arm-unknown-linux-gnu checking host system type... arm-unknown-aros checking target system type... arm-unknown-aros checking for a BSD-compatible install... /usr/bin/install -c checking whether build environment is sane... yes checking for arm-aros-strip... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-strip checking for a thread-safe mkdir -p... /usr/bin/mkdir -p checking for gawk... no checking for mawk... mawk checking whether make sets $(MAKE)... yes checking whether make supports nested variables... yes checking for arm-aros-gcc... /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-gcc checking whether the C compiler works... no configure: error: in /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic': configure: error: C compiler cannot create executables See config.log' for more details make[2]: *** [mmakefile:4489: /media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic/.configured] Error 77 [MMAKE] make --no-print-directory TOP=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build SRCDIR=/media/farox/pyra2/arosbuilds/AROS CURDIR=tools/crosstools/gnu TARGET=tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure -s --file=mmakefile tools-crosstools-gcc-libatomic-configure failed: 512 [MMAKE] Error: Error while running make in tools/crosstools/gnu: No such file or directory make[1]: *** [Makefile:361: linklibs-libatomic] Error 10 make: *** [Makefile:183: crosstools] Error 2 </pre> looking at config.log on arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/host/tools/crosstools/gnu/gcc/arm-aros/libatomic found that arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf/arm-aros-ld: cannot find -laeabi so do make linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick and the missing lib was built. now the next stop is at fatal error: bits/libc-header-start.h: No such file or directory and fatal error: sys/cdefs.h: No such file or directory in many places so after checking that have this missing include files i have noted that my include path is a bit different, standard searching path is /usr/arm-linux-gnueabihf but in my system is /usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf so if i add my path to some mmakefiles compilation goes on....but is a better way to add this path to avoid every mmakefiles to be changed? fixed with adding -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf to where is missing on mmakefiles like USER_INCLUDES := -isystem $(GENINCDIR) -I/usr/include/arm-linux-gnueabihf $(KERNEL_INCLUDES) P.s. I have changed many mmakefiles and have at least compiled (after many hours) the toolchain doing make every time in arosbuilds/toolchain-core-armhf-build (also have to disable making tests under cplusplus but don't remember the directory ...) but ask an help to have an automated way to correctly build without modify mmakefiles. Last time built armhf target was around 2 years ago. At that point built is via cross-compilation from linux (ubuntu 22.04) using linux armhf crosscompiler (this can explain the path differences you are experiencing) as well as using AROS gcc cross-compiler in version 6.5.0 (build with option 21) in rebuild.sh). Since then AROS GCC has been updated to 10.5.0 and don't believe anyone tried to build the armhf target again. My suggestion would be to downgrade GCC to 6.5.0 (via editing AROS/config/gcc_def file) and try to first build using cross-compilation from x86_64 linux. Once that works, you will have a "template" to compare to native compilation under arm linux. Thanks for your suggestion...but think the toolchain with GCC 10.5.0 is compilable if i found a way to pass the path of my system to the script that build (option 21 on rebuild). The other only changes are (but don't know where to modify...) is to add the build of libaeabi and disable the building of some tests under cplusplus that use exceptions and is not supported under ARM. try to crosscompile with my Linux amd64 PC. For paths look into core-linux-armhf/bin/linux-armhf/gen/config/target.cfg. A number of build-wide variable is set there containing paths to local build system. These variables and the target.cfg file are generated by AROS ./configure script. Thanks compilation now go forward...changed target.cfg under "toolchain-core-armhf-build/bin/linux-arm/gen/config" and do make on "toolchain-core-armhf-build" dir. Need to find where to enable build libaeabi.a so can build the entire toolchain with option 21 of rebuild.sh Found something that looks like libeabi in AROS/arm-all/arm-aeabi/mmakefile.src. Try adding a third line there: #MM- linklibs-armhd : libklibs-aeabi-arm Don't remember needing this library. Possibly the 6.5.0 GCC somehow does this while 10.5.0 is missing this. Try adding this line (and the variant "linklibs-armhf" instead of hd) but it did not solve the automatic building of the missing lib. I must do "linklibs-aeabi-arm-quick". Anyway after have build the aeabi lib i succefully built the toolchain (after many hours...). Smile To test I restarted from selecting option 21 (on rebuild.sh) but after many hours i get the same error of the kernel includes not found...maybe i need to modify the configure script for my case. With the toolchain built i try to build the core-linux-armhf (DEBUG) (option 22) but after a while it stopped with "cannot find -laeabi " so i made it built manually...and now i can continue compiling...i'll let you know if all goes ok. == Hardware == ===64bit=== ====BCM2712==== With the Pi5 Broadcom VideoCore 7 vc7 is an integrated GPU with 12 cores and up to 800 MHz clock. VideoCore VII is capable of OpenGL ES 3.1 and Vulkan 1.2. The driver support for the Raspberry Pi continues to build upon the [https://lore.kernel.org/dri-devel/20230928114532.167854-1-itoral@igalia.com/ open-source V3D driver] stack within [https://gitlab.freedesktop.org/mesa/mesa/-/merge_requests/25450 Mesa] hopefully be merged for Mesa 23.3. x265 HEVC accelerated untested, x264/h.264 and VP9 cpu only. *Raspberry Pi M.2 HAT+ Expansion Board *Geekworm X1001 PCIe to M.2 Key-M NVMe *Geekworm X1003 PCIe to M.2 HAT NVMe SSD PIP Board for Raspberry Pi 5 *Pineboards Pi Hut HatDrive! M.2 HAT 2024/V4 *Hat+ Gen2 Gen3 Nvme *GeeekPi 52Pi N04 for Raspberry Pi 5 NVME M.2 * *2024 RPI AI HAT - Hailo 20TOPs no LLMs *2026 RPI AI HAT+ 2 - Hailo 40TOPs slightly better? [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/accessories/camera.html Cameras for Pi] *Raspberry Pi camera module, the V3 with Sony IMX708 back-illuminated CMOS 12 Megapixel sensor *Raspberry Pi Camera Module V2 – 8MP Sony IMX219 Sensor *Raspberry Pi camera Rev 1.3, 5MP 1080P OV5647 image/video module, 2592 x 1944 pixels ====BCM2711==== With the Pi4 an ARM a72 cpu is about x3 times the size of an a53 in the Pi3 the 2711b line used more power when idle, compared to the 2711c *2018 Raspberry Pi PoE HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat - design issues *2020 Raspberry Pi PoE+ HAT Power Over Ethernet Hat Pi3b+ Pi4 only - better design *Waveshare PoE HAT (B) with cooling fan for Raspberry Pi 3B+/4B 802.3af PoE *[https://github.com/axizo-pi/V3DLib vc6 V3D 4.2] is derived from [https://docs.broadcom.com/doc/12358545 vc4], but it is significantly different The QPU pipeline stays mostly the same, you still have an add ALU and a multiply ALU and it can issue two ALU OPs per cycle. There is still 4 SIMD lanes, interleaved over 4 cycles. The instruction encoding for the QPUs is different, but the core instructions are the same. Instructions for packed 8 bit int math has been dropped, along with most of the pack modes. Instructions for packed 16bit float math has been added (2 floats at in a single operation) With vc5/vc6, you write two packed 16f value to the tilebuffer (or four writes of 32f, if you are using the rgba32f framebuffer). And there is a handy vfpack operation which allows you to pack two f32s into a single 32bit value in a single instruction. You can vfpack directly into the tile buffer register. the multiply ALU can now fadd, so you can issue two fadds per instruction. the add ALU has gained a bunch of new instructions the A and B register files have been merged. You still only get an A read and a B read per instruction, but they read from one big register file (which means the underlying memory block has gone from two sets of "one read port, one write port" to one "two read ports, one write port" block) The theoretical max FLOPs per QPU remains the same at two per cycle, other than the bump from 400mhz to 500mhx but it looks like a lot of effort has been put putting those theoretical FLOPs to better use. *vc4 could run one or two threads per QPU. When you ran in two thread mode, the available register file halfed to 32 registers. *vc5 added a four thread per QPU mode, with 16 registers per thread. *vc6 doubled the size of the register file. You could now use all 64 threads in two thread mode and 32 registers in for thread mode. Single thread mode was removed, you always have at least two threads. With the threading improvements, the QPUs should spent much less time idle waiting NOPs for memory requests. Most of the design changes have gone to improving the fixed function hardware around the QPUs. A fixed function blend unit has been added, which should reduce load on the QPUs when doing alpha blending. hope software blending is still possible The tile buffer can now store upto 4 render targets (up to 128bits per pixel, so if you are using 4 32bit render targets, you can't have a depth buffer) A MMU, allowing a much simpler/faster kernel driver. Many more texture formats, framebuffer formats. h264/x264 as Pi3 All the features needed for opengl es 3.0 H.265 / HEVC decoder is a HEVCv2 Main 4:4:4 10 design supporting bitstreams up to profile 5.1 HEVC hardware decode supports 4kp60, 10-bit. Audio output is pretty much unchanged, but the HDMI audio channels now support 8x192kHz bitrates Each ALU typically have 2 floating point operators, and as you pointed out in a earlier post videocore 6 is no exception, with both a multiply and additive floating point operator. Thus theoretical GFLOPs are calculated with both operators in mind. That is what the 2 in my formula represents, and is common across any modern programmable shader, whether you calculate Nvidia, AMD, Intel, Boardcom or any other company's GPUs. Total ALUs * 2 * GHz clock = GFLOPs, In the case of Raspberry Pi 3, it's 24 ALUs * 2 operators * 0.4GHz = 19.2GFLOPs If the Videocore 6 does indeed only have 16 ALUs (16 * 2 * 0.5GHz), you'd have only 16GFLOPs but they are better utilised Possible maximum performance <pre> VideoCore IV @ 250MHz: 250 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 24 Gflop/s VideoCore IV @ 300MHz: 300 [MHz] x 3 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 28.8 Gflop/s VideoCore VI @ 500MHz: 500 [MHz] x 2 [slice] x 4 [qpu/slice] x 4 [processor] x 2 [op/clock] = 32 Gflop/s </pre> Faster LPDDR4 memory. ====BCM2837==== With the Pi3 * Broadcom BCM43438 chip provides 2.4&nbsp;GHz 802.11n wireless LAN, Bluetooth Low Energy, and Bluetooth 4.1 Classic radio support, 3B+ [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/afa5bc0bb17d5dd06bcfdbac00853a3799ca8d76 LAN7515] The overclock ability has diminished with each chip version as the energy usage has increased. BCM2837 is one of the warmest yet and benefits from active fan cooling if all four cpu cores are in use for a short while. Video playback is not affected due to the custom support in the GPU. 5 V / 2.4 or 2.5 amp power supply recommended if all four cpu cores are running, else throttling (cpu slowdown) might occur. Dual VDP and scalable QPU in VC4 and x.264/h.264 accelerated untested only and VP9 on cpu or neon help ARMv8-A has [https://developer.arm.com/documentation/102412/0100/Privilege-and-Exception-levels privilege levels] where userspace typically runs at ‘EL0’, the kernel at ‘EL1’ or ‘EL2’ and the firmware at the highest level ‘EL3’. ===32bit=== === Core Kernel === ====BCM2708(family)==== which includes the [http://elinux.org/RPi_Hardware BCM2835] (ARM1176JZF-S 700&nbsp;MHz CPU + VideoCore IV GPU + up to 1GB RAM) *Framebuffer (fb) using mailbox *IRQ scheduler, etc *Arasan based SD Card controller *Synopsis DesignWare USB 2.0 OTG controller [http://networkdirection.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=106:rasperry-pi-usb-controller&catid=45:raspberry-pi&Itemid=54 Unofficial DOCS pdf], [dwc_otg.c FreeBSD], [], [https://www.riscosopen.org/viewer/view/mixed/RiscOS/Sources/HWSupport/USB/Controllers/DWCDriver/ RiscOS USB Driver], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/5/topics/878 RiscOS USB Discussion], [https://www.riscosopen.org/forum/forums/11/topics/1893 Other USB RiscOS], [http://plan9.bell-labs.com/plan9/index.html Plan9 Miller's usb] http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sources/contrib/miller/, [https://github.com/Chadderz121/csud CSUD driver], *[http://www.smsc.com/media/Downloads_Public/Data_Sheets/9512.pdf SMSC 9512] USB LAN/Hub chip *CMOS RAM *VCHIQ port which sends messages to the GPU e.g. for mouse, keyboard, audio on HDMI, etc *Audio Driver *Serial Peripheral Interface Bus (SPI) *[http://www.susa.net/wordpress/2012/06/raspberry-pi-pcf8563-real-time-clock-rtc/ I2C registers] *I2S *Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (UART) *[http://elinux.org/RPi_BCM2835_GPIOs GPIOs] and [http://www.adafruit.com/blog/2012/08/17/broadcom-bcm2835-peripheral-memory-map-and-gpio-alternate-use-chart-piday-raspberrypi-raspberry_pi/ Alternative view of GPIO] BCM2836 * For Pi B+, PI 2 and Pi 3 SMSC LAN9514 chip adding 10/100 Ethernet connectivity and four USB channels to the board *[http://www.andrewscheller.co.uk/rpi_pcb_modules.html PCB], [http://elinux.org/RPi_Low-level_peripherals Low level features], Implemented so far... # Modify the configure system so that it correctly builds for the arm hardware float raspi target. # Implemented the bootstrap to load the aros modules and prepare the arm to jump into them. Reworked the x86 console support so that parts can be stolen for raspi to use since t has no basic functionality to output to the display. # Implemented a kernel.resource to prepare the raspi for running aros and provide the low level api calls to expose available resources and allow exec, etc function. # Implemented serial debug support # Implemented the exec (and kernel) functionality required to make multitasking work (and interrupts, exceptions, syscalls, etc) # Implemented a timer.device to utilise the hardware timers. # Implemented a very basic gfx driver to expose the hardware's framebuffer. # Implemented an SD-Card driver for AROS which presently only supports the raspi's chipset but can easily be modified to support all sd-card hardware and media. # Fixed the fat filesystem support in AROS so that it can boot on RasPi's normal SD-Card setup. The "rom" image files needed use a different filename than the default linux, etc images so can be easily installed without harming the existing files - you only need to change the loaded images in the config file to get aros to boot. # Updated the build scripts to automatically download the necessary raspi firmware files and wrap it all up so that you can simply extract the archive to a fat formatted sdcard and boot it on the raspi without having to get anything else. # fix everything in contrib and ports to build for raspi (needs proper testing/fixes but allows every component to actually compile at least, including owb) + numerous other fixes to get things working on arm/raspi .. Improvements... # Implement a USB chipset driver "OR" finish the existing one [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/c07d13c724f944674be5db54fc6a71ee72a01809 usb otg] - the current code is mostly a skeleton that should initialise the chipset and then needs relevant code to support the different transfer types. It also has the "virtual" hub code in place to represent the raspi's USB port (from poseidons p.o.v) # Implement a driver for the USB NIC (a few weeks - depends on USB above) # Write an [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/d55d0f74d20b769bbb8c8d386e5c1d7a9154f05a audio driver] (a few weeks - independent of USB) and [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/e93a4c245f27a87c9c4c1d39206694b39059998a HDMI] # fix syscall bug in the current raspi kernel code # Graphics depend on having a decent "bcmdma.resource" implemented as to use the cpu's dma engine. The sd card driver needs to use it for transfers to/from the controller - and the gfx system needs to use it for "blitting". # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/4019d84e4975d4dad987a12d57fe108f5ac048e6 Improve the gfx driver], [ vc4gfx HIDD] add [http://dri.freedesktop.org/wiki/VC4/ Gallium3D support] # [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/b13905b3e8e45b089f520b44692c81affddd066f Improve] the [https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/3a876755c070f5c73c4f53c7f4d35b4f923088b9 sdcard] device driver - which is also pretty basic but should work with most cards, rework it to also support pci, etc. sd card interfaces on x86 # The current code using very rudimentary access to the gpio interface - so that should be implemented as some resource for other components to access, as-well as the i2c interface exposed over the gpio interface. that should have a hidd class implemented which uses the gpio resource to communicate. Boot up typical for most other OSs before the open sourcing of many binary blobs from 2017 onwards On power-up, the rpi [http://www.open.com.au/mikem/bcm2835/ BCM 2835] [https://github.com/hermanhermitage/videocoreiv VideoCore4] GPU, not the ARM CPU, is in control, and the SD card slot is the only peripheral device with power. The firmware burned into the BCM2835's VideoCoreIV GPU PROM requires a DOS-style partition table; a FAT-formatted first partition; and the freely redistributable but closed sourced Broadcom files “bootcode.bin” and “start.elf” in that partition. The boot sequence carries out several pre-boot tasks *On powering of the rpi, the GPU reads and executes bootcode.bin, which then loads start.elf *The GPU loads the “start.elf” file, eventually, into the L2 cache and then executes it *configures the memory split for the CPU and GPU *reads and parses “config.txt” from the same partition on the SD card and applies the settings (like a PC’s BIOS settings) *loads the “kernel.img” file, again from the same partition *activates the CPU to begin executing the loaded kernel image The CPU/GPU memory split is hard-coded into start.elf, so Broadcom provides three start.elf images, to give 32M, 64M, or 128M to the GPU for multimedia performance, and the remainder to the CPU. RPi uses [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware some closed source loaders] and at some point it loads a binary blob named "kernel.img" at 0x8000, at that point there would be a rudimentary Aros alive. If one wants to use the SD-card then there would have to be a driver for the interface and a fat filesystem handler (SD-card has to be formatted to fat filesystem) Boot code and kernel are now linked together and made into that binary blob, just for starters. Raspberry Pi uses [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=133 u-boot] and [http://kernelnomicon.org/?p=138 UBoot] as bootloader, there's already some code in the Efika MX port for that. UBoot is a native bootloader and not just for the raspberry pi, it loads after start.elf. You can find Efika MX port from arch implementations, some hacking is needed for the mmakefile.src'es as iit dates back to before the Aros crosstool era or else you get some weird errors while building. You also need to code the bootstrap and serial handling. At the moment it seems that a fastest route for the native build would be to make one binary blob without using the package system. Raspberry's memory layout is pretty simple and if the implemented u-boot doesn't support loading other modules <pre> ? - alias for 'help' mtest - simple RAM test autoscr - run script from memory base - print or set address offset bbm - BBM sub-system bdinfo - print Board Info structure boot - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootd - boot default, i.e., run 'bootcmd' bootm - boot application image from memory bootp - boot image via network using BootP/TFTP protocol cmp - memory compare coninfo - print console devices and information cp - memory copy crc32 - checksum calculation echo - echo args to console fatinfo - print information about filesystem fatload - load binary file from a dos filesystem fatls - list files in a directory (default /) go - start application at address 'addr' help - print online help iminfo - print header information for application image itest - return true/false on integer compare jade - loadb - load binary file over serial line (kermit mode) loads - load S-Record file over serial line loady - load binary file over serial line (ymodem mode) loop - infinite loop on address range md - memory display mm - memory modify (auto-incrementing) mtest - simple RAM test mw - memory write (fill) nfs - boot image via network using NFS protocol nm - memory modify (constant address) pci - list and access PCI Configuration Space ping - send ICMP ECHO_REQUEST to network host printenv - print environment variables rarpboot - boot image via network using RARP/TFTP protocol reset - Perform RESET of the CPU run - run commands in an environment variable saveenv - save environment variables to persistent storage saves - save S-Record file over serial line setenv - set environment variables sleep - delay execution for some time tftpboot - boot image via network using TFTP protocol USB - USB sub-system usbboot - boot from USB device version - print monitor version </pre> And there is one more thing about modular ports. In order to actually implement this, your bootstrapping environment should provide the ability to load several files. On PC this is provided by GRUB2. on CHRP you can read filesystem via OpenFirmware, and Sam's Parthenope relies on modified u-boot. If your bootstrap allows to load only a single file, then you stuck with monolithic kickstart. By the way... u-boot allows not only to boot up a single uImage or zImage, it also allows to write client programs AFAIK. With this approach, you actually can write modular bootstrap for ARM AROS using unmodified u-boot. Most used [http://www.compulab.co.il/workspace/mediawiki/index.php5/U-Boot_quick_reference uboot options] are fatls usb 0:1, the reason behind INTB_KERNEL is to allow use of the standard Exec function AddIntServer() to add interrupt handlers for hardware drivers etc. AmigaOS never used it for abstract hardware drivers. AmigaOS routed only raw hardware IRQs there. Their assignment was hardcoded. As well as number of them. Actually on AmigaOS every bus has its own interrupt subsystem. For example PCI bus. PCI interrupts on Amiga are routed to a single exec interrupt. 1:1 relationship between CPU and hardware interrupts is present only on PC. IMHO we miss things like AddInterrupt/RemInterrupt methods on our PCI subsystem's device class. PCI bus class should map these methods to whatever is appropriate. This is how it is done on AmigaOS and friends. When these are implemented, raw kernel.resource API will be needed only for several PC-specific drivers with hardwired resources. Exec IRQs are real IRQs only on Amiga hardware. On other machines they can be emulated where appropriate (VBlank is a good example). kernel.resource is meant to be different, its IRQs are hardware-agnostic, they are plain "Hardware IRQ number X, whatever this means". They are low-level actually, and meaningful only in the context of a particular system. Was that not the transition from irq.hidd to kernel.resource? No. A long time ago there was another hacky bit named INTB_TIMERTICK. It was "abstract timer interrupt", used by timer.device. It was the same as VBlank, but with larger frequency. I removed it, because kernel.resource API was a cleaner way to access this interrupt. Furthermore, there can be more than one timer in the system. Thinking about bringing back timer HIDD definitions again. hpet.resource is a bad idea. Can someone please enlighten me a little on how the scheduler is meant to work? Poseidon.library creates its "Poseidon Event Task" during RTF_COLDSTART -> then calls Wait(), and ends up in limbo because wait disables interrupts (used for the scheduler heartbeat), and basically waits forever because the sigbit is never set, since krnSwitch doesn't switch the task unless TF_SWITCH is set, and no codepath run during this seems to set it?? TF_SWITCH does not disable/enable switching. This flag just enables to run user-supplied hook when the task is being switched away. It is completely safe to call Wait() in Disable()d state. Doing this actually temporarily breaks this state. IDNestCnt gets remembered in struct Task, then next task is selected, and its IDNestCnt is restored in sysbase (see kernel_scheduler.c). If there are no other tasks, then your cpu_Dispatch() should enable interrupts on the CPU and enter idle mode. See x86 implementation for good example. You miss what happens next... 1. KrnSwitch() saves context of your task, saves IDNestCnt (core_Switch() and cpu_Switch()), then drops into cpu_Dispatch(). 2. cpu_Dispatch() calls core_Dispatch. Then two cases are possible: 2a. There is a READY task. It is picked up, its IDNestCnt is restored in SysBase, then cpu_Dispatch() needs to restore registers and exit. The next task is run. 2b. There are no READY tasks. core_Dispatch() returns NULL. In this case your cpu_Dispatch() should enter idle loop. It should just enable interrupts on the CPU and put it on halt. This allows it to process hardware interrupts. Eventually some of your interrupt handlers wakes up your task and puts it into READY list. My heartbeat interrupt has been slowed atm to help debugging - but it never actually gets a chance to fire because of the Wait() disabling interrupts. Perhaps you have forgotten to enable interrupts in your idle loop. There is a change in the format of AROS executables. Until now we were using Elf RELocable files which are usually used as intermediate object files. We had them for various reasons, one of them was how AROS files were built in the past. That days we had no real aros cross compiler and the option to embed relocation data in unix executables (or in executable files in general) was rather new and not every linux/unix system had it. Therefore we have decided to use intermediate files. Although it was somehow working (and it is still working :-)), it has some drawbacks. Therefore decided to introduce real Elf EXEC types, in first turn implemented on ARM target with option to expand in future to all other AROS architectures. The first patch was pretty easy and appeared to work somehow. It generated nice executables with embedded relocation info. Not only that, it also removed all global symbols adjusting relocation data to be relative to the beginning of the sections. That move reduced number of symbols in each executable significantly (depending on the file between 20 and 80% of all symbols could be removed). The only symbols that stayed in the file are local ones - due to the nature of the patch wasn't able to remove them since we have not seen them in the symbol hash table. The patch didn't worked though. The files were relocated, AROS kernel loaded, but it crashed very early. What happened? Well, the nature of ARM relocations happened :) Most of the relocation data on all machines is rather simple. Relocation can be absolute or pc-relative, sometimes the offset has to be bit shifted. On ARM v7 there is another one. There, when one wants to load an address of function/variable into register a combination of two instructions can be used: movw and movt. The first one loads immediate into lower 16 bits of a register while clearing upper 16 bits. The second one loads immediate into upper 16 bits without touching lower halfword. Loading of a pointer into a register looks like this: movw r0, #:lower16:label movt r0, #:upper16:label In this case there are two relocations - one for lower halfword and another for upper. If an overflow of lower 16 bits occurs during relocation process, the upper one should be updated as well. Unfortunately with current patch and with typical ARM executables there is not enough information to perform the calculations. There are two options - the first one would be to give up and go back to "fake" executables, another one would be to change from REL to RELA relocation info. The latter contains an addend, extra data which can be used to perform all the relocation calculations I need. Decided for the second option. The patch is already in the works. There is another function for the binutils' bfd backend to perform the final relocation. There can decide what to do with every reloc info, modify data and eventually strip some symbols. An advantage is - at this stage of the linking process have also full access to all local symbols so can change all relocations section relative and eventually strip all symbols from the files. GPU VCore developed by Alphamosaic Ltd and now owned by Broadcom. Most of start.elf runs on the GPU. Placing ALL the userland GPU code in the videocore.hidd isn't going to be a terribly big problem because the code they published is nothing more than a shim that sends data straight to the GPU to execute. The good news about this is that we only need to write our HIDD using the OpenVG API. The shim is relatively small codewise and lives in the ARM memory (the actual OpenVG code itself lives in the GPU RAM area and its loaded from start.elf). That's also the bad news. Our driver has to translate AROS video calls to OpenVG calls, for most tasks it should be easy, for some, not so much. It's still probably less difficult and less work, than controlling the GPU directly. The other good news is that anything done through OpenVG happens on the GPU, its truly accelerated. It also has some nice font functions, meaning we can lead into an accelerated text mode later. Basically, AROS resets or locks up when it tries to use AROS_ATOMIC_INC or DEC. If I comment out the byte/word operations in the header files and use non-atomic operations, the code works as expected. have read that the L1 cache needs to be enabled to use LDREX and co (which I also read is only meant to be used on multi processor systems with shared memory) - however I am certain this is correctly enabled. If you are using LREX or STREX, you should have L1 cache enabled, at least on the ARM CPU I work with at work. L1 cache is enabled by enabling the MMU *AND* setting the C and I bits in the CPU - the C bit is ignored, and the I bit only covers the 16 byte instruction pipeline if the MMU is not enabled. Can you verify that your assembly is generating LDREX/STREX? From the behavior, it almost sounds like its generating the default Semaphore locked atomics. Impossible. There are no semaphore-locked atomics. There are Disable()/Enable()-based ones instead. And there's a special #define AROS_NO_ATOMIC_OPERATIONS in this case, which tweaks Disable()/Enable() implementations not to recurse forever. I have tested this on ARMv5 which does not have ldrex/strex, it works fine. On those ARMs there's no way to have real atomics. On other OSes (like Linux) this is done by introducing things like atomic_t, which appears to be a complex structure, holding the value together with accompanying spinlock (implemented using swp). #warning "TODO: lookup optimal mmu table settings for raspi memory" /* Set up an identity-mapping for all 4GB */ for(x = 0; x < 4096; x ++) { pagetable[x] = x<<20 | (0x40002|0x80000|0x010000|0x00C00|0x04); } Shouldn't there be a second loop that sets the 'C' bit in the descriptor for the RAM pages? Currently, you have TEX=0, C=0, B=1 for all pages (Shared Device). You should have TEX=0, C=1, B=0 for RAM (Write-Through, Cached) So .. pagetable[x] = x<<20 | 2; should be enough? No, for RAM you need to change the '| 0x40' to '| 0x80' tell dosboot the correct defaults to use Please don't do this. This bootconfig.c is a deprecated legacy thing. I wanted it to go away completely with time. Instead, display drivers should auto-install themselves during own initialization phase. I. e. detect hardware=>instantiate itself. This should make things way simpler. With this approach you only need to add the driver into KS image to get the device autobooted. No hardcoded stuff. Currently VESA and VGA drivers do this, look there for examples. never rewrote ATI driver because i don't have any test system for it. they defined a smaller AROSCPUContext than the ExceptionContext - yet reference it as ExceptionContext in other places, and since it hasn't allocated enough storage for ExceptionContext, are corrupting memory/the structure (since the elements that are there don't map 1 to 1 with the exception context). AFAIK, AROS has been moving in a different direction to this in recent years. It is the job of graphics HIDDs to allocate bitmaps etc. so that they have the most suitable characteristics, including allocating them from GPU RAM where possible. The concept of chip RAM is only for legacy code, and most if not all non-68k platforms should have all system RAM marked as chip. BTW, is the video processing code you mention CPU code or GPU code? Also, IIRC we have support for "external memory allocators". Perhaps that's what we need for the allocation of GPU RAM through the mailbox. All hosted and x86 native ports should use proper context formats. trying to clarify if the vblank handler has to have run by this point to prevent this deadlock. Actually, no. Unless you have installed VBlank handler which should wake up at some point. Without VBlank there will be no quantum count. Consequently, there will be no forced preemption. But the rest will work, and multitasking will be cooperative (switch happens only when current task voluntarily gives up the CPU). Does it depend on the vblank having run before this point? and if yes what does that mean on systems where it might be able to run enough code (e.g. get to this point) before the vblank interrupt has triggered? What is it waiting for? It could wait for timer, in this case you need timer.device working. VBlank is currently needed for exec's quantum counter. In current native ports we have only a single timer, which is served by timer.device. VBlank is simulated by timer.device also. If your machine has two timers, then you can use one of them for VBlank, and another for timer.device, this will simplify things down. VBlank needs to be 50 Hz for historical reasons, many programs use it as cheap timer. I am periodically thinking about making some abstract mechanism to be able to change quantum source (and untie it from 50 Hz), but have no time to come up with something good. Additionally i started disliking timer.device hardcoded design when PC has got many timers (old 8253, APIC, HPET). Currently i think there should be some low-level entity representing tick source. timer.device should just select the most appropriate source for its units. The BCM2835 has 4 GPU based timer sources - 2 are used by the GPU, so im using Timer3 for our heartbeat and the remaining one will be free to the system. There is also the less capable ARM timer but that is dependent on the CPU frequency. Very good. You won't need any emulation. Set the heartbeat to 50 Hz and drive VBlank from it. Use other timer for MicroHZ. Can you use the 'econsole.hook' I make for debugging the Sam460 via the serial port? It provides a before-anything-else shell prompt on the serial port. You can then do 'NewCLI' to test your graphics, or use any DOS command in shellcommands.resource. You should just be able to add econsole.hook to your module list, and use 'econsole' in your bootargs. So long as you have a working Exec/RawMayGetChar and Exec/RawPutChar, it should work. Also make sure to add shell.resource and shellcommands.resource for this. That should have done it. If you set "#define DEBUG 1" in arch/all-native/econsole/econsole.c, do you get any additional serial output? have added it to the build and added econsole to the command line - and can see the bootloader picks up on the emergency bootconsole tag, but I still only get the insert bootable media display? Im assuming it exposes a fake filesystem that tricks aros into booting? The contents of which are: ECON:AROS.boot Way to handle the scheduling code? The implementations I had been following were causing problems, due to cascading interrupts which I cant handle properly in the asm stubs just now (when they break disable etc.) - since it means detecting the interrupted codes cpu mode and getting the correct sp/lr for it, and that's just too tedious for arm. To work around this ive added a system idle task which does nothing - and when the scheduling code has no task to run switches this in and lets it run, thereby allowing the interrupts etc to resume until something does need to happen. Also, by adding accounting code to cpu_Switch() and cpu_Dispatch(), it should allow the system to log idle time correctly (as well as running tasks). have thought of also adding an additional task that never runs, solely to record time spent in IRQ handlers, but I digress.. was under the impression that kernel.resource should *never* be used outside of exec.library. This is a wrong impression. Michal started designing it because portable nature of AROS does not fit well into exec's API with all its assumptions. So, he started the new, hardware-agnostic kernel API from scratch. Yes, exec sits on top of it in places. But kernel always meant to be open thing. Otherwise it would not exist. it wasn't meant to be just used willy nilly by user code - but by lower system components (e.g. exec) so that they could be implemented in a more generic fashion, and the kernel resource itself hide the systems quirks. Adding new things there perfectly keeps up with our decision to minimize AROS-specific intervention into APIs which can clash with MorphOS or Amiga OS4 extensions. We want at least source-level compatibility there. Binary compatibility on PPC would be extremely cool, but at the other hand we have no maintainer for this, as well as their ABIs splintering. It depends on what exactly is being implemented - there's no reason we should have everything crammed into kernel.resource if it doesn't need to be (i.e. if its better suited as a separate component/subsystem in its own right) The _LE versions are for when you have endian swapping taking place. If the graphics are the same endian as the CPU, no swapping should occur. I ran into a similar terminology problem in SDL with a friend insisting that his Radeon 7000 on his PC was big-endian. It is not, it just uses the same endianness for the graphics card and the CPU so no swapping was necessary. They were both little-endian. The _LE versions are because the PixFmts refer to the bitmap data being in big endian format in memory, for which the normal version would need to do endianness conversion before applying the shifts/masks. on this platform it is in _LE in memory also so we don't need the conversion hence using the _LE version of the call). would use _LE (if it's really little endian 16 bit mode). What is the bare minimum needed to implement a framebuffer based gfx driver, with our software handling the rest? Have tried with just a gfx class that only expose new/dispose/newbitmap - and having an onscreenbitmap used only for the framebuffer itself (with all other bitmaps being chunkybm, and the framebuffer's superclass also being chunkybm), but that alone isn't enough it seems? You can use workbench/hidds/sm502/ as your example - it is as simple as I could make it. So, AROS creates the framebuffer bitmap (verified this) -> so surely it should be capable of then rendeing into it? I don't actually create the framebuffer "bitmap object" myself - only as a result of being asked to. The code I currently have on SVN seems to create the framebuffers bitmap object fine, but then crashes in intuitions DisplayDriver callback. In particular it crashes performing the getattr on the system default pointer. don't expose MEMF_CHIP in an allocatable form so AllocSpriteData was failing (and other code later doesn't check if the values are valid == illegal memory accesses) So far have -: vc_init: queries the gpus memory, and sets up a fake memory handler for it, then adds the bootmode driver and returns saying all is well vc_gfxhidd:New: sets up some fake syncmodes to test with and creates the real gfx object. vc_gfxhidd:NewBitmap: checks if its a framebuffer and uses the onbitmap class or uses the chunkybm class otherwise vc_onbitmap:New; creates a chunkybm object and then pushes the real framebuffer address into it as the buffer, vc4 had v8adds, v8subs, v8muld, v8min and v8max which operated on four 8bit uint values packed into a 32bit register. Multiplication was in the range 0.0 to 1.0 and addition/subtraction saturated. There were also a range unpacking/packing modes that allowed you to pack and unpack 8bit values into 32bit registers. RasPi has to speak to the "operating system" which runs on the GPU itself and request/free memory - it cant directly manage it itself, and so the managed functions were used to wrap these calls. The Arm and GPU share memory space. The framebuffer is shared. The Arm can write a pixel and it will appear on the screen (through GPU hardware) without flushing/copying being required. The GPU can composite multiple FB's in real time - so you have a number of surfaces defined which are rotated etc and composited in real time to the output. Copying can map from the address space of the Arm to the flat space of the GPU which takes some code, but I don't think whole buffers are copied. The DMA hardware can also access the whole memory space and can perform 2D fills and blits (no blending). This is documented in the peripheral spec posted. The DMA is just an Arm accessible peripheral and can be set up with low latency (e.g. microseconds). must use a 0xc0000000-based bus address to access SDRAM, yet non-DMA access should go via a 0x0-based bus address. For 2D dma, set TDMODE, and the spec says "interpret the TXFR_LEN register as YLENGTH number of transfers each of XLENGTH, and add the strides to the address after each transfer." so set STRIDE to pitch of the image, the width is XLENGTH and height is YLENGTH. You would fill by not setting the SRC_INC and point source to your fill data. The DMA cannot see the ARM's L1 cache, so you would map the framebuffer with ioremap_nocache. Depending on where the source data comes from, it may need an L1 cache flush. The DMA can see the L2 cache. Use 0xC0000000 bus addresses when L2 is disabled and 0x40000000 bus addresses when L2 is enabled. (actually just call virt_to_bus and you'll get the right address out). openGLES/openVG has high latency. Writing to framebuffer then reading it back is very inefficient (e.g. milliseconds). If you can drive it a unidirectional way, just streaming commands at then that is efficient. openVG is not implemented on top of openGLES - it uses the same hardware but as a first class interface To improve the Gfx driver, we will need a DMA resource implemented so can use to perform DMA operations. The Gfx driver will need this to perform blits. Actually MEMF_CHIP has to present, for historical reasons. This has been never fully agreed upon, but in ports i wrote i exposed the whole memory as MEMF_CHIP. The idea behind this is that CHIP is originally the memory where graphics and sound data can be put. On non-Amiga platforms there are no restrictions on this, so the whole memory is CHIP. Yes, many old software can misbehave with CHIP memory size larger than 2MB. But this actually applies only to m68k AROS which is going to run m68k binaries. In other cases it's quite logical to fix the program when porting. As to original question: yes, it's enough to have a framebuffer bitmap (one with aoHidd_BitMap_FrameBuffer set to TRUE) and PutPixel routine. It framebuffer can be served by chunky bitmap class, then you can simply create chunky bitmap with your own buffer (see how VESA driver does this). Chunky PutPixel is already there. struggling to determine what is the correct pixfmt to use for the 24/16/15 bit gfx modes on the RasPi. AFAIK it uses RGB565, for 16bit but im unsure what shifts etc should go with it? suffice to say Im getting the wrong colors so far lol. <pre> redmask: 0x0000F800 greenmask: 0x000007E0 bluemask: 0x0000001F alphamask: 0 redshift: 16 greenshift: 21 blueshift: 27 alphashift: 0 </pre> It should likely be vHidd_StdPixFmt_RGB16_LE This stuff is a bit confusing. The "names" of the stdpixfmts are based on the layout in memory, ignoring endianess. So for example: ARGB32: will be 0xAA 0xRR 0xGG 0xBB in memory on both big endian and little endian machines. The shifts and masks OTOH are based on pixel access (ULONG in this case), so differ depending on whether you run on big endian machine or little endian machine (that's why there's stdpixfmt_le.h and stdpixfmt_be.h in rom/hidds/graphics/). With the 16 bit pixel format it's even more confusing, as for example it's impossible on little endian machine to describe RGB16 with shifts/masks alone. That's why there's vHidd_PixFmt_SwapPixelBytes_Flag. (RGB16 == RRRRRGGG GGGBBBBB in memory, and for pixel (WORD) access on little endian machine it needs to be accessed as GGGBBBBBRRRRRGGGG). The shifts btw indicate how much to shift the component to the left (!) so that it is moved to the highest bit (31). The aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you specify will be ignored most of the time, because when the pixelfmt is registered, the gfx hidd checks if there's an identical pixfmt (shifts/masks/etc., but ignoring pixfmt->stdpixfmt) already in the system, and if so, it uses the already existing one and does not create a new one. In theory it would be better if gfx drivers could simply/only specify a StdPixFmt without all the shifts/masks stuff when the gfx driver uses pixfmt which matches one of the stdpixfmts exactly. Another possibility would be for gfx drivers to use HIDD_Gfx_GetPIxFmt(stdpixfmt_gfx_driver_wants_to_use) and then peek shifts/masks from it and fill out a pixfmt tag list based on that. 15bit very blue/green: Try to pass same shifts/masks/etc. as in 16 bit pixfmt (maybe you think it's using 15 bit R5G5B5 (or swapped) but it's actually still using 16 bit R5G6B5 (or swapped). aHidd_PixFmt_StdPixFmt you pass is mostly ignored. It's the shift/masks/etc. that count. But I would still pass the correct one (_LE) == whatever rom/hidds/graphics/stdpixfmts_??.h uses in the entry where you have looked up shifts/masks/etc. Use the shifts/masks/etc. from the entry in stdpixfmt_le.h (if you are running on little endian machine) or stdpixfmt_be.h (if you are running on little endian machine) that matches the pixfmt that its meant to be. 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on little endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_le.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) 0xAA,0xRR,0xGG,0xBB on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_ARGB32) 0xBB,0xGG,0xRR,0xAA on big endian (->entry in stdpixfmt_be.h which says vHidd_StdPixFmt_BGRA32) it feels like AROS trashes the alpha component, otherwise it should be 8A8R8G8B. read on the subject suggest its in 1x5r5g5b (x is ignored) to keep 16bit alignment . Suggests to me that wrong shift/mask are being applied - however going by the 16bit versions it all looks correct to me so I am really confused as to what is happening. The output image looks to have too much green/blue, and very weak red. Kickstart The idea is to minimize amount of archirecture-specific modules to make the user's life easier. So, the kickstart was split into 'base' (which does not contain anything machine-specific) and 'BSP' (Board Support Package) which contains all hardware-specific stuff. This way, for example, distribution makers can save up space on CD and make CDs with multiple platform support. Different configuration would load the same base with different BSP's. Next there was some part which is entirely missing on hosted. These are filesystems. Hosted ports do not need them to boot up, so on hosted they are left out. At the other hand, they are also architecture-agnostic. So i put them into 'FS' package (standing for 'filesystem'). USB Poseidon is one more big part. I made it into separate package in order to allow users to omit it if they don't need it (for example, to run on retro PCs without USB). Personally i have one. Again, Poseidon is hardware-agnostic (well, there are USB drivers but HCIs are pretty standard). AFAIK its HCI 1.0 compliant but not familiar enough with poseidons drivers, nor USB, to just hack away at the existing code. Perhaps once i'm more familiar with the workings I can merge in the changes needed to get it operating but for now I will focus on getting it running. Also our drivers have known issues so perhaps a fresh set of eyes might shed some light on what is going wrong. Another interesting question is whether Poseidon can operate on device side. Is it flexible enough? How similar is being a USB host and USB device? think it will need a bit of work on Poseidon's side. Until then I will force the driver into Host/Master mode in the init code, but leave open device etc to configure the chipset for either's use - and look at trying to add support for working in Device/Slave mode & switching modes once it's up and running. Actually USBROMStartup is some kind of kludge. Can there be any alternative? Could device drivers be self-installing, like our HIDDs? This would get rid of need to list them in USBRomStartup. * Model A and B limited to 150 mA per port. * Model B+ and Pi 2 introduced configurable 600 mA to 1.2 A support over all ports - anything above that requires a powered USB hub. Implementing the hardware driver that Poseidon uses to interact with the USB components. Have code in place to (try) and initialise the USB chipset, and configure host/device mode operation (though AFAICT Poseidon doesn't support device mode). Started to get the "virtual" root hub written for the single USB port so that Poseidon should at least list it correctly in the GUI - and try to interact with it to find peripherals. The BCM2835 uses a soft IP block from Synopsys’ DesignWare library (DWC), specifically the block is called dwc_usb_2_0_hs_otg_subsystem-ahb_se (“USB 2.0 Hi-Speed OTG Controller Subsystem w/AHB Interface SE”). There is no public documentation for this, and pretty much zero chance of anyone getting hold of it even with NDA. However, there's a Linux driver written by Synopsys ([https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux dwc_usb]). Specifically directories [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_common_port] and [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/drivers/usb/host dwc_otg]. The Synopsys code is actually under a fairly permissive licence – it's not GPL, it's similar to BSD (’don't sue us if it breaks’ is pretty much the only clause). So this should not be a barrier to porting the code. The code is really well written, with a nice partition between the work done by the driver (dwc_otg, which is fairly involved, given the host does more work than a conventional EHCI driver), and the interface to Linux (dwc_common_port). Probably only need provision of relevant changes to dwc_common_port. Other things to consider.... * Provision of necessary headers to get it to compile * Provision of necessary functions (main issues are wait queues, threads, work queues, tasklets, timers, spinlocks and mutexes (multithreading) ) * Interfacing between USB stack and the driver. dwc_otg/dwc_otg_hcd_linux.c looks like the place to start. the Linux bits of the headers are only required for the dwc_common_port library. dwc_common_port includes a variety of crypto functions which are not used – it appears to also be used for ultrawideband (UWB) and wireless USB (WUSB) drivers where crypto will be an issue, but it isn't going to be for plain wired USB. Every USB driver acts as an USB hub as well in order to let Poseidon control the state of USB ports. The code there was reading status of the only USB port in Raspberry's CPU but when changing the status it erroneously deleted some of the status bits, including the port enable one. It was so because those bits in the status register are of a type Read/WriteToClear. It means, if one does not want to change their value from 1 back to 0, one has to actually write the 0 value. Very practical thing e.g. in interrupt handlers, where one reads the interrupt status register to learn what was the interrupt reason, and writes it back to the same register in order to clear the interrupts. After fixing that code it turned out that the communication was still unsuccessful. Apparently the USB device was not understanding the host for some reason. That should not happen since the request sent was one of the standard ones implemented by virtually anything with an USB connector, assumed that Poseidon clears the data caches before forwarding the work to the USB drivers but that's the responsibility of the driver itself. The USB device responded and acknowledged the transmission! But why were all the request sent after address change failing with timeout? They should not. Once again, address set is supported just by anything. Tried to contact the device at address 0 once again and there it was, still responding properly. The enlightenment came. The bus address for DMA transmissions was, as it is in many bare metal USB implementations, just the pure memory address of the buffer as seen by the ARM cpu. Have "prefixed" it with the real location of uncached RAM and booted AROS once again. Trident saw this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 and this: Product : Vendor: Vdr=0424/PID=EC00 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 255 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 1 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 60416 DevVers : 0200 and even this: Product : Hub: Vdr=0424/PID=9514 Manufacturer: Standard Microsystems Corp. SerialNumber: n/a /Users/michal/git/AROS/rom/USB/poseidon/./poseidon.library.c:psd_20_psdEnumerateDevice/3092: USBVersion: 0200 Class : 9 SubClass : 0 DevProto : 2 VendorID : 1060 ProductID : 38164 DevVers : 0200 What are these things? The first one is USB hub built in the Raspberry. Thanks to this one the Pi machines (with exception of Pi0 and computing modules) have more than just one single USB port. The second one is the network chip in raspberry, the third one is my USB SD card reader which have just connected to see what happens. AROS tried, of course, to boot from it ;) So, the first step towards working USB is done. The control transfers are working as you can see above. Next step is to implement bulk and interrupt transfers, having the basics in place. Finally some error handling will be added and USB for Pi will be as complete as the PC version. [http://www.raspyfi.com/raspberry-pi-usb-audio-fix/ Issue with USB Audio] Audio The Pi 4B is the only Pi that can output HD Audio as an HD Audio passthrough bitstream, and it does it over HDMI. It's possible to use the two HDMI output for separate HDMI video and HDMI audio outputs to allow UHD HDR video and HD Audio with non-UHD HDR compatible AVRs. The Pi3B+ and earlier will decode to PCM 5.1/7.1 and output over HDMI. HDMI is the only interconnect that has a standard for carrying Dolby True HD, DTS HD MA etc. as a bitstream - you can't carry it as a bitstream on any other interface. Pi3 and Pi4 audio jack output derived from 12bit pulse width modulation is relatively poor. For better, choose USB Audio or I2C versions. [https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux/tree/rpi-patches/sound/arm audio] and its [https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/issues/2 very high speed message passing interface type of thing VCHI] The Model B+ added an additional voltage regulator for the audio output and an additional output driver to drive low-resistance loads like headphones. However it is still using pulse-width modulation (PWM), which has a major impact on sound quality the old Raspberry Pi used a linear voltage regulator to provide the 3.3V to many of the components on the board while the new one uses a switching regulator. Both can perform reasonably well. However switch mode power supplies often show higher noise figures Analogue audio Audio over HDMI rev 1.3 & 1.4 Ethernet 10/100 BaseT Ethernet RJ45 socket GPIO GPIO shouldn't be too bad but bear in mind it is already accessed in places so they would need to allocate pins etc through it (e.g. sdcard to flicker the activity light, serial debug to output data on the GPIO pins) Probably a resource rather than a device... Started an i2c driver that will need to allocate GPIO pins. Feel free to work on it if you are interested ;p GPU graphics with 2D and 3D acceleration Sadly none yet for 32bit but for 64bit... Miscellanous hdmi issues Setting the hdmi_force_hotplug=1 makes sure the Pi believes the monitor/TV is really there. You might also need to set config_hdmi_boost=4 or even higher (up to 9) if your display needs a stronger signal. If the display is a computer monitor or newer tv, use hdmi_group=1 (auto HDMI use) and if it is an older TV, try hdmi_group=2 (for DMT formats, i.e. for PC monitors) then you HAVE to "set hdmi_drive = 2 to enable HDMI output as this forces HDMI mode rather than DVI mode Do not set hdmi_safe=1 as that overrides many of the previous options. Using a shorter or better quality HDMI cable might help. Make sure your Pi's power supply delivers 1 A and not 500 mA. If you see a problem with the red colour - either absent, or interference - then try a boost composite video changing the RCA cable, then the composite port worked out of the box Boot it as you are doing, without HDMI. If you now plug in the HDMI, do you get the image? In other words, does the Pi think HDMI is connected even when it isn't? Rename all the files in the first partion of the card except bootcode.bin, start.elf and fixup.dat What's the result? Put back config.txt What's the result? for PAL mode sdtv_mode=2 dmi_ignore_hotplug Pretends HDMI hotplug signal is not asserted so it appears a HDMI display is not attached hdmi_ignore_hotplug=1 Use composite mode even if HDMI monitor is detected <pre> # NOOBS Auto-generated Settings: #hdmi_force_hotplug=1 #config_hdmi_boost=4 #overscan_left=24 #overscan_right=24 #overscan_top=16 #overscan_bottom=16 #disable_overscan=0 start_x=1 gpu_mem=128 </pre> tvservice -c "PAL 4:3" <pre> /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -s or tvservice -s state: HPD high|HDMI mode|HDCP off|composite off (0x12001a), 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m CEA Group CEA has 1 modes: (native) mode 16: 1920x1080 @ 60 Hz, progressive /opt/vc/bin/tvservice -m DMT Group DMT has 0 modes: </pre> sudo amixer cset numid=3 1 forces the audio to the headphone jack, even with the HDMI video output plugged in config.txt the hdmi_ignore_edid_audio=1 option sems relevant as it should tell ALSA that the only available audio is analog, no matter what the display says There are several different ways that these 4 pole (ring) composite analog cables can be wired up, so some work great in some applications and can be a waste of time in others. What is needed for the Raspberry Pi B+ and above, which like many camcorders needs the ring contact next to the base contact to be the ground. The wiring for the 4 pole are: TIP (LEFT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 1 (RIGHT AUDIO CHANNEL) RING 2 (GROUND/EARTH) RING 3 BASE/SLEEVE (VIDEO) YELLOW Most Apple based Players and the Microsoft Zune (TM) are wired this way. Most analogue camcorders are wired this way as well, where the ground in on Ring 2 will work with the Pi although you may need to swap your Video plug with the Right Audio plug. Nearly all other MP3 players are not wired this way, the ground is on another ring ie the wrong one. External devices * Camera Module Omnivision ov5647 Sunny 5MP (NoIR version) V1.3 - NoIR at 850&nbsp;nm, peak at 880&nbsp;nm and trails off at 940&nbsp;nm wavelengths * Camera V2 Sony IMX219 V2.1 8mpixel 8MP 8megapixel - 3280 x 2464 pixels - video at 1080p30, 720p60 and 640x480p90 - wider field of view, 62 vs 54 degrees horizontally - * Branded WIFI usb BCM43143 dongle N.B. dreaded error after changing cameras (stupidly without turning off the power first) and lasted through several power cycles. It can be a bad 15-pin FFC ribbon cable, when swapped, camera(s) and the Pi itself are working OK. It can be an instance of a cold solder joint on the CSI connector on the pi board. the camera can be detected (that's done via I2C) but may still not be able to receive image data (done via CSI-2) if something is broken. CSI-2 is uni-directional. Control is generally done via I2C. The CSI-2 receiver always writes to memory, not direct to the ISP. That's the way the Broadcom architecture works as it allows multipass processing easily. GPU memory is accessible from the ARM. Processing using the QPU graphics processors may be possible. currently the only supported sensor is OV5647 and IMX219. The linux drivers are all in the firmware blob, else you'd be looking at at least a man-month of work in a fully fledged imaging lab to do a decent tuning of the camera modules' ISP parameters. Static electricity maybe an issue for the camera module and slightly less for the pi board. == References == ===Good sites to visit=== *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/firmware/tree/master/ Raspberry Pi Firmware build] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/software-sources.html Documentation] *[https://rpilocator.com/ RPiLocator] Linux only *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/linux Raspberry Pi Linux Build] *[https://dietpi.com/ DietPi] *[http://www.tinycorelinux.net/ports.html piCore] *[https://wiki.alpinelinux.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi Alpine Linux] *[https://github.com/armbian/build Armbian] *[ FydeOS] *[ TwisterOS based on ChromiumOS] *[https://note.com/jamesmondo/n/nc76e31402be8?hl=en BSD] *[https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/operating-systems/ PiOS Lite] and then [https://hstwb.firstrealize.com/ HST] *[ PiMiga for pi4 and pi5] *[ amibian for pi2 and pi3] *[ retropie pi1 and 2] Other alternative lighter smaller than Pi OS *[https://aros.sourceforge.io/nightly1.html Aros 64bit ARMV8 single core] *[https://www.riscosopen.org/wiki/documentation/show/Welcome%20to%20RISC%20OS%20Pi RiscOS on Pi3 and Pi4] *[https://github.com/michalsc/Emu68 ARM based realtime JIT 68k for amiga computers] *[https://github.com/JJDSNT/bellatrix/releases/ Alternative use of Emu68 on Pi3b] *[https://github.com/stevereaver/uaos uaOS with Emu68k] *[https://github.com/aros-development-team/AROS/commit/f80a268607dfae81b2db94755ab4e4d31ccb72d6 m68kemu library reference] *[ HaikuOS] *[https://github.com/raspberrypi/noobs NOOBS] os loader with successor [https://github.com/procount/pinn PINN] *[https://github.com/maxnet/berryboot berryboot] *[https://github.com/brianwiddas/pi-baremetal Bare Metal Access on Pi 32bit] Testing procedure is put sd card in, connect board to board if necessary, plug in hdmi and then power nothing else is done especially CSI DSI etc [https://www.raspberrypi.com/documentation/computers/compute-module.html CM5] has the same 55mm x 40mm 2x100pin connectors form factor as the CM4 but [https://www.epdtonthenet.net/article/214508/Key-Considerations-When-Migrating-from-Raspberry-Pi-CM4-to-CM5.aspx some pins and other small things] have changed. Will need the [https://raspipcb.com/tech-blog/raspberry-pi-cm4-vs-cm5-difference-in-booting-from-sd-card/ right IO board to suit] *Green [ Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 IO Board REV2 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1967]] - untested *Green [ RPi Compute Module 5 IO board REV1 [https://pip.raspberrypi.com/categories/1097-raspberry-pi-compute-module-5-io-board SC1751]] - untested *Black SupTronics Geekbord X1500 CM5 IO Carrier Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[https://sipeed.com/nanocluster Sipeed NanoCluster] - untested up to 7 CM5 *Green BentoIO CMX0 - untested *Box EDATec ED-CLAWBOX - untested *Home Assistant Yellow - Kit with PoE with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5_PoE_BASE_A Waveshare CM5-PoE-BASE-A] - untested *Box Waveshare [ CM5-POE-BOX-A] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-B] - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM5-IO-BASE-A] - untested *Blue Waveshare [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM5-NANO-B CM5-NANO-B] - untested *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/pi-flux piFlux] *[https://carboncomputers.us/products/ Zitaotech Hackberry] CM5 lite only - *Portable [https://www.waveshare.com/pocketterm35.htm Waveshare PocketTerm35] with Pi4B or Pi5 - untested *Box [https://www.clockworkpi.com/uconsole ClockworkPi uConsole][https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EtI_bAahbR8 CM4 into an adapter or CM3 into so-dimm - Cyberdeck] - untested *Green RPi [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IO-KiCAD.zip Compute Module 4] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4io-datasheet.pdf IO board] V1.4 [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/CM4IOUSB3-KiCAD.zip USB3] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4io/cm4iousb3-appnote.pdf CM4ISO] [https://datasheets.raspberrypi.com/cm4/cm4-datasheet.pdf Dual100pin] (2020) aka Development Platform Board - untested *Purple Pi Hut Cytron CM4 Maker Board - untested *Black DeskPi Super6C Cluster Mini-ITX Board - untested *[ KubeSail PiBox mini 2] *Home Assistant Yellow with Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 - untested *[ Turing Pi V2] - untested CM4 with 260-pin SO-DIMM socket adapters and/or nvidia jetson nanos - untested *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-C Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-C] - untested but binary blobs Rev01 Rev02 *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-B Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-B] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-IO-BASE-A Waveshare CM4-IO-BASE-A] - untested but binary blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/CM4-NANO-B Waveshare CM4-NANO] - untested but usb and audio turned off or rerouted *Black [ Seeed Studio with BigTreeTech BTT pad 7] - bin blobs? CM3 has a 200 pin sodimm ddr2 connector form factor but not electrically SC0028, SC0029 *Blue [https://wiki.geekworm.com/CM_IO_Board Geekworm RPi Compute Module IO Board] [https://github.com/geekworm-com/cm-io-board CSI DSI] with CM3 in ddr2 slot underside - '''works''' if SW1 on but CM3+ '''does not''' *Green [https://cdn-shop.adafruit.com/product-files/3442/CMIO_schematic.pdf RPi V3 IO board CM3IO] and CM3 Lite - untested *Green [https://turingpi.com/ turingpi v1 cluster] - untested up to 7 cm3 7xlan9514 12V discontinued, 3 x Pi4 homelab maybe better *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_PoE_Board Waveshare Compute Module PoE Board] and CM3 lite (if not lite, write files to internal eMMC fat32) '''AVOID''' bin blobs *Blue [https://www.waveshare.com/compute-module-io-board-plus.htm Waveshare Compute Module IO Board Plus] [https://www.waveshare.com/wiki/Compute_Module_IO_Board_Plus wiki] [https://forums.raspberrypi.com/viewtopic.php?t=235695 pin settings] with CM3+ Lite - '''AVOID''' binary blob *[ Pi02w on Geekworm SupTronics X305 Raspberry Pi Zero IO Baseboard] - untested *[ Spotpear Pi Zero 2w to Pi3b format-ish] - untested *[ pi-top v4] box has 128x64 oled display, micro hdmi, 19Whr battery with pi4 and 15V PD 36W min needed *[ pi-top v3] three green pieces, heatsink covers most of the base tray, pi-top hub mk1 lhs and Pi1B Pi2b Pi3b rhs secured from below, black rounded strip with pi-top above keyboard, 13.3" HD 1366 x 768 display, small touchpad, *[ pi-top Model 2.0] pi-top on bottom bezel of 14-inch green laptop, large trackpad, keyboard slide down to reveal main system hub on slide rails moved to the right, Raspberry Pi3b screws down, hub slides in, 18V 2.5A 45W charger brick, battery 11.1V 3500mAh 38.85Wh and storage PiTopOS *[ Pi-Top CEED Raspberry Pi Modular Educational Desktop with RPI3] monitor *[https://www.indiegogo.com/en/projects/jesselozano/pi-top-a-raspberry-pi-laptop-you-build-yourself Pi-Top v1] wedge laptop with RPi2 <pre> 2008 Trustees collected for Foundation 2009 Pi Foundation charity status gained 2010 2011 First Raspberry prototypes 2012 First boards go on sale at CPC and RS. The Model A and B 700 MHz Arm11 - February 29th BCM 2835 2012 First million sold - more than the 10,000 original planned and anticipated 2013 First Alpha Experimental builds of AROS Native for the 32bit Pi 2013 Pi Trading launched making grants available, providing in house educational resources and Pi Academy for teacher training 2013 Over two million sold 2014 Over three million sold 2014 Pi 1 Model B+ introduced that moved composite video to audio jack and same half gig of memory 2014 Pi Model A+ v1.1 no ethernet and 1 usb - a little smaller - 2015 Over four million first gen pis sold 2015 Pi Zero 1.2 BCM2835 first production revision released with no camera port 2016 Pi0 1.3 released with camera csi connector 2017 Pi Zero W v1.1 1GHz Pi0W, single-core 32bit CPU BCM2835 released with Cypress CYW43438 wireless 2020 Raspberry Pi Pico SC0919 with RP2040 32-bit 2Core ARM Cortex-M0+ up to 133 MHz - 264KB of SRAM and 2MB of on-board QSPI Flash - 2024 Raspberry Pi Pico 2 with RP2350 2Core 32bit Arm Cortex-M33 and 2core open-hardware [https://github.com/wren6991/hazard3 Hazard3 RISC-V] 2015 Pi 2 Model B v1.1 BCM2836 900/600 MHz ARM Cortex-A7 Armv7 quad 32bit, 32bit VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb RAM - 5V 2A micro usb - SMSC LAN9514 chip - 2015 Over a million pi2s sold 2015 Raspberry Pi 2 Model B version 1.2 Pi2bv1.2, aka Pi2B2 has armv8 BCM2837 underclocked to 900Mhz without wifi/bluetooth module 2016 Pi 3 Model B - Broadcom BCM2837 SOC four 64bit ARMv8 Cortex-A53 1.2GHz 32bit 1080p VideoCore IV GPU - 1Gb DDR2 - bluetooth 4.1, Cypress CYW43438 wireless 802.11n - 4 x USB2.0 ports - 5.1V 2.5A - SMSC LAN9514 chip 2016 PIs total over 10 million worldwide 2017 Compute Module 3 CM3 with BCM2837B0 armv8 Quad 64-bit - small 67.6mm x 31mm board which fits DDR2 SODIMM connector but not electrically compatible which plugs into needed IO board - beware of the I2C protocol issue 1Gb LPDDR2 RAM - Lite or 4Gb Emmc storage 2017 12 million pis sold in total 2018 Pi 3 Model B+ - 4c A53 BCM2837B0 1.4Ghz - 1Gb, wireless 802.11ac, gigabit ethernet (300Mbit/s) and bluetooth 4.2 - power over ethernet - 4 x USB2.0 ports - Microchip LAN7515 chip 2019 Over 15 million sold 2019 Pi 3 Model A+ with BCM2837b0 Cortex-A53 64-bit SoC @ 1.4 GHz with 512Mb LPDDR2, 1 usb2, 1 hdmi, 1 micro usb 5V 2A - no ethernet - 2019 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 3+ CM3+ - Broadcom BCM2837B0 1.2Ghz, Cortex-A53 (ARMv8) 64-bit SoC on DDR2 SODIMM mechanically compatible only factor - IO board required 1Gb DDR2 and 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or a Lite variant without eMMC 2021 Pi zero 2 (w or no W) RP3A0 quad 1GHz Cortex-A53 64bit BCM2710A1 512mB SDRam 2025 edaTEC CM0 ED-CM0NANA with additional dev board with quad 1Ghz A53 with 512Mb Raysan RAM, 2 USB2 and 10/100 ethernet - pico castellated edge 2019 Pi 4 Model B RPI4B - BCM2711B0T quad 64bit A72 1.5GHz, 4K VideoCore VI, AC wifi, Bluetooth 5.0, GbE Broadcom BCM54213PE (PHY ID 0x600d84a2), 2 micro hdmi decode up to 4K, USB-C 5.1V 3A power, 2xVLI VL805 USB 3, 2xUSB 2.0, 2GB 9LDWW D9WHZ or 4GB 9FDWW D9WHV, 8GB 0AA47 D9ZCL ddr4 ram 2020 Silent Pi 4 v1.2 upgrade with more USB-c psu support 2020 PI400 BCM2711C0T 1.8GHz 4Gb DDR4 inside keyboard, 5.1V 5A 27W usb-c psu, 2 micro hdmi, external ide style 40pin gpio, no audio port - 2020 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 4 BCM2711B0T on new 55mm x 40mm 2x100 pin form factor with extra breakout IO board CM4101000 1Gb RAM Lite SOM CM4102000 2GB RAM Lite CM4104000 4GB RAM Lite CM4004008-4GB-RAM 8GB-EMMC SOM System on Modules CM4104032 4GB RAM 32GB emmc CM4108000 8GB RAM Lite CM4008016 8GB RAM 16Gb eMMc 2021 Raspberry Pi SC0763 Compute Module 4S CM4S with ddr2 sodimm pinouts but not electrically the same with suitable IO board extra cost - CM4S01000 1GB RAM Lite CM4S01008 1GB RAM 8GB eMMC Flash CM4S02000 2GB RAM Lite CM4S04000 4GB RAM Lite CM4S08000 8GB RAM Lite 2021 Pi 4 v1.4 BCM2711B1 upgraded power regulator, to deal with 8gig of ram being more power hungry - 2021-48 Raspberry Pi 4 model B v1.5 2GB 2023 Pi 5 v1.0 BCM2712 Quad A76 @2.4Ghz - VideoCore VII - no audio socket - dual 4k from mini hdmi - fan connector - 5.1V 5A psu 2024 Pi 5 2GB DDR4 version uses BCM2712D0 2024 Pi-500 with 8Gb LPDDR5 and membrane keyboard 2024 Pi 5 v1.1 2024 Raspberry Pi Compute Module 5 CM5 BCM2712 55mm x 40mm form factor with additional IO board CM5004000 04GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5008000 08GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite CM5016000 16GB RAM 0GB eMMC Lite 2025 Pi-500+ with 256GB NVMe storage, 16GB LPDDR4 RAM, and Gateron KS-33 Low Profile Blue mechanical keyboard switches 2025 Pi5 1GB DDR4 announced 2022 PiOS linux goes 64bit 2024 Pi Trading IPO stockmarket stock exchange listing 2026 April and May Aros 64bit fixed, added AHI audio, VC4 gfx started, usb functions added to rom 2026 June and July Aros 64bit usb2otg started, dma.resource, sdio.resource, bwfm.device wifi added 2026 Late July daily 64bit Pi3 LE little endian builds start 2026 August Pi 4, 400, 5 and 500 DTBs added, expanding existing support and wifi for Pi4 and Pi5 2026 August Pi5 HAT+ nvme and HDMI, AHI RPiI2S added, Pi4 HVS5 video scaler started, 2026 2027 2028 Pi 6 </pre> ==Future== [https://github.com/ARMSX2/ARMSX2 Arm pi of pcsx2] {{BookCat}} o76a3yuf0i5h9hk0xfilu119zx96183 2 296327 4673996 4673383 2026-10-04T09:28:43Z Danielravennest 13526 /* 9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations */ Update to end 4673996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:<span style="display:block;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#d0f0f0;line-height:2.5em;font-family:'Georgia', serif";">Building Better Worlds in the 21st Century</span>}} <div style="font-size:125%;font-family:'Georgia', serif;"> :'''Dani Eder,''' :''The Seed Factory Project,'' :''6485 Rivertown Rd, Fairburn, GA, 30213'' :''email: danielravennest@gmail.com'' :'''Aug 2026''' '''Note:''' This report is an introduction to the ideas and work of the Seed Factory Project to date, which are covered in more detail in the two volume '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Better Worlds]''' set. <div class="nonumtoc">{{TOCright}}</div> =='''0.0 - Summary'''== &emsp; &emsp; National space programs to date have been based on the idea of going to one place at a time, like the Moon and Mars, for reasons like science and national prestige. Missions have finite goals and end when they are reached, so they don't include full development of the destinations. Instead, equipment and supplies have come from Earth, which kept costs high. Limited goals and high cost resulted in poor return on effort. &emsp;Our project proposes a broader approach of upgrading and extending civilization on Earth first, then full development of the entire Solar System, and eventually beyond it. It is based on the idea self-improving production systems that grow from a starter set of core equipment called a '''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. Seed factories make more equipment for themselves mostly using local energy and raw materials. This is in addition to making finished products like any other factory. &emsp;Each location follows a growth cycle of self-improvement, making products for local use, trade with the rest of society, and becoming economically self-supporting. Once matured, a location sends elements of new starter sets to new locations. Locations are developed in logical progression from easier to harder and more distant. With proper planning locations can be sustainable, and even reduce unwanted side effects on the environment. &emsp;The very large physical space, materials, and energy resources beyond Earth enable large total returns. Since locations grow to support themselves, the net cost of such a program is only the initial start-up, so the return on effort is high. &emsp;It isn't in the scope of this report to provide detailed plans and hardware designs. What we describe is a possible path that leverages self-improving production methods. This is a step towards solving existing problems and building a better future, but much more work is needed for this idea. =='''1.0 - Problems of Past Space Programs'''== &emsp; &emsp;Governments have pursued space projects and programs, individually or in groups, for purposes like research, exploration, advancing technology, and prestige. While the results can be large, these efforts often suffer from outdated assumptions, high absolute costs, low relative return on effort, and a focus on single destinations. They have also often not leveraged new knowledge and technology. :'''Outdated Assumptions''' &emsp;Sending people to the Moon and Mars are stated goals of '''[https://www.space.commerce.gov/policy/national-space-policy/ US National Space Policy]'''. Significant annual budgets are being spent towards these goals, primarily on the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Launch_System Space Launch System]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(spacecraft) Orion Spacecraft]'''. The program concept to reach these goals is directly descended from plans first made in the mid-20th Century, such as '''[http://launiusr.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/mars_high.jpg Von Braun, 1954]'''. In the decades since, the technologies to be used have advanced, but the overall concept has not. In NASA's '''[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/journey-to-mars-next-steps-20151008_508.pdf Journey to Mars]''' (pdf file Oct 2015), the "mission" approach includes a number of assumptions: * It is a round trip for the crew, from Earth to Mars and back, with limited duration on the Martian surface. * Because the number of missions is small and they are short, it is not economic to develop many local resources. * Most or all equipment and supplies are launched from Earth. * High cost limits mission mass. So crews have to accept risks from radiation exposure, equipment failure, and lack of fallback positions. &emsp;Other goals like the Moon and orbiting stations have similar limiting assumptions, and are considered separately from each other. :'''High Cost''' &emsp;Government-funded and contractor-built space programs have little incentive on either side to finish promptly or keep costs under control. Project-oriented agencies want to continue their existence, but getting approval for new projects is hard. Contractors want to earn as much as possible, but winning new contracts by competitive bidding is uncertain. Politicians who decide on budgets want to preserve jobs in current locations, which works against cost savings. &emsp;The incentives on all sides have led to low cost estimates to get project approval. The tacit understanding is real costs will gradually be revealed as the work progresses. Spent funds deter cancellation as the full costs are revealed, because the funds would then have been wasted on an unfinished project. This pattern avoids frequent approval for a new project or competing for new work. The project schedules are instead stretched to fit real cost to available annual budgets. The result is a few big "can't fail" projects. Public failures risk losing funding or even an agencies' existence. So projects must be conservative, slowing progress. :'''Low Returns''' &emsp;In terms of exploration and science, a trip going to one place like Mars, and bringing back perhaps a few hundred kg of samples, is not much return for the effort expended. Relatively short round trips do not allow for full exploration of a landing site, much less a planet with the land area of Earth. Lack of refueling stations and reusable vehicles limits sample mass that can be returned to Earth, where researchers and laboratories can fully analyze them. &emsp;If most items have to be launched from the deep gravity well of Earth, then delivery costs will be high, and increase linearly with the number of missions. High transport cost limits weight, and in turn safety features like adequate radiation shielding, backup vehicles, and spare parts and supplies. To minimize risk, what is built must be both lightweight and near-perfect, which is also expensive. Despite that, crew risk is still high in absolute terms. The combination of low return and high cost have delayed going to the the Moon and Mars for decades. Such a program is now moving forward, but very slowly. :'''Focus on the Moon and Mars''' &emsp;The Moon is nearby, big, and obvious to everyone on Earth. So it was a natural first destination for human exploration. Venus and Mars are the closest major planets. Venus was originally thought a suitable destination because of similarity of orbit, mass, and gravity. However it turned out to be very hot from a thick CO2 atmosphere. Mars then became the next focus of human exploration by being the most Earth-like and nearby destination. &emsp;The focus on Earth-like conditions ignores that on Earth, even the best places require some technology to survive, and more of it to be comfortable and flourish. At a minimum clothing, shelter, and agriculture, are needed, with their underlying technologies. For most of the Earth technology like ships, planes, and snow crawlers are needed to reach places, and more technology if you intend to stay. &emsp;Mars, or anywhere else in space, also require technology to survive and flourish. But Mars does not require dramatically more than harsh places on Earth. For example the temperatures on Mars overlap those of cold places on Earth, such as Siberia and Antarctica. At the same time, the surface of Mars is harder to reach than other regions in space. Getting there needs more work than high orbits near Earth. The colder surface temperatures and 80% lower solar flux require more equipment than near Earth. A primary focus on the Moon and Mars over everywhere else is a mistake. They are large, interesting, and can be useful. So they should be part of future programs, but not to the exclusion of other places. &emsp;A new approach is needed that remedies the problems noted above. It should be based on up-to-date knowledge of the Solar System and new technologies developed since the mid-20th century. It should explore and use all of the many places in the Solar System. That includes the orbital and interplanetary spaces around and between natural objects. Finally, it should have high science and economic returns for the effort expended, including direct returns to people on Earth. =='''2.0 - New Knowledge and Technologies'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our new approach starts with a modern overview of the Solar System and its resources. We then introduce technologies to access and use those resources. Self-improving production systems that become highly efficient with "Smart Tools" is key among these. Our intent is to use these to benefit civilization and the Earth's environment. ==='''2.1 - The Modern Solar System'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The Solar System as of 1950 included 9 planets and their moons, plus about 2,000 asteroids in the belt between Mars and Jupiter. Materials would be available on the surfaces of the Moon and Mars, but required significant fuel to take elsewhere. So they would only be used locally. Energy would come from solar-powered steam turbines, or a little later from fuel cells. These ideas are quite outdated and becoming more so each year. &emsp;Today we can inventory the known Solar System in terms of its material and energy resources. Such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource Natural Resources]''' on Earth are well-studied and understood. Most people today know about the Moon, the other major planets, and that some of them also have moons. So here we will mainly review the more recently found and less familiar parts Solar System. &emsp;In terms of resource access, the smaller members of the Solar System all take less energy to land on and remove materials from than Earth. They also have greater surface area relative to mass and lower gravity, making extraction easier. :'''Material Resources''' &emsp;'''[[w:Near-Earth_object|Near Earth Objects (NEOs)]]''' are those which come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun, where 1 AU is the Earth's average solar distance. Mars' orbit ranges from 1.38-1.67 AU, so NEO's are "on the way there" in terms of solar distance. In 1950 time there were 55 such objects known, of which only 13 were asteroids. The rest were comets, which are easier to find when they have large tails. The asteroids were ignored because their orbits were not ideal, and mining them was still a subject for science fiction. &emsp;This has changed dramatically. As of August 2026 there are over '''[https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/stats/totals.html 42,000 known NEOs]'''. The number has increased exponentially since about 1980 as better telescopes have been used to find them. These searches are partly driven by the impact risk such objects pose to Earth. Of those found so far, 875 are asteroids 1 km or larger in size, a nearly full count. 11,700 are larger than 140 meters out of an estimated 27,000 total. The rest are smaller, with perhaps 4 million to be found larger than 10 meters ([https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/aa8036 '''Trilling, 2017''']). 124 of them are comets, which lose material when close to the Sun. Just the largest handful of NEOs have a combined mass of 50 trillion tons, which is roughly a thousand years of mining activity on Earth. &emsp;The much larger numbers known today means more of them are in orbits easy to reach from Earth or on the way to Mars. Very efficient '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion Electric Propulsion]''' and other technologies unknown in 1950 time now exist. They make it possible to reach NEOs and work with them remotely from Earth, as recent asteroid and comet probes have done. Early research has been done on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_mining Asteroid Mining]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_manufacturing Space Manufacturing]''' to make use of their materials. Using NEOs as sources of propellants, supplies, and other products would greatly reduce what you need to bring from Earth for space projects. &emsp;Beyond those that come close to Earth, the '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpc/summary Total Number]''' of known objects in the Solar System, as of August 2026, is 1.56 million. This is about 780 times what was known in 1950. The list of such '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets Minor Planets]''' has grown rapidly as new dedicated telescopes and search techniques were applied, and is expected to increase by another factor of 10 now that the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_C._Rubin_Observatory Rubin Observatory]''' has begun operating. [[File:Inner_solar_system_objects_top_view_for_wiki.png|thumb|right|600x600px|Figure 2.1-1 - Inner Solar System objects.]] &emsp;91.7% of known objects are in the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt Main Asteroid Belt]''' between Mars and Jupiter (Figure 2.1-1), but many thousands of others are in orbits throughout the Solar System. The '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/lists/MPLists.html Minor Planet Center]''' maintains information about all of them. The high proportion in the Asteroid Belt is a function of distance, not absolute numbers. Brightness decreases as square of both distance from the Sun and the telescope. So discoveries are strongly biased to nearby objects, and to only finding the largest ones at greater distances. But total number of objects goes up about 3,500 times when the size goes down by 100 times. So there are many more smaller objects still to be found. &emsp;Many of the objects discovered beyond Neptune, at 30-80 AU, have '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity Eccentric Orbits]'''. These objects tend to be found at the close end of their orbits, when they are bright enough to see. This additional discovery bias means there are many more like them waiting to be found, but are currently in more distant parts of their orbits, or never come close enough to find with current telescopes. The August 2026 count of about 8300 such distant objects is limited to those larger than 100 km for the farthest ones. As search methods improve, many more such objects will be found at all distances and more of the smaller ones. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near-Parabolic Comets]''' can reach distances measured in light-years, or even escape the Solar System entirely. Aside from them, the known size of the Solar System has increased 168 times since 1995, from 49.3 AU for Pluto to 8285 AU for the maximum distance of Centaur object '''[https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=2015%20FW539&commit=Show 2015 FW539]'''. Some of these objects are quite large (Figure 2.1-2), and there is even a suspected major planet still to be found. Although the absolute distance of these objects is very large, the energy to reach them has a finite limit. The five planetary probes '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artificial_objects_leaving_the_Solar_System Leaving the Solar System]''' already have more energy than needed to reach anything in the Solar System. The practical limit is set by how long it takes to reach and use them. [[File:Trans-Neptunians_Size_Albedo_Color.svg|thumb|right|512x249px|Figure 2.1-2 - Large Trans-Neptune Objects.]] &emsp;The inventory of Solar System objects is now known to be incomplete, especially for small and distant ones. Despite this, there is detailed knowledge of the history, composition, and geology of some of its members, and this is constantly improving. We expect this to continue, especially from future mass-produced probes with efficient propulsion and refueling capability. Many more objects can then be visited than the current handful per decade. As more is learned about these objects, better plans on how to use them can be made. But even with current knowledge, a start on such plans is possible. :'''Energy Resources''' &emsp;The Sun is an immense energy source, producing 20 trillion times what human civilization uses today. That energy streams in all directions, not just at the objects which orbit it. Mining and building on the surface of Solar System bodies is convenient, but they typically gather half or less of the available solar energy. This is because of day-night cycles, geography, and in some cases atmospheres and eclipses from other bodies. &emsp;It takes significant energy to move materials from the larger bodies to open space, but once there, solar energy is available up to 100% of the time. For example, with current rockets it takes about 480 MJ (134 kWh) to raise 1 kg from Earth to an orbit in full sunlight. Once there, 1 kg of modern space solar panel can extract that much energy in 56 days, but lasts about 100 times longer. Most solar system bodies are smaller than Earth, and there are more efficient ways to lift materials than today's rockets. So from a net energy standpoint it often makes sense to work in open space. &emsp;Solar cells were only 6% efficient in the mid-20th century, so solar-driven steam turbines were part of the original Mars mission concepts. Solar cells are now 47.6% efficient in the laboratory and 31% for space power applications, and continue to '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar-cell_efficiency Improve]'''. Using lightweight concentrating reflectors, they can be useful even in the outer Solar System. Where heat, rather than electricity, is needed, direct solar exposure or using mirrors can can reach 80% collection efficiency or higher. &emsp;In addition to solar, there are various energy sources that are more limited in scale and availability. These include nuclear fission and potentially fusion, geothermal, and wind. On Earth we use hydroelectric and chemical combustion, but those are not generally available elsewhere. The orbital motion and gravity fields of bodies are not energy sources, but their potential and kinetic energy can be used in various ways. The Sun's output alone, which will last for billions of years, plus raw materials found all over the Solar System, are enough to sustain civilization and the Earth's environment. :'''The Illusion of Scarcity''' &emsp;Current civilization is actually quite limited, even on Earth. The urban, forest, and farm land used in any significant way amounts to only 13.5% of the planet's surface. The remainder are oceans, deserts, and ice caps that are only traveled through or barely used. Of the part that is used, the average depth is equivalent to a thin surface layer. &emsp;The world's biosphere (about 2000 Gigtons) plus the human built environment (about 1100 Gigatons) averages about 6 kg/m², while the Earth's total mass to area is 11.71 billion kg/m², or a ratio of one part in 2 billion. At the density of water, the biosphere plus civilization amounts to a 6 mm (1/4 inch) thick layer across the planet's surface. If we only consider the fraction of the planet used, the equivalent thickness is 7.4 times higher, or 4.4 cm (1.75 inches). If this number seems small, it is because most of us live in places that are built up. Life and civilization are very unevenly distributed. Cities and river dams, for example, have much higher built mass per area, while tropical forests can reach 25 times the average biosphere density per area. &emsp;The perceived scarcity of resources is thus an illusion, because we as observers live in the more built up places. Current civilization actually uses only 2 billionths of the planet's mass and one ten-thousandth of the available energy flow. Photosynthesis uses about 13 times more of the available energy, but still only about 1/8% of it. In a literal sense we are only scratching the surface of our own planet. When we consider the whole Solar System, the available resources increase by hundreds of times in mass, and two billion times the energy that reaches Earth. &emsp;A larger fraction of smaller bodies is accessible. On Earth pressure and temperature limits going too deep. Bodies with lower gravity and less hot interiors can be accessed more deeply or all the way through. The much higher total energy across the Solar System would also allow reprocessing and reusing what we consider waste products today. Scarcity would not be a problem if these vast untapped resources could be used. ==='''2.2 - New Technologies'''=== &emsp; &emsp;For our approach we want to use the best available production and space technologies, plus some new ones that can be developed in the near future. These include seed factories, production networks, space technologies that are already in use but not yet in government plans, and new ones for space not yet fully developed. This is in addition to more standard existing technology. :'''Seed Factories''' &emsp;Production systems which use part of their output for self-improvement can grow exponentially. Production can start with simpler tools, but modern technology like computers, communications, automation, robotics, software, and artificial intelligence lets them become more efficient. &emsp;We call a starter set of tools and machines capable of self-improvement using human labor and other energy inputs a '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Seed Factory]'''. They grow to become mature factories by analogy to plant seeds, which grow into mature plants that can produce more seeds. Seed factories can improve in several ways: * Making parts for additional copies of current equipment. * Making new types of items not in the starter set, and * Making different versions of existing equipment (larger, more accurate, etc.). &emsp;While modern technology can reduce the labor needed, some people are still needed today to operate the factory. Like any other factory, some part of its output is for sale or trade. This helps cover the initial cost and paying for items it can't make internally. &emsp;The improvements increase production capacity and the range of products that can be made. Since the capacity to grow increases with the size of the factory, the growth is exponential. The starter or added equipment can include power generation, mining, and materials processing, so the factory can eventually self-supply and self-power from local resources. A seed factory may not use any local sources to start with, but can approach 100% as it matures. Some parts and materials would likely be too hard to make, or too rare locally. So even for a mature factory those would still come from elsewhere. &emsp;When production at a given location is mature enough, it can start supplying parts for, or complete new starter sets. These can be set up in the same area, or sent to new locations, repeating the growth process. Internal growth and making new starter sets highly leverages the initial cost. It fundamentally changes the return/cost ratio of projects for the better. :'''Locations and MakerNets''' &emsp;When we refer to "locations" we mean a single environment type, with equipment and people that are close enough that they can work together and trade physical items easily. On Earth that might be a single metropolitan area. In less developed places it might be smaller in size from lack of easy local transport. Equipment in a given location may have different owners or control systems, but can still coordinate their work and cooperate on larger projects. &emsp;The collection of coordinating operations forms a network, which we call a '''MakerNet''', after the modern '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maker_culture Maker Subculture]''', who make things. The network has multiple communicating nodes, each of which includes a set of equipment and people who can do tasks. A MakerNet can extend over multiple locations, since data transfer and remote control can operate over long distances at low cost. &emsp;Physical transportation of people and supplies is not as easy, so we distinguish separate locations within a larger network. To the extent local sources can be used, it would lower transport costs. So there is an incentive to ship lightweight items like information over bulk materials. :'''Space Technologies''' &emsp;New or improved space technologies have been developed since the mid-20th century, but not fully included in existing program plans. These include: * '''Electric propulsion''' - which uses many times less propellant than chemical rockets. Using large tanks of propellant to deliver relatively small payloads has strongly limited space projects in the past. * '''Better Materials''' - There are new and significantly improved engineering materials, including high strength fibers, and composite materials that use them. Production methods for them have also improved. * '''Closed Loop Life Support''' - has been developed which recycles supplies using mechanical equipment or biology. &emsp;Additional technologies that were not specifically developed for space, but can be used for it, include small and powerful computers, their software, other kinds of electronics, robotics, automation, high speed communications, and most recently artificial intelligence (AI) applications. &emsp;Many other space technologies have been proposed, but not yet fully developed. This is either from lack of money and resources, or not enough scale yet to justify them. MakerNets and seed factories can potentially overcome these limitations. Our second volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' collects current and future space technologies that we know of, so they can be considered for future planning and projects. Some new transport examples are ground-based accelerators and air-breathing engines for reaching orbit, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Rotating Skyhooks]''' for artificial gravity and orbit transfer. &emsp; =='''3.0 - New Program Concept'''== &emsp; &emsp;For discussion purposes we refer to this as a program, with component phases and projects. But we do not expect it to be under centralized government direction. Instead it would include independent businesses operated for profit, public/private partnerships, incentive prizes, some government effort, and other project methods. &emsp;This section summarizes our goals and approach. The rest of this report, and our other documents, provide more details. This is a work in progress. It is by no means a finished proposal or a final design. It likely never will be, as the future brings new discoveries and technologies. We have identified new goals and methods, and made a start at the details, but much more work is needed. Our work is open-source, so feel free to build on it, provide feedback, and contribute your own ideas. :<u>'''Goal 1 - Benefits on Earth'''</u> &emsp;Existing government space program goals are mainly for defense, science, exploration, and national prestige. They have limited budgets because they compete with other government priorities. Our approach is to go beyond these limits, to include the full range of civilized activities, both on Earth and in space. About billion times more people live on Earth right now than in space, and their needs are much larger and more immediate. So our first goal is to address problems on Earth, starting with easier ones, then moving towards the more difficult. &emsp;Competition and the profit motive have often demonstrated faster and cheaper results, so we want to take advantage of them. If there is money to be made, there is a vast pool of capital available beyond government budgets. The $429 billion '''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Global Space Economy]''' in 2025 was already mostly commercial activity, and 17.6 times NASA's budget. &emsp;The original '''[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19830007077 1982 Version]''' of the seed factory idea was intended to enable large space projects by production in space. But the laws of nature and how technologies work are the same everywhere. If networks of exponentially improving and multiplying systems can work in space, they will work on Earth too. The operating environments, local raw materials, and energy sources may differ by location, but the underlying principles are the same. &emsp;The early versions of seed factories would most likely be built in higher income areas. These are the easiest places to start because equipment, materials, and energy sources are readily available, as are people who know how to work with them. Conventional jobs have always been at risk from economic and business changes. In the future they may be permanently replaced by the same kinds of advanced technologies seed factories can use. Self-built and self-owned production can supplement or replace conventional work for hire. &emsp;As the owners of production capacity, people can more securely meet their basic needs. They get the benefit of the output regardless of how much labor is replaced by technology. Self-improving systems can grow to mostly copy themselves, so they would become low cost to build. They can also become highly automated and use renewable energy, making them low cost to operate. &emsp;A growing network of productive systems can then be extended to lower income areas on Earth. This allows bypassing fossil fuel development and the problems it creates, while gaining the comforts, health, and safety found in higher income areas. The systems can be further extended to difficult and extreme locations on Earth that are currently unused or barely used. This would lessen scarcity of raw materials, further lowering cost of operation. These expansions and upgrades should be done with planning and care to prevent new environmental side-effects. &emsp;Although we describe a progression from easier to harder locations, a given type of location does not have to be completely developed before starting the next category. Rather, their starting points are staggered in order of difficulty, and their development then continues in parallel. :<u>'''Goal 2 - Benefits from Space'''</u> &emsp;Economic and environmental reasons are enough for building self-improving systems on Earth. Once experience with them is built up, such systems can then be used in a series of locations in space. There are several reasons for this: * Access to materials on Earth is limited vertically because temperatures and pressure increase with depth. * Solar energy in nearby space outside the Earth's shadow averages 7 times more than the Earth's surface because there is no night, weather, or atmospheric absorption. Close orbits range from 0 to 40% shade, so still have at least 4.2 times the available energy * Different and much larger amounts of materials are accessible, which can be used without affecting the Earth's environment. * There are a variety of risks to civilization on Earth, both natural and self-created. Some of them can be reduced by projects in and expansion into space. &emsp;So our second goal is to make use of space to bring benefits to Earth, and later extend civilization and the biosphere into the space environment. &emsp;Space projects would logically start with easier and nearby locations, then move to farther and more difficult ones in sequence. Developing a new location begins with imports of equipment and starter materials from Earth or previous locations. Core production and resource extraction is built up, then expands to other kinds of industry. Later deliveries of materials, products, and services helps expand operations. &emsp;Remote control is feasible when distances are short, otherwise command-response times can be long. So some people may be needed on-location to set up and maintain equipment. Suitable locations can build up habitats beyond this for other reasons. Once built up enough, an existing location, along with previous ones, can serve as staging points for the next ones, supplying transportation, starter sets, and other items as needed. &emsp;Space locations vary in environment, raw materials, and energy resources. So a trade network among them and the rest of civilization makes sense, just like it does on Earth. Each location takes advantage of local conditions to do what it can do best, and trade with others as needed. Through trade, locations can become economically self-supporting and not a cost sink for society. :<u>'''Program Advantages'''</u> &emsp;Our new approach has a number of advantages: * It addresses the frequent criticism of space programs that there are problems here on Earth that need solving. So we place solving economic and environmental problems first, ahead of large space projects. * Self-improving and highly automated production lowers the cost of rocket factories and launch sites on Earth. It also lowers how much you need to launch by using local resources already in space. The combined result is much cheaper space projects. Activities that are currently uneconomic can become viable. * In terms of science and exploration, access to the whole Solar System is better than just the Moon and Mars, as interesting as they may be. Locations develop their local resources, so they can sustain long-term operations, rather than being limited to short term missions and single landing sites. * A continuing development program much safer than isolated missions. A network of many locations can keep backup supplies and equipment available, and they can be delivered more quickly. Automated and remote controlled transports can deliver supplies and equipment before the first people arrive, and regularly afterwards, providing a buffer against problems. * Lower production and transport costs means more robust designs can be used. Current space systems minimize weight to save on launch from Earth. Robust designs will have better safety margins, lowering crew risk. Bulk mined materials, either in raw form or as end products, can provide radiation shielding during long missions. Production capacity at the destination, such as the Martian surface, enables making spare parts and replacement supplies on the spot, bypassing long delivery times from Earth. ==='''3.1 - Program Sequence'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program concept is organized into a number of phases and smaller individual projects. There are several reasons for this: * The phases have different scales of operation, or use locations with different operating environments, raw materials, and energy resources. They will need different designs suited to them. * We intend each phase to economically justify itself, and provide revenue and benefits to support later ones. It would take too much funding for such a large program otherwise. * New technologies need more development before using them for seed factories, makernets, and various space projects. This will not happen all at once. Splitting up the research and development across phases and projects is more manageable. * We can lay out a long term program now, but we don't know what new technologies will be invented in the future, or when. Later phases can be identified for guidance and direction, but it makes sense to concentrate on the early ones for now. Details of later phases can be left flexible until their time approaches. [[File:Phase Starts vs Time.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-1 - Program Phases vs Time.]] &emsp;In general, phases don't end, but rather build on previous ones and operate in parallel once started (Figure 3.1-1). For example, mature industrial factories will continue to operate once new locations are set up elsewhere. The phases have a logical sequence, where later steps generally depend on earlier ones. We have identified seven main ones numbered 0 to 6, shown in different colors, with a number of sub-phases indicated by an added letter (4A, 4B, 4C, ...). [[File:Program Phases.png|thumb|right|768x480px|Figure 3.1-2 - Logical sequence of program phases.]] &emsp;Figure 3.1-2 diagrams the logical relationship of phases. It does not show all their relationships, since that would make the diagram too complicated to read. Their general order is from easier to harder, and from local to more distant. Each phase typically involves multiple projects and locations. For example Phase 5B - Mars Surface Locations, would eventually include many projects across the planet. Most locations will evolve across time by expansion and upgrade. The phases are summarized in the next two headings (3.2 and 3.3), and then in more detail in report sections 4 through 9 below. ==='''3.2 - Phases 0 to 3: Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Our program in the broadest sense changes the goals from specific destinations, like a mission to Mars, to improving and extending civilization and the biosphere throughout the Solar System and beyond. We start with our own planet first, because there are large and immediate needs here. So the first four phases apply to Earth. &emsp;Much of human civilization is unevenly developed and unsustainable, and the vast majority of people will live here for many decades. Starting on Earth allows getting experience with technologies that will later be used in space. It is easier and less expensive to apply them here first, and they can produce economic benefits to sustain themselves. &emsp;This program would widen participation from national space programs, to the much wider base of all of civilization. Government space programs are only about 0.08% of gross world product, and only part of that is devoted to exploration and science beyond Earth. Being more inclusive increases the available inputs for projects, and makes faster progress in the end. The first four phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 0: Research and Development'''</u> - The first major phase performs necessary research and development (R&D) for production technologies to be used on Earth, later adaptions to space, and ones used only in space. It also develops transport, habitation, and service technologies as needed for the particular conditions of different locations. The R&D work is spread out in time according to which phases, locations, and projects particular designs are needed for. Some later R&D, such as testing hardware in the operating environment, would occur in space. Since a lot of production technology already exists on Earth, the earliest R&D will mainly be selection of what to use and in what order. Modified and completely new tech will be worked on later as needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 1: Starter Locations & Network'''</u> - This phase builds the first sets of seed factory equipment and begins the self-improvement process. Phase 1 equipment can start small, such as home and hobby use, which makes it affordable. Individual equipment items or small groups of them can be located at home or shared work spaces. A network of people directly or electronically coordinate their work to make items for each other, build new network nodes, and start to accumulate larger shared items. New locations may start with less than full starter sets, and build up to making internal improvements. Phase 1 locations are typically in developed and populated areas with access to the materials, energy sources, and equipment needed. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 2: Distributed and Industrial Locations'''</u> - One of the ways a seed factory can grow is to use existing equipment to make parts for larger ones. This leads from home and hobby size, to small business, commercial, and industrial scale equipment and locations. At smaller scales it is reasonable to gather the full range of equipment and people in one place, and make a wide range of products. At larger scales, the equipment and their operators tend to become more distributed and specialized, and serve larger markets. But they can still coordinate on projects and products. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 3: Difficult and Extreme Locations'''</u> - This phase begins extending life and civilization to the parts of the Earth where there is very little or none today. They are unoccupied partly because the environment conditions are more difficult. Self-improving production allows operating affordably in such places. New systems would be set up and grow serially from moderate to difficult and more extreme environments. Technologies like automation and remote control allows machines to operate where it is not feasible for people to stay. :&emsp;A major direction for expansion is vertically, to access additional resources and physical space. This goes beyond the fairly thin current layer of activity near the Earth's surface. We can expand the total active area by 7.4 times, but height can be increased hundreds or thousands of meters both up and down. This enables many times more usable volume and materials. ==='''3.3 - Phases 4-6: Space Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The later parts of our program involve developing and using space to benefit Earth. It would be based on experience gained in the earlier phases with self-improving systems, which can make more such systems. It is also based on the larger production capacity developed in Phases 2 and 3. This capacity enables building transport systems like rocket factories and launch sites, and plus equipment and starter sets to be used at the new locations. The experience in working in remote and hostile environments in Phase 3 can also be applied to the remote and hostile environments of space. &emsp;At a civilization level this accesses the much larger physical volume, energy, and material resources beyond Earth. Some heavy industry can eventually be moved to space locations, protecting the Earth's environment. It can also decrease societal risks by, for example, diverting hazardous asteroids, or filter parts of the solar spectrum to reduce overheating the planet. &emsp;As in the earlier phases, we propose a step-by-step approach: extracting local resources, building up core production, diversifying industries, then sending starter sets to the next locations. Locations become physically and economically self-supporting, allowing moving forward to new ones. The three later main phases are: :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''</u> - Locations in this phase share being in orbit around Earth, or in open space between large bodies. This is in contrast to the the surface or closely bound bound orbits around those bodies. The sub-phases progress from lower to higher Earth orbits, then in distance from the Sun from closer to more distant. :&emsp;The main local raw materials are from asteroids and other small bodies, but we can import additional material from Earth, the Moon, and other places. We can also mine a limited amount of the Earth's upper atmosphere and the "debris belt" of discarded space hardware. Solar energy is abundantly available in the open spaces near the Sun, but other solutions become more important in the farther areas. The limit to this phase is the farthest orbits bound to the Sun. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 5: Planetary System Locations'''</u> - These locations are orbits tied by gravity to the Moon, major planets, and their larger moons, or on their respective surfaces. The sub-phases are by distance starting with the Moon, then to the inner and outer planets. Although orbital and planetary locations share features like vacuum or atmospheres we can't breath, they differ in having significant gravity wells or surface gravity, and in having night or time in shadow from the Sun. These differences require different designs, so we place them in a separate phase. Mars is part of this phase, but compared to current space programs it has long-term and larger scale exploration and development, rather than a few short missions to specific spots. :&emsp;<u>'''Phase 6: Interstellar Locations'''</u> - The last major phase of extending life and civilization includes the space between stars and locations bound to other stars. This is mostly speculative right now because it is far away in time. A lot new technology will likely be needed, and what will already be developed by then is unknown. But we see no reason to stop just because the edge of our Solar System is reached. For now, technical feasibility limits how far projects can go. But that may change in the future, so we include this final phase as a place-holder, and to provide a direction to plan for. &emsp; =='''4.0 - Seed Factory Technology'''== &emsp; &emsp;Our program leans heavily on the idea of "seed factories", which are self-improving production systems which grow from starter sets. We note some details in this section, but more on the subject can be found in '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Seed_Factories Volume I]''', and in information about '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Danielravennest/SFP Our Project]''', which is attempting to develop the technology. &emsp;'''Tools and Growth''' - Our ancestors used tools to make more tools at least as far back as the Paleolithic, 2.6 million years ago, when '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammerstone Hammerstones]''' were used to flake other stones to produce an assortment of tools. Locally found objects like rocks and sticks were likely used even earlier, but left no identifiable evidence. In modern times we use metal-cutting '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' to make parts for more machine tools, plus all the other kinds of machines used to make other products. &emsp;Any collection of tools and machines can be used the conventional way to provide products and services to others. The income can then be used to buy new equipment. What is new about seed factories is using starter sets purposely designed to make parts for more tools and equipment to improve the set. A starter set can produce its own energy and extract raw materials, or rely on outside supplies to operate. Once set up, the starter set can improve itself internally in several ways: * <u>Replication</u> - making copies of existing parts and equipment, * <u>Diversification</u> - making parts for new equipment not in the current set, * <u>Quality</u> - making items stronger, more accurate, or from different materials, and * <u>Scaling</u> - making different size parts (usually larger) than the current ones. &emsp;A relatively small starter set can then grow to produce a wide range and large quantity of products. This can optionally include parts for new starter sets. A starter set may not be able to copy most of its original parts at first, because it lacks the right equipment. But after following a planned series of upgrades it can gain the ability to reproduce all or most of the original set. Biological plant seeds follow a similar growth cycle to make more seeds, which is why we call the starter sets "seed factories". Biological plants can even be part of a starter set, such as using trees to provide lumber and also grow more trees. &emsp;The seed factory approach substitutes information, like plans and instructions, for some part of a mature and more capable factory. On Earth this reduces the cost to get started. For space projects it reduces the starting weight and size, making delivery to distant places easier. With modern technology, the information can be stored and transmitted efficiently, and '''Smart Tools''' (software, robots, etc.) can do much of the work. However, growing from a starter set will take more time than immediately building a finished factory. :'''Self-Replication and Distributed Production''' &emsp;A seed factory is not the same as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-replicating_machine Self-Replicating Machine]'''. First, a number of different materials and production processes are needed to make modern equipment. These are best carried out by separate tools and machines designed for each task. For large-scale production the set of equipment will be closer to commercial building size, and better described as a factory than a single machine. &emsp;Second, a starter set can be much smaller and simpler than the mature factory. We think of it as the seed from which a factory grows. But a plant seed is not the same as the mature plant, so this is not direct replication in the sense of making an exact copy. If a mature factory can produce new starter sets, it is indirect replication by a cycle of growth and then making copies. This is more like plants and animals reproducing by way of smaller and simpler offspring. &emsp;Third, starter sets and the mature factories are not generally able to make everything they need by themselves. At first they will lack all the right equipment. Even when mature there will likely be items too hard to make, or the materials too rare locally. Those need to be supplied from elsewhere. Since they cannot do it all by themselves, they are not fully self-replicating. &emsp;Traditional factories and workshops had to bring the equipment and people to one place, because it was the only way to coordinate the work. With modern computers, software, and communications this is no longer required. Equipment in different places can work together, and people can operate them remotely. So a modern view of factory capacity is the ability to make things on a regular basis. The people and equipment may be in one place for efficiency, but they don't have to be - they can be partly or entirely distributed. What's important is they can work together to make desired products. :'''Operations and Functions''' &emsp;Production in general involves a number of processes, which turn can require multiple steps. A seed factory may not be able to do all of them at the start, but they can be added in steps as it upgrades. Process categories include: * <u>Control of operations</u> - collecting data and sending instructions to the various people and equipment. * <u>Supply power</u> - this includes electricity, thermal heating, and other sources. * <u>Extract materials</u> - mining and harvesting raw materials. * <u>Process materials</u> - converting raw materials to usable inventory. * <u>Fabricate parts</u> - use inventory stock to produce finished parts. * <u>Storage and protection</u> - house inventory in various stages of production, plus protect equipment and inventory from local conditions when needed. * <u>Assemble elements</u> - combine finished parts and materials to produce completed products. * <u>Grow organics</u> - such as food and timber. These can grow on their own given the right conditions, making it different from other kinds of production. &emsp;Most production flows need materials and energy to work with, in addition to tools and machines. In developed areas these can come from outside sources. In less- or undeveloped areas, this may be difficult. Even in developed areas it may be more economic to self-supply. Production systems can start with or build their own mining and processing equipment for materials. They can also start with or build energy sources, such as wind turbines and solar farms. &emsp;Once operating, production generally uses up supplies like lubricants and drill bits, and needs replacements for parts that wear out. These can either be part of the starter set inventory, or supplied from outside as needed. Over time, a growing system can start to make these items for itself. In order to keep growing and improving, a given system has to make or import items faster than old ones wear out. It also needs enough outside supplies of energy, materials, parts, and other items that it can't make internally. &emsp;We don't expect mature factories to reach 100% self-sufficiency. Some items will likely come from other places, in exchange for surplus products and services supplied to others. We also don't expect fully automated production at current levels of industrial technology. Some people will be needed to use the equipment and do tasks only people can do. Those people can be physically present, or in some cases control operations remotely. &emsp; &emsp; =='''5.0 - Phase 0: Research and Development (R&D)'''== &emsp; &emsp;The rest of this report provides more detail on our program phases and sub-phases. It does not provide complete plans and hardware designs both for length and because they haven't been defined yet. We also can't claim this is the best possible program. We present it as a ''<u>possible</u>'' path that leverages self-improving production methods. Much more work is needed on this idea, and we invite other people to help. Where next steps have been identified, we note them below, in our two volumes on seed factories and space systems, and our other documents. &emsp;A vast amount of knowledge, technology, skills, and products already exist. Where they do, we can simply select and use them. When new arrangements of existing items, or modified or completely new items are needed, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development Research and Development]''' (R&D) is the technical method to create them. It is a set of innovative activities undertaken by groups of individuals, corporations, industrialists, or governments. This program phase is numbered zero because it is preparation needed to make the later phases possible. The R&D sub-phases are numbered according to the later phases the work applies to. So sub-phase 0.1 would be R&D work that applies to Phase 1: Starter Locations. :'''R&D Goals''' &emsp;Our program needs research and development because we are attempting a new way to organize projects using starter sets and self-improvement. This will likely need some new equipment and processes for particular environments, especially those in space. So the goal of this phase is to supply ready-to-use technology and designs. Since R&D is the first program phase, it can't evolve from previous ones. Instead it must start with existing items like buildings, tools, machines, design methods, and skills. &emsp;Developing new locations is not the main purpose of this phase, like it is for later ones. Places like offices, industrial space, and test areas will be needed for the R&D work, but can start with existing ones. In later phases, testing for unique environments may be easier to do in those environments rather than building simulators. So some later R&D work may move to difficult locations on Earth, or to locations in space. :'''Production by R&D Phase''' &emsp;Some production will happen in the course of setting up R&D locations, testing new equipment designs, and figuring out the best operating flows. But that is not the main goal. Such outputs can be used later, but they are secondary to the main goal to provide usable designs and processes for later phases to use. &emsp;Some of the newly designed equipment that is built for testing may be kept and used internally afterwards. This would help expand and upgrade the R&D locations themselves, and serve as a demonstration of the self-improvement process. Other finished equipment, products, and services generated during R&D can get sold or traded to fund further R&D work. Feedback from practical use of such items can help improve the designs. &emsp;Final designs should have a long operating life if they are to be useful. So early prototypes should aim for longer lives than the time needed to test them. Prototypes with remaining useful lives can be delivered and used in other locations for later phases and projects. Lastly, the R&D phase may produce some final versions of starter set equipment. These can be used directly in later phases. :'''Sharing Our Results''' &emsp;We want our work to have the most benefit for the most people. So we plan to eventually open-source the designs, so that anyone can use and improve on them. They may be temporarily kept private to help finance additional R&D. In general individual machines, factories, and the products they produce, would be separately owned, either privately or institutionally. &emsp;The R&D Phase may develop new methods and technology to use for itself in the course of working towards later phase designs. We would also make such new developments available for others to use. An example is full resource accounting, a method to track all the inputs and outputs of a system the way financial accounting tracks money. In order for projects to be functional and sustainable, they should account for everything, including scarce resources and all process wastes. If possible these should be recyclable or usable elsewhere, but you can't do that if you don't identify and track them. :'''R&D Tasks and Projects''' &emsp;The R&D work is divided up according to the later phases and projects that need it. Items used by multiple phases are assigned to the first one they are needed for. Later phases start at different times. So the R&D work for each one is started far enough ahead that it is ready when needed. &emsp;New designs and technology are likely needed even for the last phase. So we expect R&D work will continue for the whole life of our program. In addition to internal R&D work, we expect technology to make progress outside our program. So part of the R&D phase is staying current with outside developments, so that improved designs and methods can be developed within the program later. New and expanded locations within a phase, and unique conditions found there, may require design updates, new hardware models, and customization. Lastly, we expect feedback from using the items in later phases and suggestions for improvements. All of these are reasons to continue the R&D process. &emsp;The R&D work is logically grouped into smaller projects according to the technologies being developed or type of end use. So far we have started this Seed Factory Project to develop the basic ideas for self-improving systems, and started working on what will be needed for Phase 1 locations and networks. &emsp;Future R&D project examples are ocean mining platforms or interplanetary tugs. Such systems would be used in later phases, so we have not yet identified specific ones. There is a lot of science and technology work happening elsewhere in civilization. We do not expect to duplicate that work, but use their results where it makes sense, and contribute back our own results to the general fund of knowledge. &emsp; =='''6.0 - Moderate Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;Once the R&D phase starts providing plans, designs, and technology, the core self-improvement methods stay the same in all later phases. But equipment sets must be adapted to local environments, material and energy resources, and available people and their skills. Finished products and services also need to be adapted for local and export use. So our program concept has multiple later phases to account for all these differences. &emsp;Phases 1 and 2 are for the easiest environment conditions, which we call "Moderate". This includes temperatures, water supply, and a number of others. The ranges we consider moderate are listed in section 7.1 which covers conditions that are more difficult. Moderate ones are the kinds of places where most people currently live. Among them are locations with significant population and physical development, such as around cities. These locations have enough people, supply sources, and transportation to get started. So they are the easiest ones to build the first projects in. The three phases/sub-phases for these areas are mainly distinguished by scale of operation. They are phases 1:Starter, 2A: Distributed, and 2B: Industrial. ==='''6.1 - Phase 1: Starter Locations and Network'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of this phase are (1) provide products and services at the personal and community level, (2) develop experience with starter sets and self-improvement, and (3) develop trade networks among people in local sites and different locations. By site we mean an individual place like a home or commercial building, while a location is at the scale of a city or metropolitan area that travel and transport across is reasonably easy. Network members can trade physical items, labor, information, and other items as needed. They can also coordinate work on larger or more complicated projects, despite being in different places. &emsp;Networks would be used in all later phases. This is because (1) locations vary in the material and energy sources available. (2) Individuals and groups have variable skills and interests. They also may not want to travel too far to work on projects. (3) Physical space, utilities, safety, and local rules may limit the work done at a particular site. :'''Starting Points''' &emsp;Projects in general need Tools, Resources, Energy, and Knowledge to complete. We call this the "TREK" principle for short. Early projects won't have the benefit of a lot of finished R&D work. To start with they can use already developed tools and machines, existing sources of materials and parts, available electric power and fuels, and the many books, online videos, and other information sources on how to do what is needed. &emsp;Early project examples are (1) setting up for a hobby that needs working space and equipment and (2) improvements to an existing home. Such projects don't have to be completed all at once. They can be started with minimal equipment for the first steps, and gradually add more items as skills accumulate. Eventually an owner can start building custom items like a work table or storage for themselves. If they can find other people interested in similar projects they can share knowledge, trade items, and help each other when extra people are needed. Like other parts of our program, people's skills and the equipment they work with are not intended to reach a static end point, but to grow and develop over time. So self-education, training, and practice are encouraged. &emsp;Equipment for this phase starts at the hobby and home use level, for personal and local community products and services. Their duty cycle (percentage of time in operation) is less than full time, and the equipment is smaller and less expensive. This puts the equipment in reach of ordinary people or small groups. Groups of people can afford a number of these smaller items. They can be housed in space they already have, or they can build or rent space without too much difficulty. &emsp;Equipment may be distributed at people's homes, or grouped into clusters on one property, such as a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hackerspace Community Workshop]''' or small scale production cooperative. Individual sites may be limited in size and cost, but the network as a whole can grow and improve by adding more sites and upgrading existing ones. :'''Later Improvements''' &emsp;Improvements can come from new R&D work. personal experience, more copies of existing items, scaling to larger (and sometimes smaller) sizes, and purchases funded from sales. As the network expands and upgrades itself, it can produce more items internally for further upgrades, and more products for network use or to sell. Network production can be logically grouped into (1) tools and machines intended to make more tools and machines, (2) items intended for production but not for making more equipment, such as a sawmill or greenhouse, and (3) finished products to be used, traded, or sold, like furniture and food. &emsp;The R&D phase would gradually develop plans, designs, and instructions for starter sets, upgrade paths, and custom equipment. These would be shared as information, and can start to be provided as physical packaged sets. Later projects can then start self-improving faster. A trading network can grow as more sites in more locations are built. &emsp;Examples of future R&D-developed equipment include a 1x2 meter bridge mill, with replaceable heads and bits so it can perform different tasks, and a 15 kW solar furnace with replaceable focus targets. The furnace can directly heat items in a crucible, or generate steam for an electric generator. Such starter set equipment is designed for flexibility, rather than maximum efficiency and speed. That way a smaller starter set can be used for a variety of tasks at lower cost. Later equipment, built with the help of the starter set, can be dedicated to single tasks with higher efficiency and performance. Starter equipment may be supplied finished and ready to operate, as kits with some level of assembly and supplies needed, or purely as plans and instructions. ==='''6.2 - Phase 2A: Distributed Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The goals of this phase are (1) increased scale of sites and locations, and (2) relief from job insecurity and displacement by automation. :'''Evolution''' &emsp;Phase 1 locations in general would accumulate skills and equipment. Some sites within the location will move beyond hobby and home use, towards more regular small business and commercial activity. This involves part or full time operation, and selling more products outside the self-improvement network. The larger scale and more intense uses will need different equipment sets. &emsp;When running a business, speed and efficiency become more important, so equipment is chosen or built to do particular tasks well. This results in a larger collection of more specialized equipment. Skills and training also become more specialized and take longer to learn. Particular sites will tend to do a few things well, and trade for other things they need. A comprehensive large site (general purpose workshop or factory) that does many kinds of work is still possible in this phase, but less common. So working sites will tend to be distributed in multiple places. &emsp;Business and commercial scale operation is not limited to production only, but can also serve the full range of habitation, transport, and service industries. For example, a restaurant is a service business, but it needs a building, furniture, and kitchen equipment first. So the logical progression is from core equipment to make more equipment, then finished products like building materials and furniture, and finally industries that don't produce items, but use them to operate. :'''Ownership''' &emsp;In the current economic system, separation of ownership and labor results in the problem of job insecurity. The owners of a for-profit business have the incentive to remove workers as soon as possible to save on labor costs. The removal may be due to lower production and sales, or changes in business methods and technology that need less labor or different skills. &emsp;When a person or group has built and expanded their own equipment and business, the owners and workers are the same people. They don't have the same incentive to remove themselves. To the extent they make items for their own use, production would remain constant. If outside sales decrease, they own the equipment to build and start doing something else to make up the difference. Automation is a threat to conventional jobs by needing less labor. But owners who use the same automation for themselves are not threatened with unemployment. Rather they just work less time or more efficiently. &emsp;By diversifying into different industries, self-owned production can integrate with the rest of civilization and be self-supporting. New network members can become owners by first building or buying into a share of core production. They can then use that production to make or trade for what's needed in other industries. Alternately they can start out working for others in their chosen industry, and buy or trade for production shares. Either way they have more security as owners. ==='''6.3 - Phase 2B: Industrial Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is to reach the most efficient production levels by additional growth in scale and specialization. Industrial locations are in the same kind of developed areas and moderate environments as Phase 2A Distributed Locations, so we group them together under Phase 2. :'''Growth and Specialization''' &emsp;Industrial sites can evolve from distributed small business or commercial sites by continuing self-improvement and growth. They can also be built as new sites of the final size, where the equipment is supplied by other parts of the network. In that case, supplying the larger equipment and space to house them will likely need outside capital, because individuals or a small group typically won't have enough funds. Gradual evolution from a smaller size by self-production would not require as much, or any, outside funding. &emsp;Larger work spaces with larger input and output flows will tend to limit industrial locations to fewer products. For example, if you are processing scrap metal on an industrial scale into new metal stock, it helps to be near a rail line to transport the scrap and the finished metal. The more products, factory space, and specialized needs you have, the less likely you will find one big site that can satisfy all of them. &emsp;The larger production scale means more outside customers for the products, or larger scale customers. The market area for a site will likely reach beyond a single location, to a region or even world-wide. Since outputs are sold to a wide range of customers at greater distances, transport capacity becomes more important in this phase. &emsp;A narrow product range and large scale markets means demand can be more variable from general economic circumstances or competition. Distributed finance and ownership makes sense in this case. Demand may be low for a particular product, but may be high for something else. In a distributed portfolio these tend to average out. Owners can then reassign their labor and equipment as needed to meet the higher demand products. &emsp;The overall production network has a high capacity to recycle and self-produce what it needs. So modifying equipment to meet changing needs is easier to do. This is a somewhat different business model than investors and workers, with managers in between. It more a network of active owner-operators who can change the mix of what they own and what they produce as needed. &emsp;Like distributed locations, industrial ones can serve the full range of industry types. A combination of industrial, distributed, and individual scale industries can meet most of the needs that people have. If they own their own equipment, or shares in them, because they collectively built and grew them themselves, those needs are met securely, despite higher levels of automation. &emsp; =='''7.0 - Other Earth Locations'''== &emsp; :'''Goal''' &emsp;The main goal of this phase is a better quality of life through sustainable development. The Earth's population is growing, and most people want a better lifestyle. This needs more physical resources and energy. But the Earth is already being stressed by human impact on the environment, and future growth will only increase the stress. :'''Method''' &emsp;One way out of this dilemma is to produce abundant renewable energy with self-improving systems. These systems make more of themselves exponentially, including more power sources. Renewable energy will have much less impact on the planet's heat balance. Large amounts of energy allow increased reprocessing of wastes, and extraction from lower grade ores or even common rock and ocean water. Rapid expansion brings material goods to the rest of the world faster. Self-production and automation lowers the relative costs of products, energy, and materials. :'''New Locations''' &emsp;Increased supply of raw materials and energy will likely need access to more difficult and remote locations. So Phase 3 covers working in areas that are thinly or completely uninhabited, or that have difficult or extreme local environments. New designs and processes will be needed for such areas. So a new program phase with added R&D is started. &emsp;Harder conditions are a matter of degree, rather than absolutes with a clear dividing line. Sections 7.1 and 7.2 list the ones we have identified. We define the "normal" (moderate) range as those where the middle 90% of of people live. Difficult and extreme conditions are then significantly above or below the moderate range. &emsp;If at least one of the eleven parameters is well beyond the moderate range, then the location is assigned to the difficult category. Extreme locations are even farther from moderate, and can be hostile to people living and working there. More remote-control and automated operations will tend to be used, instead of trying to build controlled environments for people. &emsp;We want to preserve the Earth's total environment, and the parts that are still in a natural state. So developing the difficult and extreme locations must consider sustainability, renewable energy, and environmental impact. An example would be building offshore fisheries to replace wild fish catches. The latter are putting a strain on the ocean food chain, so it is desirable to minimize that impact. But the fisheries must consider all their inputs and outputs in a total system approach to avoid unintended side-effects. &emsp;The mechanics of building in these locations is somewhat different than previous phases. These areas are less populated, with fewer supply sources and utilities available. So growing from a minimal set of tools and machines is harder to do. Instead, more finished equipment is sent from previous locations to start basic functions like mining and producing energy. A set of production equipment then uses these resources, plus some level of imported supplies, to increase capacity. &emsp;That capacity then supplies products and services for local use. Surplus output is traded with the rest of civilization to make the locations self-supporting economically. Once built up, a location can also contribute to starting additional ones. The experience gained in working in difficult or extreme conditions, working remotely, and building up resource extraction and production in such places will be useful for later phases beyond Earth. ==='''7.1 - Phase 3A: Difficult Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define moderate conditions as those where the middle 90% of the Earth's population lives, with 5% at the upper or lower ends for a given parameter. This definition is somewhat arbitrary, but we think reasonable from a design standpoint. The "Difficult" environments are then those that are at least 10% beyond the moderate range in at least one parameter. 10% is measured either linearly or as a logarithmic factor, depending how wide the normal range is. The parameters and moderate and difficult ranges are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - This is measured by winter average daily lows and summer average daily highs. The moderate range is 260-310K (-13 to 37C). A given location is likely to exceed either the high or low limit, but not both. The difficult range is therefore below 255K (-18C) or above 315K (42C). Examples of difficult temperatures include Chelyabinsk, Russia, where average winter lows are -19C, and Death Valley, California, where summer highs are up to 47C. The lower limit ie more likely to be reached at high altitudes and latitudes. The high limit is more likely to be reached deep underground, because the Earth's internal temperature rises 25 Kelvin/Celsius on average per kilometer of depth. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - This is measured by fresh water supply in meters or tons/m^2 per year from rain, rivers, snow, ice, moisture condensation and freshwater aquifers. Salty surface water and aquifers are not included, as they aren't drinkable without desalination. Aquifers are limited to natural replenishment rates, as they are not sustainable if drawn from faster. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.5 meters/year. Since this is a large range, we use a logarithmic scale, and define difficult as 26% below or above the moderate limits, or <0.185 and >3.15 meters/year. The world's drier deserts fall below the 18.5 cm rainfall level, and places like the east coast of Nicaragua exceed the 315 cm upper limit on rainfall. Too much water is difficult because it can cause problems like flooding, erosion, and decay. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - This is measured by average local air pressure in kiloPascals (kPa). For reference, standard sea-level pressure is 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi). The moderate range is assumed to be from 80-100 kPa (near sea-level to 2000 meters altitude) Difficult pressures are below 70kPa (2750 meters altitude) or above 110 kPa (750 meters below sea-level). These correspond to high mountains or plateaus, and deep underground at low altitudes, since the lowest surface elevation is -413 meters. Low pressures and rapid changes in pressure can cause medical problems for people, so pressure-control is needed where people are. Effects on equipment are mostly minor in this range. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - This is the ground/soil strength at the surface, or surrounding water or rock pressure below the surface, in MegaPascals (MPa). These affect the design of structures, and values that are too low or too high become difficult. For reference, average household floors are designed for 0.275 MPa loads. The moderate range is 0.25 to 2.0 MPa. Difficult conditions are then below 0.19 MPa or above 2.5 MPa. The high limit is reached at ocean depths of 250 meters, and underground at depths of 100 meters in average rock. High surrounding pressures require closed containers to lower them for people, or support structures to prevent collapse. The low limit is reached in open waters (zero strength), fine sand or moist clay (low strengths). Low ground strength requires larger building foundations, or floating construction in the case of open waters &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - This is measured by average energy supply from renewable natural sources in W/m^2. Wind and solar are available in most places, and are rapidly renewable. Ocean thermal and geothermal are widely available if you go deep enough, but take long periods to renew once depleted, so we only count their renewal rate, not the stored energy. Sources like hydroelectric or tidal energy are not available everywhere, but counted if they are. &emsp;Fossil fuels are not sustainable because of finite supply and the waste products they produce. Biofuels may be produced sustainably. Fuels for nuclear fission and fusion (which is still being developed) are in large enough supply to be considered sustainable but require mining or separation. They can be used to produce energy, but we don't count their contribution to local supply. &emsp;Low energy supply is difficult because some is needed for almost every kind of human activity. If it is not available locally, it must be imported by methods like fuel delivery or power lines. High levels of energy supply are not considered difficult. The range of energy flux is roughly 150 to 900 W/m^2 on Earth, so a difficult low value is 125 W/m^2. Any significant depth below the surface is cut off from wind and solar sources, so are likely to be difficult and require energy supplied from elsewhere. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This is mainly one of the conditions for space environments. On and near the Earth's surface it does not vary by more than 10% unless you are in a centrifuge or accelerating vehicle, so there are no natural places on Earth beyond moderate conditions. Low gravity causes biological problems for people, and may for animals and plants. High gravity is difficult to work in for people, and requires extra structural support for physical items. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - This is measured by unprotected background radiation in milliSeivert (mSv)/year. Industrial exposure, such as to medical imaging staff, or from mining, using, and disposing of radioactive materials, is not considered an environment condition. But such exposure needs its own designs for safety and shielding. Natural background radiation varies by location, according to altitude, magnetic field, and what materials are in the ground below. In most places on Earth it varies from 1 to 13 mSv/year. &emsp;A few places have high radiation levels from concentrations of radioactive elements and their decay products, up to 135 mSv/yr. People have lived in such locations for many generations, with no apparent ill effects. Since adaption may have occurred for long-term residents, we will be conservative and consider high radiation levels a hazard to the general population. &emsp;Levels above 17 mSv/year would be considered difficult. Depending on sources, they might require shielding, sealing, or air circulation. Low radiation levels are not considered hazardous, so background levels below 1 mSv/year are not considered difficult. Note that the human body contains some radioactive elements naturally, so there is no zero background level. Even the highest natural radiation levels on Earth are not significant for most equipment designs. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - This is the round-trip communication delay to the next nearest 5% of world population, in milliseconds (ms). Long delays create difficulty in voice communications or real-time remote control, and slow down any computer network-based activity. There is no lower limit for this parameter, since short ping times are not a difficult condition. &emsp;On or near the Earth's surface we consider ping times above 100 milliseconds to be difficult, as this much delay starts to be noticeable to people. There are few locations that have such high values to reach 5% of the world's people. The 5% value is because you can choose to do tasks like remote control from reasonably nearby, and not from the farthest place on Earth. This parameter becomes more important in space. The speed of light limits operations to within 15,000 km to stay under 100 ms. That only reaches moderately high Earth orbit, and most of space is far beyond that distance. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - This is the maximum one-way normal travel time for people, to reach the nearest 5% of other people. Travel time for cargo is assumed to be proportional to that for people. High travel times makes it more difficult and expensive to bring in people with special skills, or necessary parts and materials. Densely populated areas can usually be reached in 5 hours or less. Most of the world's populated areas can be reached within 48 hours, so we set this as the upper limit for moderate (developed) travel. The worst case travel time is 10-20 days for parts of Tibet which lack roads, and ocean locations distant from any airports, requiring ship travel to reach. Very low travel times are not a difficulty, so we set no lower limit for this parameter. We define difficult travel as needing more than 2.5 days. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - This is the average stay time per person per location, in years. People stay in the same location if they live and sleep there the majority of the time, and make trips to other locations less than half the time. Short stay times are more difficult because of increased transportation needs and staff turnover. The short times may be caused by a harsh environment, lack of habitation and services, or the location is simply undesirable. It can also be caused by a rapidly growing population lowering the average residence time. In that case, the difficulty is caused by having to rapidly build new habitation and services. &emsp;Long stay times are not considered difficult, and their upper limit is the human lifespan. Rapidly growing areas provide the shortest average times on Earth, 7 years if normal turnover is added to growth. Since the upper bound is ~70 years, we will set the difficult limit at 25% below the shortest average, at 5 years. Examples where such low values occur are mining and construction camps in remote locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - This is the total energy to reach a location from the nearest 5% of population, by the most efficient method, in MegaJoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). For reference, 3.6 MJ = 1 kiloWatt-hour of electricity. Transport energy includes kinetic, potential, and frictional energy. High transport energy is difficult because of increased need for equipment, and their higher cost of operation. &emsp;On Earth, potential and kinetic energy of transport are generally low, and friction dominates. Rail and water transport are currently the most efficient bulk methods, and range from 0.225 to 2.25 MJ/kg between densely and sparsely populated areas. Low transport energy is not considered difficult, but we set values above 2.85 MJ/kg to be. Such values can occur when rail and water transport are not available, and part of the trip must be by less efficient methods. It can also happen when there is a lot of altitude change on the route, increasing frictional losses so as not to exceed speed limits. &emsp;Some of these parameters change with time, due to technology and development. For example, parts of Alaska had long travel times when the only available transport was by dog sled. Once small airplanes and a network of landing fields were available, it became less difficult. It may be a specific goal to upgrade a location to less difficult status, but we define it for phases and R&D by the pre-existing conditions that have to be dealt with. ==='''7.2 - Phase 3B: Extreme Earth Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;We define extreme locations as an additional 10% beyond the difficult range. This is again in linear or logarithmic amounts, depending on the span of moderate conditions most people live in. The more extreme parameters will need further design modifications, and therefore supporting R&D to develop them. We define no upper bound on how extreme things can get, they are only limited by the natural environment and general state of civilization. The parameter values are: &emsp;'''Temperature''' - average daily lows below 250K (-23C) or average daily highs above 320K (47C). The lows might be found in Antarctica or at high altitudes. The highs are found deep underground or in the hottest deserts. &emsp;'''Water Supply''' - The lower range is less than 0.12 meters/year (4.75 inches), which is a very dry desert. The upper range is more than 3.8 meters/year, which is found in the wettest rain forests. &emsp;'''Atmosphere Pressure''' - The extreme ranges are below 60 kPa or above 120 kPa, which correspond to altitudes above about 5500 meters or below -1600 meters. These correspond to very high mountain tops and deep underground. &emsp;'''Ground Pressure''' - The ranges are below 0.12 MPa or above 3 MPa. These correspond to soft clay or open water at the low end, and depths of 300 meters in water and 120 meters in rock. &emsp;'''Energy Supply''' - The low range is below 90 W/m^2 from wind and solar, which is mainly encountered below the surface. High values of energy supply are not a difficulty. &emsp;'''Gravity Level''' - This parameter does not vary by more than a few percent on Earth, so extreme conditions more than 20% beyond normal do not occur. &emsp;'''Radiation Dose''' - The extreme range is more than 21 mSV/year, which occurs in some natural high radiation areas, or if spending a lot of time (>25%) at high altitude near the magnetic poles, where cosmic radiation can come down vertically. &emsp;'''Ping Time''' - The range for extreme ping time is more than 125 ms round trip. This is nearly around the world at the speed of light, so accessing 5% of the population only takes this long if radio or fiber communications routes are very indirect or unavailable. &emsp;'''Travel Time''' - The range for extreme travel time is more than 3 days to reach. This is found only in very remote areas without conventional transportation. &emsp;'''Stay Time''' - The lower range is average stay times below 3 years 4 months, which mainly would be found in temporary work locations. &emsp;'''Transport Energy''' - The upper range for extreme transport energy is above 3.5 MJ/kg. This is reached mainly when inefficient transportation has to be used. &emsp; =='''8.0 - Phase 4: Orbital Locations'''== &emsp; [[File:Von_Braun_1952_Space_Station_Concept_9132079_original.jpg|thumb|right|640x446px|Figure 8.0-1 - 1952 space station concept by Wernher von Braun and Chesley Bonestell.]] :'''Goals''' &emsp;The main goals of phases 4 through 6 are using space to bring benefits to Earth, and to help with some long-term problems and risks that can't be handled any other way. &emsp;Figure 8.0-1 is an early concept for a rotating '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station Space Station]''', made 5 years before the first orbital launch of Sputnik 1. Note the ring-shaped solar collector on top. This would heat a fluid to produce power, since the first practical silicon solar cell would not be made until 2 years later. We show this concept as a reminder that plans can only be made from what is known at the time. Our approach to developing space may look equally out of date 75 years in the future. Despite that, we have to start somewhere and then make updates as needed. :'''Approach''' &emsp;This section (8.0) 9.0, and 10.0 cover Phases 4, 5, and 6 in that order. Sub-phases for each are grouped together because they involve working in similar space environments. We expect the various sub-phases to have different starting times due to relative difficulty in reaching their locations and distance from Earth. But once started the sub-phases would overlap and continue in parallel. &emsp;Orbital locations (Phase 4) come first, because Earth orbit has to be reached before going anywhere else in space. Planetary system locations (Phase 5) come next. They share being on or tied by gravity to the larger Solar System bodies other than Earth. Their gravity wells take more work to travel to and from than orbital locations in similar solar orbits. The local environments are also different on and around these bodies. Phase 6 (Interstellar Locations) involves places beyond the Sun's gravitational dominance. It is expected to be last in time. It is hard to predict what technology will be available by then, and how such distant locations would be used. So the last phase is mainly included as a placeholder and to provide some direction for future work. :'''Current and Near-Term Space Industry''' &emsp;Working on long-term problems doesn't have an immediate economic return. So the first uses of our approach for places beyond Earth would be to support existing and near-term space industry. According the '''[https://orbitalradar.com/how-many-satellites-in-orbit Orbital Radar]''' site there were over 18,000 active satellites orbiting the Earth in September 2026. There were also about 10,700 pieces of debris and leftover rocket parts. There are a smaller number of spacecraft and other items that have been sent beyond Earth orbit, some of which are still operating. The inactive equipment, plus other discarded items and fragments, make up artificial '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris Space Debris]'''. The increasing amount of debris is one of the long-term problems that need solving. &emsp;'''[https://sia.org/news-resources/state-of-the-satellite-industry-report/ Total Economic Activity]''' related to space was $429 billion as of 2025, split between government and private projects. But nearly all of the people involved, and most of the physical tasks, happen on Earth. This provides a starting point for using our self-improvement methods and other advanced technology. In turn that should lower costs. &emsp;Reaching space is generally industrial-scale activity. Rockets themselves are large, and so are the places and equipment to build and launch them. So it would be part of or follow Phase 2B's other industrial locations. What is sent to space can be as small as hobby scale. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio_satellite Amateur Radio Operators]''' have sent satellites into orbit, and over 3,000 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat Cubesats]''' based on 10 cm modular sizes have been sent to space. Building and operating equipment sent to space more typically ranges from Phase 2A's small business and commercial scale up to the industrial level. &emsp;Reaching space was very expensive until recently because some or all of a rocket was discarded after one use. The high cost limited space activity to large nations or groups of them at first. Over time, commercial space activity has grown to be about 75% of the total. Lower cost transportation and satellite equipment is actively being pursued. The methods include adopting mass production, and discarding less or none of the rocket each flight. &emsp;Most equipment sent to space is also discarded when it fails or reaches the end of its useful life. Replacing the equipmwnt adds to the cost of operating in space. Refueling, maintenance, and repair of space hardware is very limited. New production, upgrades, and recycling in space is limited to non-existent. Total cost can be lowered by changing how space projects are built, delivered, and operated. In turn this would expand existing uses, and open up new ones like private space stations and space tourism. :'''Long-Term Sustainability''' &emsp;As of 2025 fossil fuels supplied 81.9% of global primary energy. Since about 1900 their rapid growth powered most of the development of modern civilization. But that comes with a number of unfortunate side effects. They include environmental damage, pollution, and adding greenhouse gases, mainly CO2, to the atmosphere far faster then natural processes remove it. &emsp;These gases reduce infrared radiation back to space, altering the balance between incoming sunlight and outgoing heat. Venus' surface temperature of 462 C (864 F) shows why this is a bad idea. Only 50C of Venus' higher temperature is due to being closer to the Sun. The rest is primarily heat trapped by a thick CO2 atmosphere. Society must transition this century to renewable non-carbon energy sources, so Earth doesn't become more like the hell that Venus is. &emsp;Despite the large-scale use of fossil and other energy sources, current civilization can't afford to capture and reprocess all waste materials, nor extract new materials from abundant but low-grade sources. New materials come from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore Ores]''' instead. These have higher concentrations of desired products, which take less work to extract. However, high-grade ores are in limited supply. If used materials are not fully reprocessed, those ores will eventually run out. So the current state of civilization is unsustainable. It is heading towards severe problems from increasing temperature, running out of affordable materials, or both. &emsp;At the same time, the world's population is growing, and not everyone has the benefits of high income economies. Full development of such economies would demand even more energy and materials. It's unfair to deny these benefits to some people because others were the first to get them. A growing population with a high standard of living will put more stress on the remaining natural world, and deplete accessible resources faster. Self-improving factories and other advanced technologies can be used to build more renewable energy sources and reprocess more wastes. This would have less impact on Earth, but it would not reduce it to zero. :'''Civilization-Level Risks''' &emsp;Another problem is preserving civilization and the biosphere in the face of large-scale risks. One such risk is runaway greenhouse warming due to positive feedback loops. This is different than the temperature rising a certain number of degrees from higher CO₂ levels. Melting ice caps can expose darker water or land, increasing the absorbed sunlight and causing further melting. Another feedback loop is release of methane from frozen ocean hydrates and organic matter in permafrost. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, and so can lead to accelerated release. &emsp;Another risk is from asteroids. Large asteroids fly past Earth fairly frequently, and occasionally hit it, causing widespread damage. There are enough craters, recorded impacts, and near misses to know it is a low probability event, but can be catastrophic if it does. So it is worth trying to reduce that risk. Note that small objects either burn up in the atmosphere or only cause local damage, and don't require civilization-level action to prevent. &emsp;There are other large-scale risks besides these two. Examples include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervolcano Supervolcano]''' eruptions, genetically engineered plagues, and nuclear war. It is worth some effort to identify these risks, and reduce them if possible. Backup locations beyond Earth can be a last resort if such efforts fail, but most efforts should likely be directed at prevention rather than recovery. ==='''8.1 - Using Space to Solve Earth's Problems'''=== &emsp; &emsp;There are abundant energy and material resources in space. If the cost of using them can be brought low enough, then that becomes preferable to, for example, putting more solar panels in climates unsuited to them, or digging ever deeper underground to find high quality ores. &emsp;There is seven times more solar energy available in space near the Earth than the average on the ground. Atmospheric absorption, night, and weather account for the difference. The equipment to collect that energy is also about seven times lighter because it doesn't need to handle gravity and weather. So the energy output to equipment mass ratio is roughly 50 times higher. &emsp;There is also a wide variety of accessible materials in space, starting with the Moon's surface and nearby asteroids. These have been "pre-mined" in the sense that impacts have left them broken up and loose. Extracting them doesn't need heavy equipment, so the tons mined per ton of equipment is high. The combination of high energy and low equipment could allow rapid bootstrapping of space industry. The products can then help solve the problems and risks we noted above. :'''Lowering Space Operations Cost''' &emsp;Reaching and working in space has been very expensive, especially beyond the lowest Earth orbits. But that is an engineering problem, not one set by basic physics. For example, wholesale potatoes are on the order of $300/ton, and the wholesale electrical energy to put those potatoes in Earth orbit (8.7 MWh) is on the order of $550, less than twice as much. Sending even cheap bulk commodities to space would be affordable if done with high efficiency. Current launch costs are quoted at $1.52 million/ton or more (Falcon Heavy, 2022), 2750 times as much. This shows how much room there is for improvement. &emsp;There are a number of ways this cost can be reduced. Reaching space today requires a good deal of equipment on Earth, like rocket factories, the rockets themselves, and launch sites for them. Self-improving automated production can lower the costs of these. As with other industries, you can begin with a starter set, and grow it until you have mature factories that produce the space hardware you need. &emsp;A large amount of rocket and satellite hardware is discarded after use. This is a major contributor to high costs. Improved designs can allow reuse and repair. Conventional rockets are also inefficient. They require about 40 times the payload mass in fuel (for '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket_propellant#Current_cryogenic_types LOX/RP-1]''') containing 387 MJ/kg of fuel energy. The payload ends up with 32 MJ/kg of kinetic and potential energy, so the fuel efficiency is only 8.3%. Alternate launch methods can dramatically improve on this value, but there has to be enough traffic to space to justify their development. &emsp;Advanced production methods in space, using materials and energy already there, can ultimately reduce mass launched from Earth by 98-99%. The transportation component of operating in space can then be reduced by a similar ratio. If in-space production costs are less than the launch savings, then overall costs go down. &emsp;More efficient space technologies, like electric propulsion and closed life support, further reduce the mass from Earth needed to operate. The closer we can source supplies to the desired destination, the less effort is needed to move them there. So a Lunar or Mars base would ideally get most of what it needs locally, or from not too far away, and only get from Earth what can't be found or made otherwise. The combination of all these methods would get much closer to "potato cost". :'''Space Development Process''' &emsp;Our approach would follow the same general path in space as it does on Earth. In particular the methods used for difficult and extreme locations on Earth are relevant, although the details will differ. Space is nearly undeveloped and barely populated. So early tasks include delivering equipment to supply energy and gather raw materials. A core set of processing equipment would be used to turn raw materials into basic supplies like propellants, and production inventory like metal stock. &emsp;Other equipment takes these products, plus some amount of imported items, and fabricates parts for more production equipment, plus finished items like habitats for people and food production. Metals for machinery and construction are likely the majority of first generation production, since that is the foundation of industry on Earth. Second and later generation equipment can then produce other materials and products in an expanding sequence. &emsp;In the early stages there is less equipment available at a given location. So a larger percentage of parts and materials has to be imported from previous places, or from Earth. As more equipment accumulates, a higher percentage can be produced locally. Once a given location has matured enough, it can start to make items for new starter sets. These can be used in the same region, such as other parts of the Moon, or sent off to start developing new regions. &emsp;Once a location can export a surplus of locally made items, they can be traded for those it can't make, or needed materials that are locally rare. Such trade would be based on '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_advantage Comparative Advantage]''' like it is on Earth. By export and trade a location can become economically self-supporting, and not a cost burden. This is in contrast to a station or base that can't make things locally, which has to be supplied from elsewhere at a continuing cost. &emsp;Self-supporting locations can produce an expanding wave of civilization and life as far as people want to carry them - throughout the Solar System, and in the long term, beyond it. :'''General Space Environment Features''' &emsp;Orbital locations in Phase 4 begin at 200 km altitude above the Earth's surface, where atmospheric density is low enough for stable orbits. They extend beyond that to the limits of stable orbits bound by gravity to Earth, then to interplanetary orbits at all distances from the Sun. The planetary system locations of Phase 5 are embedded within the larger interplanetary region, and move with the major bodies and the gravity fields they produce. &emsp;The environment conditions, raw materials, and available energy vary widely across the different regions. So we divide Phase 4 into six sub-phases by region, and Phase 5 into five sub-phases. We expect their development to start mostly in order by distance from Earth. Orbital locations include smaller bodies like asteroids found there, and planetary systems include an area of stable orbits around them and the smaller bodies tied to them by gravity. &emsp;The environment parameters for Phases 4 and 5 are generally more difficult than extreme ones on Earth (Phase 3B). The added difficulty in many cases is incremental, not orders of magnitude steps, and not in all parameters. Proper design and operation can deal with most of these conditions, but some places are so extreme that current technology has no way to handle them. The general ranges are noted here. Some details for sub-phases and particular locations are noted below. Extensive and growing knowledge about them comes from the field of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science Planetary Science]'''. * '''Temperature''' - Distance from the Sun, and the percent field of view of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation Cosmic Background]''', which is at near absolute zero temperature (2.7K) are the main determinants of local temperature. It can range anywhere from above 700K to below 50K (+425 to -225 C). Partly shadowed orbits, or night on a surface, can produce wide temperature swings. Reflection from the surface of a body, or underground surroundings, will modify the ambient temperature. * '''Water Supply''' - Orbital locations don't have a weather system that delivers a renewable water supply like Earth. But some bodies have water in the form of hydrated minerals or ice. Liquid water layers may exist inside dwarf planets and moons, and water in general is abundant beyond the "frost line" around 3 times Earth's distance from the Sun (3 AU), where temperatures are low enough for ice to be stable in a vacuum. * '''Atmosphere Pressure''' - Vacuum is the normal condition in open space and on the surface of most bodies. Some of the larger dwarf planets and moons have non-zero pressures, and all the major planets except Mercury have significant to dominant atmospheres. * '''Ground Pressure''' - This doesn't exist in open space, and is generally low even for larger asteroids, either because of low gravity or low surface strength. Ground pressure can become significant if you go deep enough into larger asteroids. It becomes very high inside large moons and major planets. * '''Energy Supply''' - Varies from above 10 kW/m² in close solar orbits to below 1.5 W/m² beyond Neptune. Orbits with time in shadow lose a percentage of this. Surfaces in vacuum reduce solar energy by about 50% from nights, with variations from topography like mountains and craters. Atmospheres can further reduce solar energy. :&emsp;Other sources like wind, precipitation, and geothermal may be available on some bodies. Nuclear power is possible using fuel delivered from Earth or mined from places with radioactive elements like the Moon. Power can be transmitted over moderate distances using conductors and beams, or even simple reflectors. * '''Gravity Level''' - Natural gravity ranges from zero in free orbits, to about 3% of Earth's on dwarf planets, and up to 2.4 times Earth on larger moons and major planets. Artificial gravity can be supplied by rotation where biology or industrial processes need it. Artificial gravity is only limited by structural materials and practical issues like arrival and departure. * '''Radiation Dose''' - Most orbits and surface regions have high natural levels of radiation from galactic cosmic rays, solar particle events (flares), and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' like the ones around Earth. Devices like solar panels and electronics are generally less sensitive to radiation than living things, but can still be damaged or temporarily upset. :&emsp;Radiation can be lowered to safe levels using bulk mass as shielding, or possibly artificial methods like magnetic fields. Shielding mass in orbital locations can come from asteroids or imported from moons. On substantial bodies their mass provides partial natural shielding, and going underground and arranging local materials can provide the rest. Space transport vehicles can use fuel, water, or other supplies as shielding. Large habitats may get enough shielding from their outer structure, equipment, and storage tanks. * '''Ping Time''' - Round trip communication time varies greatly from milliseconds in low Earth orbits to hours or even days in the outer Solar System. Essentially all the communication time is due to speed of light delays. On Earth, fiber-optic cables transmit at about 2/3 the speed of light, and follow indirect paths from geography and a spherical planet. * '''Travel Time''' - This also varies greatly according to orbit region. It can take a few hours to reach low Earth orbit or return from it to the ground, plus some travel time to other population on the Earth's surface. Travel to the outer Solar System using known propulsion systems will take a number of years or even decades. * '''Stay Time''' - This is currently very short because there are no permanently inhabited locations in orbit. Astronaut crews typically stay about 6 months aboard the International Space Station. With the development of larger, more permanent locations, with artificial gravity, food supplies, etc. the stay times can increase to a number of years. * '''Transport Energy''' - Much less than 5% of civilization is in space, so transport energy is measured from the Earth's surface to an orbital location. This is a minimum of 33 MJ/kg, set by the physics of reaching low Earth orbit. It is a lot higher using current rockets, because their operating efficiency is low. More distant orbital locations require additional energy to reach, and currently this reduces cargo mass dramatically, producing even higher transport energy/kg. ==='''8.2 - Phase 4A: Low Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Sections 8.2 to 8.7 cover sub-phases 4A to 4F. We limit the a amount of detail to keep the size of this report reasonable, and in some cases is limited by the current state of knowledge about the regions. Each region would be developed using the general approach in Section 8.1, with some methods adapted to local conditions. The start of each successive sub-phase is staggered in time, but a region does not have to be fully developed before starting on the next one. They would develop in parallel once started. &emsp;We suggest some economic uses for these regions, how to reach them, and how to develop them. We don't know enough to say if these are the best or only uses for them, and we certainly don't know what ideas other people will come up with in the future. So consider this report as a starting point for others to improve upon. :'''Low Orbit Features''' &emsp;Earth orbits exist in a continuous range from 200 km, the minimum set by atmospheric drag, to the maximum set by Sun's gravity becoming dominant. We divide that range in half by the transport energy required to reach it, at 2700 km average altitude. Conditions are different enough between low and high orbits to get their own sub-phases. Orbits can be elliptical and constantly vary in altitude, so we use the average between the high and low points, which is called the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-major_and_semi-minor_axes Semi-Major Axis]'''. &emsp;Objects in low orbits are in the Earth's shadow about 22-40% of the time, reducing available solar energy. The Earth fills a large part of the field of view, which affects thermal balances, and lighting when over the sunlit side. Orbit periods are 2.5 hours or less, so travel time to a particular orbit location from the Earth's surface is fairly short. Ping time by way of ground stations is under 20 ms, so not difficult. But low orbits have a limited view of the Earth's surface at one time. So multiple ground stations are needed, or communications are relayed by a higher satellite. This can add up to 500 ms to round-trip communications, which is a noticeable delay. &emsp;The Earth's magnetic field traps particles into '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt Radiation Belts]''' that begin at low orbit height and extend past them to high orbits. Unprotected people and electronics can be damaged by the high radiation levels. So spacecraft have to be designed to withstand radiation, avoid these belts, cross them quickly, have sufficient shielding, or the belts depleted artificially. &emsp;Material resources are relatively scarce in low orbit. They include the upper edge of the Earth's atmosphere, and debris from inactive satellites and rocket stages. The mass of particles in the radiation belts is very small. Other materials have to be imported from Earth or higher locations. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We would like all regions in space to become economically self-supporting. Earth orbits already are, with 75% of total space activity being commercial. Low orbits are occupied by a large number of active satellites serving the people below. Current uses include Earth observation, such as weather, mapping, and agricultural monitoring. Many satellites are now used for communications relay between points on the surface. Government uses include research, such as the International Space Station and Hubble Telescope, and national security. &emsp;Future uses may include tourism, orbital assembly and maintenance, payload transfer, and refueling for more distant destinations. Further development of low orbits would start with existing markets. It would expand to new ones as transportation costs are reduced and local industry built up. We discuss some options in this section, but it is an area with projects being worked on by many others. &emsp;We don't expect large-scale production and habitats in low orbits, because more materials and energy are available higher up. We do expect low orbits to become transit points, because below the radiation belts is the nearest place to Earth that is reasonably safe and doesn't need constant propulsion to maintain position. :'''Transport from Earth''' &emsp;Low orbit has few available materials, so most items have to be imported. Rockets and space hardware have existed for decades, but they are still too expensive for many future uses. As noted in section 8.1, self-improving and automated production can help lower the cost of building and running aerospace factories and launch sites. &emsp;Reusing rocket hardware can improve costs substantially, but conventional rockets have low energy efficiency. They are limited by the energy in chemical '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellant Propellants]''' and the mass of the Earth requiring a minimum energy to reach orbit, neither of which is changing. A shift to different launch technologies can can improve efficiency and cost. But there has to be enough traffic to justify the added R&D cost in the face of existing rocket systems. There are many possible launch technologies. See Part 2 of our volume on '''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Space_Transport_and_Engineering_Methods Space Systems Engineering]''' for an extensive list. We provide one example here to illustrate the possibilities: [[File:AEDC_Range-G_Launcher_facility.jpg|thumb|800x599px|Figure 8.2-1 - AEDC Range-G Hypersonic Research Gun (on left, 20cm interior diameter of barrel).]] &emsp;'''Hypersonic Guns''' - Hypervelocity gas guns have been used in research for decades (Figure 8.2-1). They are inexpensive to build compared to most aerospace hardware. This is because they don't have to fly, so can be made of heavy industrial parts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-gas_gun Light Gas Guns]''' are basically simple devices. &emsp;A larger version of such a gun, on a mountain with the correct slope, can supply 50-70% of orbit velocity for bulk cargo which is not sensitive to high g-forces. These include fuel, water, structural parts, even frozen food. Outdoor barrels measured in kilomdeters rather than meters lower g-forces and operating pressures. But the forces are still generally too high for delicate cargo and people. Those would use other kinds of transportation. Industrial factories grown from starter sets could be a low-cost source for the construction equipment to build on a mountain, the high pressure pipe, other parts for the gun, and an energy source to compress and heat the gas for launch. &emsp;Muzzle velocities much higher than ~4 km/s (half of orbit speed) become increasingly less efficient. This is because of limits on expansion rate of the working gas, and increased drag and heating while climbing through the atmosphere. The remaining part of reaching orbit is supplied by an internal rocket engine on the projectile or by other methods. Because the rocket engine only supplies half or less of the velocity, it is many times smaller relative to cargo than conventional rockets. &emsp;The fuel-to-payload energy efficiency is roughly two-thirds, much better than conventional rockets. The gun also uses energy, but it is relatively cheap to operate. It is stationary on the ground, uses inexpensive materials, and can be used many times. The projectiles are rugged and durable, and can also be used many times. Re-entry is much gentler than the initial launch. The operating cost per ton to orbit should therefore be lower than conventional rockets. A gun-type launcher could deliver a large portion of the mass to orbit. There is no requirement that everything going to space has to travel the same way, any more than it does here on Earth. &emsp;'''Other Launch Methods''' - Hypervelocity guns are just one example. Other technologies with reasonable prospects include high-speed air-breathing engines for the early part of flight, and orbiting structures with suborbital landing platforms for the later part. Both are more efficient than chemical rockets in their respective velocity ranges. Unfortunately neither can easily serve the whole job of transport to orbit. A combination of systems, each operating where it works best, is likely the better option. &emsp;High speed jet engines and orbital platforms would require substantial R&D, and are therefore not likely to be the first things built. Instead, lowering the cost of conventional rockets is the first step. It would then be supplemented with a low R&D system like a hypersonic gun. Once new markets are opened up by the lower costs, the more advanced technologies that need more R&D can then make economic sense. :'''Mining and Production''' &emsp;Low orbits are not ideal places to process raw materials. That requires a lot of energy, and sunlight is blocked a good percentage of the time. But there is enough energy to fabricate parts and assemble them to finished items. For example, spools of high strength fiber and metal wire are rugged enough to be launched by bulk systems. The fiber and wire can be wrapped and plasma-sprayed in layers around inflatable or collapsible forms, to build up large, lightweight structures. Large pressurized volumes built this way can then house other production and assembly equipment and people to work there. &emsp;There are some material resources in low orbit that don't require a lot of processing. At altitudes of around 200 km it may be possible to "scoop mine" the upper atmosphere. A collection scoop funnels incoming air, which is very thin at this altitude, to a vacuum pump and compressor. A portion of the air is expelled by electric engines at much higher velocity than the incoming flow. This makes up for drag from the scoop. The remaining air is stored in tanks. &emsp;When the tanks are full, the mining ship climbs higher and unloads to storage tanks at a depot. The reason to mine like this, rather than launching gases directly from Earth, is the solar arrays that power the mining ship can produce 1000 times the energy needed to put themselves in orbit over their operating life. As long as the gas mining can be done with reasonable efficiency, launching solar arrays rather than tanks of gases results in much more usable product in the end. &emsp;A steady supply of air (or nitrogen and oxygen if separated) obviously can be used to support people in orbit. It can also fuel tugs that collect dead satellites and debris from the Earth's "debris belt". This both reduces the hazard they create, and supplies useful resources. The collected materials can be scavenged for usable parts or recycled into new products. Dead satellites and empty rocket stages are made of aerospace materials, so they should not need a lot of processing to reuse. &emsp;Mining the debris is only feasible with a cheap source of propellant and efficient electric engines. The pieces are in random orbits, and would consume too much propellant to gather otherwise. Air plus debris mining can provide enough materials to support some production in low orbit. The larger sources available from the Moon and asteroids, and the full-time solar energy in higher orbits, leads to the majority of production being done elsewhere. It can be efficiently delivered "downhill" using gentle '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobraking Aerobraking]'''. Low orbit mining and production then ends up supporting local uses, and this region functions as a transfer point between the ground and elsewhere. ==='''8.3 - Phase 4B: High Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''High Orbit Features''' &emsp;We define high orbits as extending from 2700 km average altitude to the limit of the Earth's dominant gravitational influence, or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_sphere Hill Sphere]'''. For Earth this is about 1.5 million km, but towards the outer edges orbits become less stable. This is a large range of distances, but it only represents the upper 25% of energy between the Earth's surface and escape. That's because gravity is an inverse square force and weakens rapidly as distance increases. &emsp;The Moon is the most prominent feature in high orbit. It has its own area of dominant gravity, with a radius of about 60,000 km, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes to about 35,000 km. Additional energy is needed to descend through the Moon's gravity field to low orbits or the surface. Conditions are also different enough near and on the Moon that we assign the region within 35,000 km to Phase 5A - Lunar Locations. &emsp;High orbits are in sunlight 85-100% of the time, reaching the highest values when farther from the Earth and Moon. Temperature is determined mostly by the Sun and the cold '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background Cosmic Microwave Background]''', but at lower altitudes the Earth contributes a significant amount of reflected light and infrared heat. Orbit periods range from 2.5 hours to 7 months, so travel times by the most efficient routes can be long. Direct paths can be much faster, 12 days or less, at the expense of additional energy. &emsp;Ping time varies from as little as 25 ms, which is not difficult, up to 10 seconds, which has a large impact on voice, real-time control, and electronic data. The upper part of the Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic radiation create high to dangerous levels for people and equipment. Energy resources are abundant in this region, but material resources are low in their natural state. The Moon and Near Earth Objects can supply materials with fairly low transport energies. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;One orbit in this region, geosynchronous, at 35,000 km altitude, is already heavily used. This orbit has a period of 24 hours, which matches the Earth's rotation. So satellites appear to stay above a fixed ground location, and ground antennas can be stationary rather than having to track satellite motion. Synchronous orbit is in the outer fringe of the radiation belts. &emsp;Future production and human habitation would likely start higher up. One set of such locations are near the Earth-Moon L4 and L5 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange_point Lagrange Points]'''. These are stable regions, but not singular points. The Sun's gravity varies with the Earth's distance from the Sun, and the Moon's orbit is not circular or in the same plane as the Earth and Sun. So uncontrolled objects will move around the region. &emsp;Delivery, refueling, and maintenance of high orbit satellites from Earth are current and near-term activities for this region. Future activity can begin with transporting fuel and other items up or down through the region, to or from more distant early interplanetary locations and low orbit. This and other possible future activities depend on bringing transport costs down to affordable levels. This would happen incrementally as self-improving production for early markets bootstraps to larger levels. &emsp;There are some civilization-level problems that high orbit activity can help with. If climate change solutions on Earth are not enough, orbiting sun filters can be used. They would let wavelengths used by plants through, but block other parts of the solar spectrum. This would help cool the planet. Hazardous solar system objects that pose a risk to Earth could be diverted or put to use instead. This requires finding them far enough in advance to change their orbit. An active civilization and biosphere off-planet could restore Earth if catastrophes happen despite our best efforts. &emsp;The solar energy flowing through this region is nearly 500 million times what civilization uses today. The Moon and nearby asteroids can supply 750 million years of raw materials at Earth's current mining rate without recycling. With abundant energy and recycling a small fraction of these resources could make civilization sustainable as long as the Sun lasts. :'''Transport from Other Orbits''' &emsp;Excluding the Moon, the high orbit region is nearly devoid of raw materials. So they must be imported from elsewhere. Current transport from Earth uses a rocket to reach orbit, then chemical or electric propulsion to reach higher orbits. Electric propulsion is about ten times more fuel-efficient than chemical rockets, and is being used more in recent years. &emsp;Electric engines need large amounts of power to operate, but efficient and lightweight solar panels have been developed in the last few decades (see '''[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Best_Research-Cell_Efficiencies.svg Solar Cell Efficiency Chart]'''). The engines are low thrust, which would expose unprotected people and some other items to too much radiation while crossing the Van Allen belts. So some early transport will use less efficient but faster rockets. Once propellants and bulk mass for shielding are available from space sources, protected or more advanced transport methods can be used. &emsp;Bulk materials mined from NEOs (Section 2.1 Material Resources) are not time- or radiation-sensitive. They can be transported entirely by electric engines on tugs that make multiple trips. Since part of the product from these objects is more fuel for the tugs, the transport becomes self-sustaining once started. A tug can return about 750 times its hardware mass over a 15 year working life, while consuming about 17 times its mass in propellant over the same period. Tugs can also efficiently deliver hardware and finished products to other orbits as needed. &emsp;The Moon is small enough that bulk materials can be thrown directly into orbit by electric catapults. Assuming 50% efficiency and 50% duty cycle from lunar night, a solar panel can power throwing 1000 times its own mass per year for a 15 year operating life. If the catapult is not too heavy relative to the total mass it can throw, the overall mass return ratio is high. From low Lunar orbit, electric tugs take over and deliver the materials for processing. There are about five major "ore types" of different compositions on the Moon and NEOs: highlands, maria, carbonaceous, stony, and metallic. Using all these types would supply the widest range of raw materials to make the widest range of products. :'''High Orbit Production''' &emsp;Energy is needed to convert raw materials into finished products. High orbits have abundant '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_constant Solar Energy]''', up to 11,930 kWh/m²/year. It can be converted to electricity by solar panels or used directly for heating using concentrating reflectors. Modern space solar panels and reflectors are very light weight relative to their power output, since they don't have to withstand gravity or weather. Excess heat can be disposed of by radiators or natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiant_exitance Emittance]'''. Low temperatures can be reached with '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sunshade Thermal Shades]''' to block the Sun and other heat sources, plus active refrigeration if needed. &emsp;A set of solar panels can supply enough power to start production, since electric power has many uses. Early processing, fabrication, and assembly equipment would come from Earth or low orbit. The first set of products are simple items to be used directly, such as shielding mass, fuel, and basic construction materials. The early production equipment would be supplemented over time by items made in orbit. Over time high orbit industry would transition from importing everything, to making items locally, then exporting products to other destinations. &emsp;Given sources of raw materials and energy, the simplest product of all is radiation shielding for people and equipment. This only requires crushing and sorting, then packing into containers around areas that need protection. Shielding also acts as thermal insulation and impact protection. Shielded modules allow extended crew stays in high orbit. Crews can operate production equipment and perform economic tasks for others, like satellite maintenance and refueling. To some extent the crew can be helped by remote control from Earth. &emsp;Next in difficulty, but not necessarily in priority, are water and carbon compounds, extracted from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous-Type Asteroid]''' material. This requires 200-300 C temperatures, which reflectors can supply, and a container and condenser to capture the vapors. Water and carbon can be chemically reformed to oxygen and hydrocarbons, which are common high-thrust rocket propellants. This is useful when transporting people through the radiation belts or for landing on the Moon. They can also be used in electric engines for higher efficiency at lower thrust. Water, carbon compounds, air mined from low orbit, and possibly rock for soil can supply greenhouse modules, so that crews can produce their own food and recycle life support supplies. &emsp;Metallic or '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M-type_asteroid M-Type Asteroids]''' are thought to be the source '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_meteorite Iron Meteorites]''' found on Earth and Mars. They make up about 5% of known asteroids, with the metal portion being an iron-nickel alloy. A high temperature furnace can melt the alloy, and a small amount of carbon added to make a steel alloy, and then cast into basic shapes. &emsp;Steel makes up about 90% of all metal used on Earth. Being able to produce it from space sources would allow a much higher percentage of self-production in space. Subtractive and additive '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_tool Machine Tools]''' are used to turn basic metal shapes into finished parts. Those can be assembled, along with some imported items, into new machines, including more machine tools. New machines and constructed metal items can then work with other materials. &emsp;Other space-made products can include '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt_fiber Basalt Fiber]''' made from lunar basalts, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers Carbon Fibers]''' from asteroid carbon compounds. These are are very high strength-to-weight. Fiber-reinforced metal structures are strong and relatively light weight. They would be useful for all kinds of construction. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_deposition Vacuum Deposition]''' is relatively easy to do in high orbit since vacuum is the natural state of that region. Products can include lightweight reflector sheets, and parts for radiator panels. These can be combined with high-concentration solar cells from Earth to supply power with less mass than complete panels. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractory Refractories]''' are a class of materials that can withstand high temperatures. Some were formed in high-temperature environments in space, and others can be made artificially. Reflectors and shades can be used in all kinds of industrial processes for thermal processing of materials. &emsp;In the long term, in-space production can supply up to 98-99% of the mass for space projects, greatly reducing what needs to come from Earth. The remaining 1-2% includes materials too rare in space to usefully mine, and products too hard to make relative to importing from Earth. Examples are electronics and drugs, which are already mass produced and high value for their weight. Importing is easier than trying to make them locally in space. :'''Living in High Orbit''' &emsp;After science and and supporting existing satellites, the first people to spend much time in high orbits would be there to build up industry. But ultimately large, comfortable space habitats can be built as permanent living space, like towns and cities on Earth. Like the ones on Earth, they don't have to be built all at once. The first ones can be small, and attached to industrial production facilities. &emsp;Larger residential habitats can also start small, but be designed to grow over time. Growth can be linear by adding at the ends, or in layers, like an onion. Linear growth can start with modules attached in a ring, with solar panels attached to each. The ring can be spun for artificial gravity. Additional rings can be stacked with the first one, with a ring of reflectors to direct sunlight to all the panels. &emsp;Layered growth adds new pressure shells with compartments outside the previous ones. The outer shells are in vacuum, and provide radiation, meteor impact, and thermal shielding. Inwards of that are pressurized areas for storage and mechanical equipment. Then comes living quarters and a central open space. The entire habitat rotates for artificial gravity. As new layers are added, items are moved or added to fill the larger space. Compared to building a large habitat all at once, this spreads the construction cost over time, and the habitat is only expanded when extra space is needed. &emsp; ==='''8.4 - Phase 4C: Inner Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Inner Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;These are orbits detached from the Earth's dominant gravity and orbit the Sun instead, though they may pass close to the Earth at times. They range from as close as equipment can function to the Sun and out to 1.8 times the Earth's average distance from the Sun (1.8 AU). This is just beyond Mars' greatest distance from the Sun (1.666 AU) and where the Main Asteroid Belt starts. It excludes Mercury, Venus, and Mars, and orbits around them, which are part of Phase 5 - Planetary Locations (Section 9.0 below). &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time in these orbits, but the intensity varies from 31% to many times that near Earth, depending on Solar distance. Exposed temperature correspondingly varies from 244K (-29C) to very hot for dark objects, and less for bright or reflective ones. Travel time from Earth can range from months to years depending on orbit and propulsion method, and whether gravity assists from the planets are used. These save fuel, but usually require extra time. &emsp;Solar and cosmic radiation are a moderately high background, with occasional flares/solar particle events that are much more intense, up to lethal human levels without shielding. Ping time ranges from a few seconds for orbits crossing near Earth, to over 45 minutes at 1.8 AU on the far side of the Sun, by way of a relay satellite. The Sun interrupts direct communication to the opposite side. &emsp;As noted in section 2.1, there are over 42,500 known near Earth Objects (NEOs) as of September 2026, and the number is currently increasing by 3,200 a year. There are another 1500 which don't come closer than 1.3 AU to the Sun and orbit within 1.8 AU on average. The largest among both sets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1036_Ganymed 1036 Ganymed]''' isn't particularly easy to reach, but has about 100 times the mass of all the rock ever mined on Earth. So total material resources in this region is large. &emsp;Asteroid orbits vary in size, are typically not circular, and somewhat tilted with respect to Earth's, so the energy required to reach a particular one varies. Timing also matters, since everything moves at different speeds in solar orbits. Efficient travel depends on a vehicle and the target arriving at the same place at the same time. The composition of asteroids vary across about a dozen spectral classes, indicating different chemical compositions. &emsp;There are not many active comets in this region because the Sun's heat evaporates their ices in a short time. About 25 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planets_and_comets_visited_by_spacecraft Minor Planets and Comets]''' have been visited by spacecraft so far. Most of our knowledge is from telescopes and examining meteorites that have fallen to Earth, and sometimes radar if they come close to us. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;There are only a few spacecraft currently in this region. They are mostly scientific probes in transit to other places, or stationed at the Earth-Sun Lagrange points 1 and 2 (ESL-1 and ESL-2). Future use is likely to start with asteroid mining and delivery to Earth orbit with electric tugs. About 75% of discovered asteroids in this region are more than 30 meters in size. This is due to limits of current telescopes rather than actual numbers, and may change with time. 30 meters implies a mass of 20-100 thousand tons depending on composition. This is too heavy to move whole with near-term propulsion. A method that should work with all sizes is scraping loose material or grabbing boulders from asteroid surfaces. &emsp;Prior to mining, prospecting missions should visit multiple candidates for geologic mapping and sampling. Mining would start with asteroids that are easy to reach from Earth orbit, and return bulk ore there to be processed. As Earth orbits become more developed, they can start to send production and habitat equipment to this region in addition to mining. Since raw materials and full-time solar energy are available, this can grow in time to full size factories and produce habitats, vehicles, and whatever else is needed locally. :'''Inner Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The early transport in this region would be mainly slow but efficient electric tugs. They can haul large loads of rock relative to their mass, up to 1000 tons for a 10 ton vehicle and 23 tons of propellant. This will vary with the orbit destination and velocity changes needed. Smaller cargo loads can be moved faster with the same propulsion. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_assist Gravity Assists]''' can be used if the Moon and inner planets are in the right positions. Chemical rockets would be used when fast velocity changes are needed. Solar sails may be effective in moving things even more slowly but with no propellant use. This depends on large lightweight reflectors delivered to or made in orbit. &emsp;Over time, a network of "transit habitats" can be built up. These are stationed in repeating orbits between planets and particular destinations. They would be larger, safer, and more comfortable than individual passenger vehicles. They can self-supply from nearby asteroids. This reduces having to send life support equipment and supplies each time for the relatively long trips in the region. &emsp;Rotating platforms called '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyhook_(structure) Skyhooks]''' can be built to provide both comfortable gravity and fast velocity changes. The platform mass stores momentum from very efficient propulsion that can be exchanged with payloads arriving and departing. The platform needs to be relatively heavy relative to each payload, so it doesn't change its own orbit much in use. Natural asteroids, production "slag" (leftover material not used in products), and the platform's own structure and equipment can serve this purpose. If traffic is balanced in direction, the net orbit change will be minimal. &emsp;Skyhooks can serve as a space equivalent to airports - mainly used to get from one place to another. Like airports, they need enough traffic to justify their construction, and can be developed and upgraded over time. Building them is easier if high strength materials can be produced locally in space. :'''Inner Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;Global artificial primary energy consumption on Earth was 20.3 TeraWatts in 2025. Note that primary energy does not include sunlight used by plants. This includes mining, processing, and manufacturing about 2 million kg/s of materials. So the energy intensity of civilization is 9 MJ/kg on average. We will double this to allow for recycling of materials in space, and add 8 km/s of orbit velocity change, requiring 300 MJ/kg of electric tug power. That covers a reasonable range of interplanetary orbits. &emsp;Transportation rather than production is then the dominant energy use in this region for new materials that need delivery. Modern space solar arrays typically product about 100 W/kg near Earth, and would take 36.8 days to produces the required 318 MJ. With a useful life of 20 years, their total energy output is 200 times that needed to transport their own mass in raw materials and all other energy needed to make replacement panels. Concentrating reflector and nuclear power sources are not yet developed enough for space to do calculate energy return ratios. They may turn out better or worse than solar panels, but as long as we have one known energy source with a high return ratio, we can base space industry on it. &emsp;The same process of bootstrapping production in Earth orbits can be used in interplanetary space. This starts with mining for export, then simple products made locally, and gradually growing to make more complex ones. As distance from Earth increases, fewer raw materials would tend to from the Moon, and more from nearby asteroids. These asteroids are of different types, which provides a reasonable variety of materials to work with. &emsp;If we restrict ourselves to within 20 degrees of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecliptic Ecliptic]''', to maintain access to the planets and keep velocity changes lower, we have access to 1/3 of the Sun's total energy, or 1.3 x 10^26 Watts. This is 7 trillion times our current energy use, a number so large it is hard to imagine it could not sustain a civilization. :'''Living Beyond Earth Orbit''' &emsp;Once methods of living in orbits around Earth are developed in the previous phases, doing so in solar orbits beyond the Earth-Moon region can use the same basic technologies. The main adjustments would be for available solar energy and temperature with distance from the Sun, and the kinds of materials found relatively nearby in velocity terms. In space, velocity changes take work, while coasting to a destination merely takes time. &emsp;It isn't yet clear if a "hunter-gatherer" or "sedentary" lifestyle would be more effective. The first means moving equipment to new asteroid locations as needed, while in the second the equipment stays in a particular orbit, and materials are brought to it. Since everything is in relative motion around the Sun, opportunities will change with time. So choosing a particularly useful asteroid as a home location may be a good strategy. &emsp; ==='''8.5 - Phase 4D: Mid-Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Living and working in the next region out from the Sun is a smooth continuation of the previous phase, but is different in having lower levels of solar energy and much larger amounts of raw materials. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Features''' [[File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png|thumb|600x600px|Figure 8.5-1 - Main Asteroid Belt and Jupiter Trojan region.]] &emsp;This region includes orbits from 1.8 to 6.0 AU in semi-major axes (Figure 8.5-1). As of 2026 this includes dwarf planet '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet) Ceres]''', 1.44 million other Main Belt asteroids, over 7300 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_asteroid Hildas]''', which are in 3:2 resonance with Jupiter, and over 16,700 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_trojan Jupiter Trojans]''' that occupy the Lagrange regions ahead of and behind the planet. New discoveries of mostly smaller objects has been about 80,000 a year. The region does not include Jupiter itself and the region within 20 million km of the planet (see Section 9.4). &emsp;There are also around 500 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet Comets]''' that cross the region. The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost_line_(astrophysics) Frost Line]''' for water is in this region at 2.7-3.2 AU. So this is where many comets become active (give off gas and dust), making them easier to find. Hydrogen and oxygen are the 1st and 3rd most common elements in the Universe, and helium (2nd) doesn't make compounds. So water is the most common compound of two elements. Objects beyond the frost line tend to have have large amounts of water ice, and if their orbits don't bring them closer can hold them permanently. &emsp;Solar power is available 100% of the time except shadowed areas on and around objects. Intensity varies from 31 to 2.78% of that near Earth. Temperature varies from 244 to 217K (-29 to -56C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Travel time from Earth is months to years for minimum energy transits, with high to lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time varies from 13 to 120 minutes, including relays to avoid direct communication paths through the Sun. &emsp;The vast and growing number of known objects in the region have a total mass of about 3 billion Gigatons, which far exceeds the Earth's total mining output of about 60 Gigatons/year. About half the total mass is in the four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_exceptional_asteroids Largest Asteroids]''': 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta, 2 Pallas, and 10 Hygeia. Composition varies considerably between asteroids due to differences in their formation and history. Velocity to reach orbit from the largest body, Ceres, is only 270 meters/second, or 860 times less kinetic energy than from Earth. So all these objects are easy to access once you are near them. The main energy cost is in adjusting your orbit around the Sun. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;This region has very few of spacecraft at present, so most uses are in the future. Abundant raw materials of diverse composition, and adequate amounts of solar energy when concentrated, will enable starting with mining and transport to previous locations. Previous locations have higher solar intensity for production and habitation. When it makes sense to do so, seed factories and other advanced technologies can help bootstrap a full range of local industry, and eventually large scale habitation. There is enough material and energy in this region to support a full civilization. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Transport''' &emsp;The same transport methods can be used in this region as for the inner interplanetary region. The main difference would be adding lightweight reflectors to solar panels if needed to make up for the lower solar intensity. Electric catapults and skyhooks are somewhat more efficient for injecting bulk cargo to transfer orbits, because they do point acceleration rather than spiral orbits. If a large asteroid absorbs the reaction force, those methods also don't need propellant. Gravity assists from the inner planets and Jupiter can also increase efficiency. :'''Mid-Interplanetary Production''' &emsp;The inner parts of this region have enough sunlight for solar panels to produce power directly. In the outer regions, solar panels can benefit from reflectors to increase the light intensity like they do for transport/ Concentrating reflectors can produce higher temperatures at all distances, either for industrial processes or habitats. Increasing amounts of reflectors are needed as you get farther from the Sun, but they are inherently lightweight in a zero gravity environment with no weather. Note that the total amount of solar energy available in this region is the same as for the Inner Interplanetary region. It has simply traveled farther and is more spread out. The difference is access to larger amounts of raw materials that are not at the bottom of gravity wells of large bodies. &emsp;Many asteroids are covered with a mixture of rocks and dust of varying sizes. This is the result of repeated impacts over their life and gravitational attraction. In fact, some asteroids are so low in density that they must be "gravel piles", with no solid central body. Since most asteroids are small, the rocks and dust are easily disturbed and can become a hazard to mining and production operations. So material has to be removed carefully without too much disturbance. Alternately the mining area can be covered to contain loose material. &emsp;More distant asteroids and comets contain water and other volatile compounds. These can be extracted separately by heating. Bulk or separated products are then moved by tugs if needed to factories for later production steps. For larger operations, a shell can surround the whole asteroid or comet, keeping gas and dust contained. Processing equipment can then be attached to the outside of the shell, and materials delivered continuously until the asteroid is consumed. The mining and production unit can then move to another target, or the target moved to the unit, whichever is lighter. &emsp; ==='''8.6 - Phase 4E: Outer Interplanetary Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;This region is again a continuation of the previous one, with even less solar energy and about 40 times more available materials. :'''Outer Interplanetary Features''' &emsp;Outer interplanetary orbits range from 6 to 60 AU in semi-major axis. The areas close to Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are excluded. They are accounted for in Phase 5E (Section 9.5}. As of 2026 there are over 700 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centaur_(small_Solar_System_body) Centaur]''' objects. These have orbits among the four giant planets, whose gravity makes them unstable over a few million years. There are also 4,470 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Neptunian_object Trans-Neptune Objects]''' with orbits beyond that planet, making a total of about 5,170 in this region. Some, like Pluto and Eris, are large enough to be considered '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_planet Dwarf Planets]'''. The remainder are in the range of 15 to 850 km, with the lower end set by our current telescopes' ability to find them. There are undoubtedly smaller ones that are undiscovered. &emsp;Available solar power is low, from 2.78% to 0.0278% of near-Earth values. This requires large reflectors to increase intensity, nuclear fission or fusion (if developed), or beamed energy from closer to the Sun. Ambient temperatures are extremely cold, from -113 to -223C for black objects, and lower for lighter ones. Travel time from Earth is typically many years, with high to occasionally lethal radiation levels for unprotected people. Ping time is 1.4 to 17 hours. &emsp;The number of known objects is much smaller than the Mid-Interplanetary region, but their mass is roughly 40 times larger - about 2% of Earth or nearly double the Moon. With increasing distance from the Sun, gases and ices with lower boiling points condensed from the original Solar Nebula. So there is more water, ammonia, nitrogen and other frozen materials, along with rocks and metals. The distinction between asteroid and frozen comet becomes fuzzy, so we call all of them 'objects' and the larger ones 'minor planets'. :'''Outer Interplanetary Activities''' &emsp;This region is likely too far to use with current technology. Activities beyond science and exploration are far enough in the future that technology is likely to change in unexpected directions. When other activities would start and what they will be is uncertain, but we can speculate based on what we know today. The raw materials in the region are different than those closer to the Sun. So the first activities are likely to be mining materials scarce closer to the Sun, and bringing them to where there is more energy to process them. &emsp;Due to weak sunlight in this region, nuclear propulsion and gravity assists from the larger bodies are likely to be major transport methods. The solar system has a limited amount of natural '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radionuclide Radionuclides]''' that can produce useful power levels. If '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_power Fusion Power]''' is not developed enough, radioactives can be made artificially near the Sun where abundant energy is available. If nuclear fusion is well developed, there is abundant hydrogen from which fusion fuels can be produced. &emsp;As distance increases from the Sun, orbit velocities and required velocity changes decrease as the square root of distance. Solar flux decreases faster, as the inverse square of distance. So solar sails become less effective than for closer regions. Beamed energy from close to the Sun is a possibility. It requires large optics to focus the beam to a reasonable size at destinations in the region. &emsp;We don't expect a lot of production here at first. Water and nitrogen are very useful and found in large amounts. Transport would be slow using minimum energy trajectories. If there is enough demand, a "pipeline" of bulk cargoes in transit could be set up, with vehicles at each end to set them on course and collect them at the end. The cargo can coast in between, saving on vehicle use. Once the pipeline is filled, then cargoes arrive on a regular schedule. &emsp;If lightweight solar reflectors or fusion are developed enough, a full economy based on them may develop, with full production and habitation. We don't see a strong reason to live this far out rather than the warmer and brighter inner regions, but such reasons may develop. ==='''8.7 - Phase 4F: Distant Orbit Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The previous three phases are called 'interplanetary' because they are among or near the eight known major planets. This last region is beyond all of them so we call it 'distant'. :'''Distant Orbit Features''' &emsp;Distant orbits range from 60 AU in semi-major axis to the limits of the Sun's gravitational dominance at about 100,000 AU. As of 2026 there are about 1900 known asteroids and comets in the region. It includes about 650 '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_centaurs.html Scattered Disk]''' and '''[https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/lists/t_tnos.html Trans-Neptune]''' objects, and a larger number of '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_long-period_comets Long Period]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_near-parabolic_comets Near Parabolic]''' comets. &emsp;A few of these objects belong to much larger and more distant populations known as the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hills_cloud Hills]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud Oort Clouds]'''. For our purposes we define these as orbits with axes from 2000-10,000 AU and from 10,000 to where passing stars, gas clouds, and galactic tides make orbits unstable. This is roughly 100,000 AU. The existence of comets whose orbits extend to these distances argues for the cloud's existence. Otherwise no active comets would be left after billions of years. Their total number and mass is only guessed at, but may be billions to trillions and multiples of the Earth's mass. There is some evidence to suspect a major planet is also in this region. &emsp;Current telescopes are limited to finding objects within about 80 AU from the Sun. So only the ones that come within the 60-80 AU range at their closest ''and'' are currently at the near end of their orbits have been found to date. We expect to find many more objects in the region as telescopes improve. Active comets from distant orbits which come close to the Sun give us some information on composition from the gas and dust they emit. &emsp;Solar energy is very weak in this region, below 0.0278% of that near Earth, and temperatures are extremely cold, from 50K down to near the cosmic background of 2.7K. Travel time with current propulsion technology is many years to centuries. Ping time ranges from 14 hours to 3 years. :'''Distant Orbit Activities''' &emsp;Our current information about objects in this region is poor. So any uses beyond science and exploration are deferred to the far future. When that time comes, though, there is a very large reserve of materials that can be put to use. One identified use is the Sun acting as a gravitational lens, with a focus around 800 AU from the Sun, in the Scattered Disk region. Placing telescopes directly opposite a star of interest would allow much more detailed observations than otherwise possible, because of the 2 million km optical diameter of the Sun as a lens. &emsp;To keep transport times within reason, very high energy propulsion would be needed, such as nuclear fusion. Since the light elements needed for fusion are common in these outer regions, this could be self-fueling once set up. Unfortunately, fusion is not yet a viable technology. Transport that uses it remains speculative for now. Due to the low to nearly non-existent solar energy in this region, nuclear energy sources would likely be needed to even consider local production. Production must also remain speculative for now. &emsp; =='''9.0 - Phase 5 - Planetary System Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The planetary systems of Phase 5 are different in several ways from the orbital locations in Phase 4 and from each other. Specific designs are needed to handle the differences, so we identify separate sub-phases for each. First are their gravity fields, which require energy to travel through and create significant surface gravity. Second are their large sizes relative to objects in the orbital regions, and third is the diversity of conditions found on and around the planets. &emsp;Reasons to use planetary systems include access to the different raw materials available, relief of Earth's biosphere by moving industry off-planet, and some people's preference for natural environments. As with orbital locations, the start of each sub-phase is staggered from nearest to furthest from Earth, and is preceded by orbital transport that can reach the locations carrying useful amounts of equipment. So Phase 4 and 5 projects will overlap in time. ==='''9.1 - Phase 5A: Lunar Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Earth is one of the eight major planets in the Solar System. It is already occupied and developed. We covered using the self-improving systems approach on it earlier in this report. We also covered most orbits around Earth in Sections 8.2 and 8.3. The exception was the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon Moon]''' and the area around it. We place it here among other planetary systems since lunar activities will be more similar to those for smaller planets and the larger moons of the other planets. :'''Lunar Features''' &emsp;The Lunar region includes the Moon itself, and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_orbit Lunar Orbits]''' with semi-major axes less than 35,000 km in size. These are close enough to the Moon to be relatively stable. Lunar orbits in general are somewhat unstable. The Moon has mass concentrations from past impacts that create an uneven gravity field. The Earth and Sun are also much more massive than the Moon, and their gravity has significant effects on objects orbiting the Moon. &emsp;The Moon has the same average distance from the Sun as the Earth, so available solar energy and basic temperatures ranges are the same. Sunlight is partly blocked in lower Lunar orbits, and blocked about 50% of the time on the surface over a 29.5 day cycle. Surface gravity averages 1.62 m/s², or 1/6th of Earth, with a total variation of 0.025 m/s² by location (Figure 9.1-1). &emsp;Escape velocity from the Lunar surface is 2380 m/s, or 21% of Earth. So escape energy is only 4.5% of Earth's. Orbit velocities are 1680 m/s or less, and adding 700 m/s or less to them reaches escape. Circular orbit velocity at the upper edge of the region is 375 m/s, and escape is an added 155 m/s. Surface area of the Moon is 37.93 million km^2 measured horizontally, or about one quarter of the Earth's land area. Sloped terrain increases the total exposed surface area. [[File:Moon_gravity_acceleration_map_LGM2011.jpg|thumb|right|800x450px|Figure 9.1-1 - Lunar surface gravity map. Near side on left, far side on right.]] &emsp;Earth is only 81.3 times the Moon's mass. So the center of mass of both averages 1/4 of the way down from the Earth's surface to it's center. Both move around this center every 27.3 days with respect to the stars. Since both also orbit the Sun, the Moon's orbit and day lengths are not the same. &emsp;The Moon is '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal_lockingt Tidally locked]''' to Earth, and keeps approximately the same side facing us. It is not exact because the Moon's orbit is not circular, it has a slight residual pendulum motion, and we have different vantage points from the Earth's surface. So about 59% of its surface can be seen from Earth over time. The two hemispheres are called the "near" and "far" sides. There is no "dark" side, since both get sunlight during a lunar day. &emsp;Orbits around the Moon vary from 108 minutes close to the surface, to 6.8 days for the largest ones in the region. Travel time from Earth is 3-4 days for direct transfer orbits. Electric propulsion is much more efficient, but also much slower. Without shielding, travel to and staying on and around the Moon can expose people to lethal radiation levels. This is from Earth's radiation belts, solar, and cosmic sources. Ping time from Earth to the Lunar region varies from 2.2 to 2.94 seconds, depending on where in the region, and the Moon's distance in it's orbit. This includes satellite relay time if communicating with areas that can't be seen directly from Earth. &emsp;The Moon has a somewhat variable and reasonably well understood surface '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_the_Moon Geology]'''. This is known from a number of lander and orbital missions, some of which returned samples, and from '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_meteorite Lunar Meteorites]''' thrown to Earth by impacts. Broadly, the surface is oxide minerals with silicon, iron, calcium, aluminum, and magnesium, in order of abundance, and 3-4% other elements. &emsp;The Moon is too small and warm to keep an atmosphere. With nothing to stop incoming objects, the surface has been heavily cratered and broken up by repeated impacts of all sizes. The result is a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_soil Regolith]''' or lunar soil that has been tossed around many times. It is a mix of the original crust and the remains of impacting objects. There is no weathering like on Earth, but the solar wind can charge dust particles which then move, and temperature cycles can cause rocks to crack near the surface. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The Lunar region is embedded in the High Orbit region, and reaching it from Earth is possible with current and near-term transport. Science and exploration activities are already in progress. Further development can start as soon as there are economic reasons for it. The first uses are likely to be local on the surface, and from the Moon's relative closeness to populated satellite orbits and low energy to reach these orbits. For example, some '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water Water ice]''' appears to be trapped in cold polar craters on the Moon. It has multiple uses, and could be delivered relatively efficiently to high and low Earth orbits. &emsp;Surface mining the regolith can supply enough materials for much larger projects on the Moon and nearby orbits. The loose surface layer averages 5 meters thick across the whole Moon. It can be collected without heavy mining methods and totals about 300,000 Gigatons, or 7,000 years of Earth's total stone and sand mining in 2020. Projects that use lunar (and asteroid) materials are not as limited by launch mass and cost from Earth, so they can use simpler and heavier designs. In the future, production that uses lots of energy, or have hazards and side effects, could be moved to space to reduce the burden on Earth's environment. &emsp;Satellites that beam energy to Earth is one possibility. If this can be done economically, it might become the largest export market from orbit. Renewable energy on Earth is now relatively low cost, but it is variable and some places have poor conditions for using it. There is 10 times more solar energy in space than such places and it is more predictable. So it may prove useful, despite the extra cost of building in space. :'''Lunar Transport''' &emsp;Early landings on the Moon would not have the support of local infrastructure. They would use current high thrust chemical rockets to access the surface. At first, all propellants would come from Earth. Water from polar lunar craters can supply 83.5% of methane/oxygen propellant, and and also life support supplies, reducing the mass needed from Earth to support activities. '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-type_asteroid Carbonaceous]''' type asteroids contain up to 20% carbon compounds and water. These can be reformed chemically to CH₄ and O₂ and largely replace Earth propellant and life support supplies. How much would come from each source will depend on cost and availability. &emsp;Over time, chemical propulsion can be replaced by more efficient methods. As mentioned in Section 8.3, an electric catapult can deliver 1000 times a solar array's mass per year from the Moon's surface to Lunar orbit. Electric propulsion can then move lunar and asteroid materials to a common orbit for processing. High orbits around the Moon or Earth are preferred for their near-full time sunlight and a combined low velocity to reach. Both propellants and other products can be made with processing and manufacturing equipment in the same location. &emsp;Lunar basalt and carbon from asteroids can be used to make high strength fibers. These can be used to build an efficient skyhook system in lunar orbit. Such a system makes sense if there is enough traffic to the Moon. If the tip velocity is equal to orbit velocity they cancel, and trips to and from the lunar surface would need very little fuel. A lander can be dropped off and picked up at low altitude. This can't be done directly on the surface because the variable gravity field and heights of lunar mountains and crater walls can cause collisions. &emsp;If the skyhook is in near-polar orbit, it can access any point on the surface every 15 days as the Moon rotates below it. Using other angles of the skyhook's rotation, and by climbing to different distances from the center, arrival and departure directions and speeds up to 1.41 times lunar escape are possible. Catching and releasing vehicles affects the skyhook's orbit. If traffic is balanced in direction and mass, and the skyhook is massive enough, it is a temporary change. If traffic is more in one direction than the other, the difference can be made up by high efficiency electric propulsion. &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful to people. If the skyhook radius is about 250 km, the tip acceleration will be about 1 g, which avoids this problem. A large supply of local lunar materials can provide shielding. With this combination people can live comfortably and safely. They would be close enough to the lunar surface to operate equipment by remote control in real time. Alternate solutions to low gravity are using rotating habitats on the surface or limiting stay times. :'''Lunar Production''' &emsp;The advantages of using the Moon are relative closeness to high orbits, and low energy to move cargo. The disadvantage is there are few volatile (low boiling-point) materials left on the Moon. It formed in a molten state, suffered many high energy impacts and early tidal heating, and is too small to keep an atmosphere. A fully-developed space economy would need to supplement lunar materials with those from nearby asteroids and from Earth. Some materials are too rare to usefully mine in space. Some products are also too hard or expensive to make there relative to delivery from Earth. So two-way trade would be needed for lunar activities to support themselves. &emsp;Early Lunar production can start with mining bulk surface material for radiation/thermal/impact protection, and polar ice for propellant and life support. These don't need a lot of complex equipment. More energy-intensive and complex processes like vacuum oxide reduction and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbothermic_reaction Carbothermic Reactions]''' can separate oxygen and various metals from the regolith. Seed factory starter sets can be used to bootstrap making other products for local use and export. As better transport systems are installed in sequence, the cost of delivery elsewhere will decrease. &emsp;Solar energy will likely be the dominant energy source for lunar production. Silicon for solar cells, aluminum for reflectors, and other metals for structures are widely available from the regolith to provide solar power. However some craters with water are permanently shadowed, the lunar night is two weeks long, and large solar plants are not very portable. So other energy sources may be useful. &emsp;Some regions of the Lunar surface contain ~10 parts per million Uranium and Thorium. The ore has an energy content of about 800 MJ/kg (20 times that of coal on Earth). Helium-3 has been proposed as a fusion fuel to be mined from the Moon. Although the energy content of pure He-3 is 200 TJ/kg, the concentration is only 15 parts per billion or less, resulting in an ore content of only 3 MJ/kg. So fissionable elements are a better energy source on the Moon in terms of energy produced per ton of mined ore. &emsp;Other energy options for the Moon can include the rims of shadowed craters, where sunlight is highly available, microwave or laser beamed power across terrain or from orbit, and even fuel cells or batteries for portable power. Thermal energy storage is an option using the vast amount of rocks and dust as the storage medium, and the natural vacuum as insulation. The material is heated during the day by sunlight, and the heat used to generate power during the Lunar night. :'''Living in Lunar Locations''' &emsp;Low gravity is known to be harmful, so long-term habitats on the Lunar surface may require rotation to create artificial gravity. An example would be a large habitat dome for spaciousness, and a centrifuge built around the rim for living quarters. Residents would spend enough time in the centrifuge to maintain health, but could work and enjoy the low gravity the rest of the time. &emsp;We have essentially no data on how much gravity is enough between zero and full Earth gravity. We know the body deteriorates over time in zero gravity. So as a worst case, people would need to spend most of their time in a one gee environment of some type, but this subject needs more research. Another option is limiting permanent stay times on the surface. People would live mostly in orbit with artificial gravity and operate most equipment by remote control. &emsp;The other requirements for people to live and work in the lunar region have mostly been solved by existing space stations, and using bulk materials for shielding. One exception is lunar dust, which is abrasive, toxic, and is everywhere on the surface. Various methods to deal with it have been proposed, but R&D is needed to figure out which work best. ==='''9.2 - Phase 5B: Mars Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars Mars]''' is next among planetary locations in terms of velocity and time to reach, and the environment conditions there. It is a large step beyond the Moon, but Mars is within the inner interplanetary region (Section 8.4) that Earth also occupies. So we expect Martian activities to start after some level of development of the region in-between. :'''Mars Features''' &emsp;The Mars region includes the planet, two small moons, and reasonably stable orbits with semi-major axes up to 340,000 km (100 radii). Its orbit around the Sun is 9.3% eccentric, varying from 1.38 to 1.67 AU in distance. Solar flux varies with distance from 494 to 716 W/m², or 36 to 52.5% of that near Earth. Surface gravity varies from 3.683 to 3.743 m/s², a 1.6% range, with a reference value of 3.711 (3/8ths of Earth). Lower values are near the equator and atop tall mountains, while higher values are at lower altitudes in the north polar region and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitia Hellas]''' basin. &emsp;Ping time from Earth varies from 6 to 45 minutes, depending on relative orbital position and need for a relay satellite to avoid the Sun. Unprotected radiation levels range from high to lethal, but the Mars surface and its moons provide ample material for shielding. &emsp;Escape velocity from the surface is 5,027 m/s, and is 502 m/s at the upper edge of the orbital region. Circular orbit velocities are 70.7% of escape. This ratio holds for orbits around any body. Escape energy is 20% that of Earth. Orbits around Mars vary from 100 minutes for low ones to 70 days at the edge of the region. Surface area of Mars is 144.8 million km², or 97% of Earth's land area. Day length is 24h 40m, slightly longer than Earth, and the Martian year is 1.881 Earth years. Travel times vary according to the relative positions of Mars and Earth, and the transport method used. When aligned, minimum energy orbits average 7 months one way. &emsp;The moons '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phobos_(moon) Phobos]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deimos_(moon) Deimos]''' have near-circular orbits of with 9,377 and 23,460 km radius. They have mean diameters of 22.5 and 12.4 km, but are irregular shapes. They have a combined mass of 12,800 Gigatons, or 290 years of Earth's rock and sand mining. This is a significant orbital resource. They are likely collected impact debris, so similar to Mars in composition. [[File:Generalised_Geological_Map_of_Mars.jpg|thumb|700x1024px|Figure 9.2-1 - Generalized geologic map of Mars.]] &emsp;The atmosphere is 96% CO2, a bit under 2% each Argon and Nitrogen, and an assortment of trace gases. Surface pressure varies from 30 Pascals at the top of Olympus Mons to 1155 Pascals in the Hellas basin. The high value is 1.14% of sea-level pressure on Earth. Pressure varies by 30% annually, as some of the CO2 freezes and evaporates at the poles. Surface temperatures vary from 120 to 293K (-153 to 20 C), depending on latitude and season. Typical day-night variation is 70K/C because the atmosphere does not have much thermal mass. &emsp;Mars has quite a varied surface geology, as a result of internal melting and vulcanism, impacts, and much higher levels of water and atmospheric pressure earlier in it's history (Figure 9.2-1 from '''[http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/3292/ USGS Map 3292, 2014]'''). There is significant amounts of water in the soil as hydrates, permafrost, and in thick dusty ice caps. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Human activity in the region can begin with a scientific outpost. It would be an extension of existing robotic exploration, and Phase 4C activity among asteroids in the surrounding region (Section 8.4). The outpost and relay satellites are placed in orbit close enough to Mars for real-time remote control. Surface robots carry out science and sample collection at first, with some samples returned to the outpost for further analysis. Most outpost supplies can come from Mars' moons and nearby asteroids. &emsp;Over time, other robots and equipment are delivered to the surface to start to preparing for people. Once enough supplies and basic production are in place, they can start to visit. This approach delays risking people on the surface until a supply chain and reliable two-way transportation is available. &emsp;As more production capacity is built up on Mars and surrounding orbits, it can start to transition from science to prospecting for unique resources, building up local habitation, and a full economy. Since Mars has almost the same land area as Earth, there is plenty of room to do this. Building up activities in the Mars region would be a relatively small extension from previous regions. So it is not a large cost burden, but rather an investment in further growth. :'''Mars Transport''' &emsp;In Phases 4B and 4C (sections 8.3 and 8.4 above), electric tugs were used to move asteroid materials back to Earth/Moon orbits for processing. To expand towards Mars, the same type of tugs move materials from Near Earth or Near Mars orbits to specific '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_cycler Mars Cycler]''' orbits. These orbits allow repeat flybys of Earth and Mars using gravity assists. Given the many thousands of asteroids in the interplanetary region, some of them have low velocity to and from a cycler orbit. &emsp;Other tugs deliver habitat modules and initial processing equipment from near Earth to the same orbit. The raw asteroid materials are distributed around the habitat for radiation shielding, and used as a counterweight for artificial gravity. At the next opportunity a crew meets up with the new "Mars Transfer Station", and begins to process the raw materials into fuel, air, water, metals, etc. They also establish a greenhouse to produce food. When raw materials run low, a tug is sent to another nearby asteroid to get more. &emsp;Whenever the Transfer Station is near Earth, new crew, equipment, and supplies can be delivered. Crew aboard the transfer station are safe from radiation hazards, have gravity to maintain health, and can eventually produce most of what they need themselves. The Station can be used multiple times to bring new crews to Mars, saving mass over carrying a life support system and supplies for every trip. Cargo besides people can travel to the Mars region directly with tugs. &emsp;When the transfer station is built up enough, a set of crew detach and inject into Mars orbit. The Martian moons then become a source of materials in addition to nearby asteroids. Eventually enough propellants are produced locally for trips to the planet's surface. &emsp;Chemical rockets consume a lot of propellants traveling back and forth from the surface. In the longer term, some combination of skyhook and surface catapult can replace most of that. These would be large projects, but the propellant savings for each trip makes up for it. Carbon from asteroids or the moons, and basalt from Mars, can be used to make the strong fibers for such systems. &emsp;Skyhooks can start small with low capacity, but their orbit parameters and timing would be shifted from bulk going up. Linear or rotary electric catapults on the surface are attached to the planet and not affected this way. To limit drag losses they would be built on the large Martian volcanoes. Mixed use of both systems is also possible. It is too early to choose among these or other options, but chemical rockets are inefficient. In the long run something better would be preferred. :'''Mars Production''' &emsp;Like other phases of our program, the production in the region starts with mining raw materials for basic products with ready-to-use equipment. Seed factory equipment is delivered to orbit and the surface as needed. This bootstraps more diverse, larger scale, and advanced production. The supply chain from Earth and intermediate regions supports this with regular deliveries. &emsp;Mars has a different history than asteroids, so it likely has sources of volatile compounds and minerals not common in the orbital regions. Very efficient bulk transport is desirable for an export market to develop. Because the gravity well of Mars requires large-scale systems to do this, exports may not be economic right away, but rather need a build-up period in the region first. :'''Living in Mars Locations''' &emsp;Living in the orbital region around Mars would be similar to high orbits around Earth or the interplanetary region that surrounds both. There would be minor differences in available solar energy and local material sources. Living on the surface would require adapting designs to local conditions of gravity, temperature, and other parameters. Since gravity is 3/8 Earth normal, that includes how to maintain health for people and other living things. Example methods are body weights and rotating habitats. &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming Terraforming]''' Mars has often been suggested because it is already the most similar place to Earth. Doing this for a small population is likely too much effort for the amount of use it would get. When the population gets large enough or technology has advanced enough the local population (Martians) can decide if terraforming makes sense. Self-improving production systems can make such a project easier. &emsp;An alternate approach is to use habitat domes to provide a feeling of being outdoors. Internal pressure would be much higher than outside. So lightweight domes need a lot of structure and anchoring to avoid lifting off the ground. Domes can be weighted down by bulk soil and rock, or using thick glass. These also provide radiation, temperature, and impact protection. ==='''9.3 - Phase 5C: Venus and Mercury Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;'''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus Venus]''' and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(planet) Mercury]''' are the next in difficulty after Mars. They have abundant solar energy available, but as a result are mostly very hot. There are relatively few nearby asteroids to start orbital development with. :'''Venus and Mercury Features''' &emsp;The Venus and Mercury regions include the planets, and relatively stable orbits within 600,000 and 100,000 km of their centers, respectively. Like Earth they are embedded in the Inner Interplanetary region (Section 8.4). They have no known moons. So the main interest is the planets themselves and activity around them. Venus' orbit is nearly circular at 0.723 AU, while Mercury's is 20% eccentric and varies from 0.307 to 0.467 AU. &emsp;Solar flux is 1.9 times higher than near Earth at Venus, and 4.6-10.6 times higher at Mercury. Equilibrium temperatures in sunlight are 17% and 46-80% higher in Kelvin. The surface temperature is 735K (462 C) for Venus, from a thick atmosphere with a strong greenhouse effect. Mercury ranges from below 100K in shadowed polar craters, to as high as 700K at the sub-solar point at perihelion. A given location can vary nearly this whole temperature range due to a 58.6 day rotation period. Venus's rotation takes 243 days, but the atmosphere mostly eliminates temperature changes. &emsp;Venus' surface gravity is 8.87 m/s^2 (90% of Earth), and Mercury's is 3.7 m/s^2, the same as for Mars. Escape velocities are 10.36 and 4.25 km/s from their surfaces and 1,041 and 664 m/s from the outer edge of their regions. Orbits range from 90 minutes to 59 days around Venus, and 85 minutes to 15.5 days around Mercury. Ping times from Earth vary from 4.3 to 30 minutes for Venus, and 9 to 25 minutes for Mercury. Travel times by least energy transfer orbits are 4.8 and 3.5 months respectively. &emsp;The '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology_of_Venus Geology of Venus]''' appears to be mostly volcanic, and it has lost most of its water to space. The atmosphere has a surface pressure of 9.2 MPa (90.8 times Earth), and is composed of 96.5% CO2 and 3.5% Nitrogen, with some trace gases. While it is very hot at the surface, moderate pressures of 0.5 times Earth and temperatures around 27 C exist at 55 km altitude. Mercury has only a trace atmosphere, and a '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_mineral Silicate]''' surface about 40% O, 25% Si, 11% Mg, 6% Al, 4% each Ca and Fe, and 2% S. Polar regions can have surprisingly moderate average temperatures, and water ice has been found in shadowed polar craters :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Near-term use of Venus and Mercury is more difficult because of the higher velocity to reach them and generally hostile temperatures. Scoop-mining gases from the upper reaches of Venus' atmosphere is a possibility. In the mid-term, floating habitats are possible at altitudes where temperature and pressure are reasonable. Polar stations on Mercury can take advantage of lower average temperatures with proper insulation. In the long term asteroid iron or aluminum can be used for orbiting sunshades to cool both planets where needed. &emsp;Reducing temperature lowers the scale height of Venus' atmosphere, and preferentially lowers the pressure of the high altitude regions of the planet, making them more accessible. There is the possibility that low enough temperatures will promote carbonation of the volcanic surface minerals, further lowering pressures, and that this process can be enhanced artificially. If the surface conditions can be made more tolerable, then large scale access to raw materials plus high energy available in orbit could promote industry. &emsp;It takes 7 to 12 km/s velocity change to travel from near Earth to the Venus and Mercury orbit regions, and therefore 0.15 and 0.27 kg of propellant per kg cargo using electric thrusters. This does not account for gravity assists or skyhook transfers. These require 263 and 474 MJ of solar power respectively. If the cargo is all solar arrays, or equivalent thermal power generation, they will produce an additional 13.75 and 91.5 MJ/day added power output, and repay the extra energy use in 19 and 5.2 days respectively. So energy-intensive processes highly favor going closer to the Sun. :'''Venus and Mercury Transport''' &emsp;Higher orbit speeds as you get closer to the Sun means more velocity changes are needed to reach them. Like elsewhere, gravity assists and skyhook systems can help do this more efficiently. Solar-powered electric propulsion is quite viable closer to the Sun. Solar flux increases faster then velocity changes, so this introduces the possibility of solar sails as an additional transport method in the inner regions. The advantage of solar sails is they do not consume propellant. But in the outer Solar System low solar energy makes them very slow. &emsp;For example, reflected sunlight provides 15.5 Newtons/km^2 at Venus, and a 1 micron thick Magnesium-Aluminum sail would mass 2400 kg/km^2. This generates 558 m/s/day acceleration for the bare sail. This is reduced by the remaining structure and cargo mass, and by angling the sail to control thrust direction. This acceleration is comparable to that for electric propulsion using solar array mass near Earth. A combined system can take advantage of reduced propellant use from a sail and wider thrust angles from the electric engines. :'''Venus and Mercury Production''' &emsp;Production in the Venus and Mercury regions would likely start in orbit as an extension of Inner Interplanetary activity. The higher solar flux relative to energy needed to reach inner orbits favors processes that need lots of energy. Raw materials can come from nearby and imported asteroid sources, and possibly scoop mining gas from Venus orbit. There are only 59 known asteroids whose orbit is entirely inside Earth's, and less than 2500 others whose orbit is smaller than Earth's and cross inside of it. This is only 0.2% of the total known, so many materials may have to be imported from farther away. &emsp;Habitats to support production, with artificial gravity, thermal, and radiation shielding can be built in more developed regions and transported to Venus and Mercury orbit to start with. Surface catapults are possible from Mercury's polar regions, where temperatures are more moderate. The combination of materials delivered at least partly by solar sailing and abundant solar energy should allow production to grow in time. :'''Living at Venus and Mercury''' &emsp;Living in orbits around the two planets would be similar to the nearby interplanetary region, and not require much new design. The planets themselves are mostly hostile in their current state, so we expect few other habitats would be built beyond possible science and exploration outposts in the mid-term. If planet-scale terraforming becomes feasible, mostly by blocking excess sunlight, non-industrial habitats may develop in the long-term. ==='''9.4 - Phase 5D: Jupiter System Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;Development of the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter Jupiter System]''' would likely follow the Mid-Interplanetary (Section 8.5), as its orbit is near the outer edge of that region. It isn't clear if the Jupiter region will be easier or harder to develop than Venus and Mercury. :'''Jupiter System Features''' &emsp;The Jupiter System includes the largest planet in the Solar System (317.8 Earth masses), and reasonably stable orbits around it with semi-major axes less 25 million km. It includes four '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons Galilean Moons]''' more than 3000 km diameter, named as a group after their discoverer. As of 2023 there are 91 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Jupiter Smaller Moons]''' from 1-170 km in size. The larger moons can support their own reaxonably stable orbits, and can be used for gravity assists to change orbits in the Jupiter system. &emsp;Solar flux varies from 3.3-4.1% of that near Earth, so concentrating reflectors are useful in this region. Escape velocity is 59.5 km/s from just above the atmosphere, or an added 24.6 km/s from low orbit. Escape is 3.11 km/s from the edge of the region. Orbit periods range from 174 minutes to 2.26 years. Travel time from Earth by minimum energy orbit is 2.7 years, while gravity assists and other propulsion methods can increase or decrease the time. Ping time is 1.06 to 1.85 hours, depending on relative orbit locations. &emsp;Jupiter has a strong magnetic field which creates intense radiation belts. This ranges from high to immediately deadly levels for unprotected people, and can rapidly degrade even shielded electronics. Outside these belts, the usual solar and galactic radiation is still a hazard. Temperature in Jupiter System orbits are about 217K (-56 C) for black objects, and less for lighter colored ones. Jupiter is a Gas Giant, and therefore has no solid surface. The atmosphere is 90% Hydrogen, 10% Helium, plus trace gases. Orbit minus rotation velocity is 29.5 km/s, making it very difficult to access the planet itself or even mine the atmopshere from orbit. &emsp;The four large moons (Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto) orbit 0.422, 0.671, 1.07, and 1.88 million km from Jupiter in nearly circular orbits. They have a combined surface area of 232.8 million km^2, or 1.56 times the land area of Earth. They have negligible atmospheres. All four are tidally locked to Jupiter, so their days are equal to their orbit periods of 1.77, 3.55, 7.15, and 16.7 days. Surface gravity varies from 1.23 to 1.80 m/s^2, or 12.5 to 18.4% of Earth. &emsp;Io's surface is volcanic deposits and sulfur compounds. The other three large moons are either entirely or partially covered in ice, with various minerals and frozen compounds making up the rest of their surfaces. Surface temperatures of the large moons range from 70-165K, except for volcanic hot spots on Io, and vary mostly by latitude and how close they are to Jupiter, which determines how much reflected light they get on the near side. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Use of the Jupiter System would likely follow the Main Belt and Trojan locations in Phase 4D. There are 12,500 Jupiter Trojans vs 91 smaller moons around Jupiter, and the Trojans are much larger in total mass. Since Jupiter's gravity well requires more velocity to navigate, there is no particular reason to use the smaller moons except as a way to access the larger ones. The outer Jovian moons are likely captured asteroids, and are the same Solar distance as the Trojan group. So they don't represent new technical challenges. &emsp;The large moons together have 6.6% of Earth's mass, or 5.4 times that of Earth's Moon. They can be a very large source of materials, with some significant variations in composition. Early uses are likely to be mining-based, with return of materials to more developed regions. Even the largest moon, Ganymede, has a low enough orbit velocity that a catapult or skyhook can deliver directly to orbit, after which an electric tug can transport it elsewhere. Water is widely available in the Jupiter System, both for life support and propellant. High radiation close to the planet requires careful design for habitats and electronics. Remote control from a safe distance is a possibility. :'''Jupiter System Transport''' &emsp;Transport from the Mid-Interplanetary region and closer to Earth can start with electric propulsion, and for people use shielded habitat modules. High-thrust landers can be used to start with for the large moons, while skyhooks and catapults can be brought or built later for higher efficiency. Since these would already be developed for previous locations, not much new design would be needed except for radiation protection close to the planet. Transfer habitats in cyclic orbits with heavily shielded sections is a design option. Those sections are used when when close to the planet. We don't expect to land on or mine Jupiter itself until far in the future because of the extremely high energy required. The other Gas Giants are easier to access and have milder radiation belts. :'''Jupiter System Production''' &emsp;Growth of local production follows the usual path of mining first, then bringing seed factory equipment to bootstrap other industries. The smaller outer moons can be an early source of fuel and water. Rocky and metallic materials may need to be imported from the surrounding regions, depending on the composition of the moons. Large reflectors would be a desirable early product to generate power and heat. :'''Living in the Jupiter System''' &emsp;Living in the outer parts of the Jupiter system is very similar to the Trojan asteroid regions, as they are the same average distance from the Sun. Only '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(moon) Callisto]''' among the large moons has tolerable radiation levels at its surface. The closer moons and orbits around and among them require significant shielding. Water is a good shielding material, and all the large moons have lots of it. ==='''9.5 - Phase 5E: Outer Giant Locations'''=== &emsp; &emsp;The three outer giant planets, '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn Saturn]''', '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus Uranus]''', and '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neptune Neptune]''', are next in difficulty from distance and lower solar energy. This is compensated somewhat by lower masses than Jupiter, so smaller velocity changes are needed to work around. :'''Outer Giant Features''' &emsp;The three planets average 9.55, 19.22, and 30.11 AU from the Sun. These planets and their orbital regions are embedded in the Outer Interplanetary region of Phase 4E (Section 8.6). Saturn's orbital region extends 30 million km from the planet center, and includes 83 '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Saturn Known Moons]''' as of 2023. Eleven of these moons are larger than 100 km, of which five (Tethys, Dione, Rhea, Titan, and Iapetus) are larger than 1,000 km, with Titan being 5,150 km in diameter (75% of Mars). &emsp;Uranus' region is 24 million km in radius, and has 27 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus Moons]'''. Five of them (Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon) are considered major, ranging from 470 to 1575 km in diameter. Neptune's region is 50 million km radius, and has 14 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Neptune Moons]''', of which Triton is by far the largest at 2700 km diameter. The larger moons of all three can support stable orbits and enable gravity assists. All the giant planets, including Jupiter, have ring systems. Saturn's is the most massive at an estimated 30 million Gigatons, almost as much as the 400 km moon Mimas, which orbits nearby. &emsp;Solar energy is weak in these regions, about 1%, 1/4%, and 1/9% of that near Earth. Large reflectors would be needed to bring sunlight to useful levels. Nuclear power may be more effective. Escape velocities are 35.5, 21.3, and 23.5 km/s from each planet, and 1,535, 682, and 255 m/s from the edge of their regions. Orbit periods are vary from 250, 180, and 155 minutes close to the planets, to 3.8, 9.9, and 27 years at the edge. Travel times are 6, 16, and 30 years by minimum energy orbits. Gravity assists and added propulsion can shorten the trips. &emsp;Ping times average 2.65, 5.33, and 8.35 hours, plus or minus about 20 minutes for relative planetary positions. Radiation levels around Saturn are about as high as Earth's Van Allen Belts, so added shielding is needed for people and electronics. It is most intense between the ring system and the moon Enceladus. Radiaition around Uranus and Neptune are lower, but still include the solar and cosmic background flux present in most parts of the Solar System. &emsp;Like Jupiter, the outer Giants have no solid surface. Their atmospheres get denser with depth until they are beyond the '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics) Critical Point]''' and reach liquid density and higher. The upper portions are 96% hydrogen, 3% helium for Saturn; 83% hydrogen, 15% helium, and 2.3% hethane for Uranus; and 80% hydrogen, 19% helium, and 1.5% methane for Neptune. All three have small amounts of trace gases. Orbit minus planet rotation velocities are 15.2, 12.5, and 13.9 km/s. Scoop mining their atmospheres would be hard, but should be feasible. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;The outer Giant regions are too far for near-term use. Their development could start once the Outer Interplanetary region around them is accessible. The first use is likely to be mining various raw materials. The combined total of 124 moons and one major ring system around these planets have a mass of 1720 x 10²⁰ kg, or 2.34 times the Moon. This is a very large source of materials, but their distance means mining them will be delayed. Mined material would likely be brought back back to inner regions where there is more energy for processing and projects that need them. Other uses besides mining are too far in the future to predict right now. &emsp;Titan has a thick Nitrogen atmosphere (1.4 times Earth pressure) with 1.4% Methane at upper levels and 4.9% at lower levels. Low orbits are about 1.8 km/s, so scoop-mining this atmosphere is particularly easy. Helium-3 has been proposed as a low radiation fusion fuel. Fusion in general has not yet been solved, and the He-3 reaction is 10 times harder than deuterium-tritium (D-T), which is the main target of current research. &emsp;If either kind of fusion becomes feasible, scoop-mining the outer Giant atmospheres may become economic because of its high energy output, and the light gases also make good propellants. All three giants have deuterium, and Uranus and Neptune have the highest concentrations of Helium in their atmospheres, and thus the He-3 isotope. The easier D-T fusion should enable trips to these planets in reasonable time. :'''Outer Giant Transport''' &emsp;Chemical rockets have sent probes to the outer planets, but this is very inefficient. As in other regions, gravity assists from massive bodies, surface catapults, and skyhooks can be used to improve transport efficiency. Solar power has been used for probes as far as Jupiter and its Trojan asteroids, but reflectors to increase power for propulsion in farther regions hasn't yet been developed. Current work is on small fission reactors for a variety of uses, including nuclear-electric propulsion, which would be much more efficient than chemical. &emsp;Fission and fusion fuels have high energy content but the reactors to use them tend to be higher mass than solar power. The also emit harmful radiation, but most parts of the Solar System are already filled with it anyway. The same shielding can protect from both sources. Nuclear fuels are also relatively rare compared to silicon used for solar cells or aluminum/magnesium alloy for concentrating reflectors. It isn't clear what the best energy source for future propulsion will be. :'''Outer Giant Production and Living''' &emsp;We don't expect activities beyond science, exploration, and mining in these regions until technology improves significantly from current levels. Since we can't predict what improvements will be made in the long-term, we will leave what local production and habitation is possible as an open question. =='''10.0 - Interstellar Locations'''== &emsp; &emsp;The last major phase of our program involves interstellar locations. The key difference that warrants a new phase is the extreme distances involved. This breaks the ability to deliver things from the Solar System and communicate with it in a reasonable time. Deveopment of these locations would require high self-sufficiency in transport, enough starting materials, and self-improving systems capable of growth without outside assistance. &emsp;Phase 6 projects are far enough in the future that we can only speculate about them in general terms. We include it mainly as a place-holder and to give direction for future long-term work. We divide it into two sub-phases - the spaces between stars, and those around other star systems. Since you must cross interstellar space before reaching the other systems, logically the sub-phases are in that order. ==='''10.1 - Phase 6A: Interstellar Space Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Interstellar Features''' &emsp;We define the Interstellar region as starting 100,000 AU from the Sun, where nearby stars and the Milky Way galaxy as a whole begin to contest the Sun's gravity. There is no outer limit for this region beyond whatever travel distances are possible from future technology. Since we don't know what those future technologies will be, for now we will arbitrarily set a boundary of 20 light years from the Sun. &emsp;Probably the most significant feature of this region is that star systems are all in relative motion to each other, with an average velocity of 50 km/s. This is on top of the general rotation of the galaxy at about 225 km/s. As of 2023 there are 131 known '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars_and_brown_dwarfs Stars and Brown Dwarfs]''' in the 20 light year "Solar Neighborhood". Given their average velocity, they will travel 20 light years in 120,000 years, so the membership of the neighborhood will change about every 1250 years on average. &emsp;The local interstellar region is very low density gas, at ~0.3 atoms per cubic centimeter, or 1 gram per 564 km cube. That does not include cometary clouds around stars, or wandering objects between them. We know very little about such smaller objects, but assume some exist by similarity to our own Solar System. &emsp;The Interstellar environment between stars is not much different from distant orbit environments in Phase 4F (Section 8.7). Stellar energy is effectively zero, and while stellar radiation is not a factor in this region, cosmic radiation still is. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;We don't know enough about material resources and energy sources in this region to propose economic uses. The distance to the Sun detaches any industries from regular trade with the rest of civilization. Science, exploration, and seeding interstellar colonies are possible long-term activities. :'''Interstellar Transport''' &emsp;Interstellar transport can be divided into slow and fast types. The slow type is on the order of stellar velocities (5-500 km/s). An example is a large habitat with large material reserves and fusion power as an energy source. It can subsist on the cometary clouds around stars and unbound objects between them. When it gets close enough to a selected star, it can enter orbit and travel with it. Such habitats would be based on previous space habitats in the Solar System, so it doesn't require a lot of new development. &emsp;Travel times between stars at these speeds would average 3000 years or longer. Such times are long enough that technology changes during the trip are a factor. Trying to reach a specific star doesn't make unless technology had reached a plateau or making improvements in transit was planned for. If the habitat is considered a permanent place to live that happens to be moving to access new resources, speed of travel is less of an issue. &emspFast interstellar puts much more energy into transportation, to reach higher velocities and shorten time to a destination. Possible methods include fusion-powered engines and beamed power using the Sun as a gravitational lens for focus. Rather than a large habitat with a full range of civilized activity, fast interstellar operates more like ships on Earth, with a crew dedicated to reaching a destination and maintaining operations. We don't yet know what interstellar transport methods will prove feasible, if any, and the other space-related technologies available by then, so this is all speculative for now. :'''Interstellar Production''' &emsp;We don't know enough about resources in this region to consider gathering raw materials. So the only production we can plan for now is what they bring with them. If they start with a large reserve, such as a captured comet nucleus, it can be used for supplies, maintenance, and upgrades. ==='''10.2 - Phase 6B: Stellar Locations'''=== &emsp; :'''Stellar System Features''' &emsp;We define stellar regions as those surrounding individual stars, brown dwarfs, or multi-object systems, of which there are 94 within 20 light years. The size of the regions are scaled to the square root of the system mass divided by Sun's mass, times 100,000 AU. This is their region of gravitational dominance and any cometary cloud bound to them. &emsp;Stars and brown dwarfs are bright enough to find with current equipment. In fact 22 star systems within 20 light years can be seen from a dark location on Earth without optical aid. We have basic information about planets and disks around other stars. Their parent stars tell us where to look, and the stars themselves provide data about the planets from Doppler shifts and transits. &emsp;The number of discovered planets at all distances is growing rapidly, from none before 1988 to about 2000 by the end of 2015, and over 5000 by 2023. 59 of them are within 20 light years. Dust and gas in '''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_disc Disks]''' around younger stars are visible to current telescopes, but none are within 20 light years. Two nearby star systems, epsilon Eridani and Tau Ceti, are known to have longer-lived debris disks. :'''Economic Uses''' &emsp;Due to extreme distance, the only economic uses we see for now are science, exploration, and seeding independent colonies. More study is needed with better telescopes before any attempt to plan travel to these stars. :'''Exostellar Transport''' &emsp;Transport between stars is covered under Phase 6A in the previous section. Travel within a given stellar region would use the same technologies as around the Sun, with modifications for available energy sources. :'''Exostellar Production''' &emsp;As mentioned earlier, we would want to observe the nearby stars in more detail by using the Sun as a giant gravitational lens. Following that would likely be robotic probes to more closely examine whatever is found around these stars. A self-bootstrapping seed factory approach should work at other stars, since the properties of energy and matter are the same everywhere. However the details will depend on what resources are available. </div> 8hd4n3brv4wgzcod3f55t390aoc2rfq 110 300182 4673981 2657939 2026-10-04T07:21:34Z ~2026-51118-27 3626547 4673981 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''U''' is for '''U'''mbrellaPG13 暴力画面 [[File:St Jean de Luz La plage.JPG|center|500px]] {{FoodNav}} acowt8ic23348s71f0i0x54agi9ad0l 4673987 4673981 2026-10-04T07:27:32Z EggRoll97 3178669 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|talk]]) to last version by Xania 2657939 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''U''' is for '''U'''mbrella</div> [[File:St Jean de Luz La plage.JPG|center|500px]] {{FoodNav}} dwefo34trnk0lenwlh4c0eh55dln6fr 0 402708 4673973 4637985 2026-10-04T06:10:09Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4673973 wikitext text/x-wiki https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2MMKr0_vuCI&ab_channel=%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2 Macrosociology in the 19th and 20th centuries English subtitles exist in this video. On the cover is the founder of sociology, Auguste Comte. ==Development of Macrosociology at 19-20 centuries== [[File:Herbert Spencer.jpg|thumb|left |Herbert Spencer]] [[File:Henri de Saint-simon portrait.jpg|thumb| Henri Saint-Simone]] [[File:Henrycharlescarey.jpg|thumb | left |Henry Charles Carey]] [[File:Adolphe Quételet by Joseph-Arnold Demannez.jpg|thumb| Adolphe Quetelet]] [[File:Leviathan frontispiece cropped British Library.jpg |thumb|left | The State as Leviathan]] ===Discussion about essence of society between various schools and the directions in macrosociology=== The philosophy has turned out in a condition of crisis in 20 century and the philosophy hasn't given to the world of truly original theories and large theorists. Contrary to philosophy, development of macrosociology has led to emergence of the whole bouquet of original theories in 20 century. When students begin to study course of history of the western macrosociology at the university for the first time, this students are simply struck with an enormous difference in originality between macrosociology and philosophy in 20 century. Representatives of various schools and the directions in macrosociology conduct among themselves a discussion about essence of society. Any of these schools and the directions couldn't win in this discussion since each of them is right in own way and the theory of their synthesis is necessary. Near 11 schools and the directions exist in macrosociology. Three of them are the most influential today: symbolical interactionism, functionalism and school of the conflict. Positivism – this leading direction in sociology of 19 century - the beginnings of 20 century. Henri de Saint-Simon and Auguste Comte were the ancestors of this direction, Herbert Spencer and Émile Durkheim were their followers. The main aspiration of positivism is refusal from speculative reasonings about society, positive sociology has to be evidential as natural sciences. Naturalism, organicism and evolutionism served as characteristic features of positivism. The naturalism means the point of view that social phenomena are subject to laws peculiar to the nature - to laws of physics, mechanics, biology, geography. ===Social physics=== '''Main thought''' of social physics: society is similar to the sum of elements, each of which can be studied independently of each other. People can be studied independently of each other as gas molecules. '''Authors''' who worked within this direction: Henry Charles Carey, Adolphe Quetelet.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary&Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Quetelet Adolphe.</ref> Adolphe Quetelet tried to explain even social life with help of laws of physics and Adolphe Quetelet has established statistical interrelation between types of crimes, a sex, origin, age, the place of residence of the criminal. Adolphe Quetelet has drawn a conclusion from this that a certain number and certain types of crimes accompany society with need of the law of the nature. To describe society, it is necessary to find characteristics of "the average person". ===Geographical determinism=== '''Main thought''': geographical factors influence on society, for example, the climate influences on temperament of inhabitants, the size of the territory influences on the form of government and on the size of the population, it is necessary to make a periodization of the Russian history on the periods of colonization of the territory. Inhabitants prefer to introduce republic in small on the territory countries, inhabitants prefer to introduce the monarchy in average on the territory countries, and inhabitants prefer to introduce the tyranny in big on the territory countries, by the principle "than country is more on territory, that more rigid political regime and form of government exist in this country". '''Authors, who worked in this direction:''' Charles Montesquieu, Henry Thomas Buckle, Vasily Klyuchevsky, Friedrich Ratzel, Lev Ilyich Mechnikov.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Geographical determinism.</ref> The mistake of the geographical determinism consists, in particular, that all countries are obliged to introduce all social inventions irrespective from geographical factors. For example, all countries have to introduce best form of government – representative democracy though inhabitants prefer to introduce the presidential republic as more rigid political regime in big on the territory countries, and inhabitants prefer to introduce the parliamentary republic as less rigid political regime in the small on the territory countries. ===Organicism=== [[File:Thomas Hobbes.jpeg|thumb|200px|Thomas Hobbes]] [[File:Lilienfeld-Toal.jpg|thumb|Paul von Lilienfeld]] '''Main thought''': society and an organism are similar each other. '''Authors, who worked within this direction''': Thomas Hobbes, Herbert Spencer, Paul von Lilienfeld, Albert Schäffle, René Worms. Thomas Hobbes (years of his life: 1588-1679) has stated such idea in work "Leviathan" that the state is an artificial man, in which the sovereignty is artificial soul, magistrates and other officers of judicature and execution are joints, a reward and punishment are nerves, the wealth and riches of citizens are strength, safety of the people is business of the state, counsellors to the king is memory, justice and laws are a reason and will, the concord is health, a sedition is sickness, civil war is death. <ref> Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme & Power of a Connonwealth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil. Introduction. Page 8. https://archive.org/details/hobbessleviathan00hobbuoft/page/96 </ref> Herbert Spencer wrote that growth is characteristic both of society, and of an organism. Paul von Lilienfeld wrote that trade reminds blood circulation. Albert Sheffle wrote that economic life reminds a metabolism. René Worms compared a workshop with small gland, factory with a liver, goods with secretion of gland, the railroads with blood vessels, the government with a brain. Conclusion: comparison of society and an organism is true, but only metaphors help in scientific research not enough. ===Social Darwinism=== '''Main thought''': the mechanism of social evolution doesn't differ from the mechanism of biological evolution therefore only the strong survive in society. Thus, factors of evolution both in society, and in the biosphere are the heredity, variability, natural selection and fight for existence. '''Authors, who worked within this direction''': Thomas Robert Malthus, Herbert Spencer, Arthur de Gobineau, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Ludwig Woltmann, Georges Vacher de Lapouge, Francis Galton, Ludwig Gumplowicz.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Social Darwinism..</ref> Conclusion: Results of Nazi experiments on the embodiment in life of the theory of social Darwinism have terrified the whole world. ===Psychological direction=== '''Main thought''': laws of society is possible to reduce to laws of psychology. Life of society is a game of congenital instincts, especially sexual and aggressive instincts. Life of society can be reduced to imitation, to crowd psychology or to national psychology. Progress of society can be explained with conscious aspiration to progress. '''Authors, who worked within this direction''': William McDougall, Sigmund Freud, Gabriel Tarde, Gustave Le Bon, Moritz Lazarus, Heymann Steinthal, Lester Frank Ward, Franklin Henry Giddings. Mistake of psychological direction: the psychological reasons didn't explain in any way the mechanism of social evolution since instincts, the crowd psychology, the imitation mechanism, "national soul" were same both today, and ten thousand years ago, however society has changed strongly during this time, these psychological factors can't be by cause of progressive development of society. Émile Durkheim has proved that the psychological reasons can't be by cause of suicides even. ===Behaviorism and social exchange theory=== [[File:John Broadus Watson.JPG|thumb |John B. Watson]] [[File:B.F. Skinner at Harvard circa 1950.jpg|thumb| B. F. Skinner]] [[File:Bronislawmalinowski.jpg|thumb| Bronisław Malinowski]] [[File:Alfred Radcliffe-Brown 1930.jpg|thumb|Alfred Radcliffe-Brown]] '''Main thought '''of behaviorism: the behavior of the man can be reduced to answers on stimuluses of environment by the principle of a conditioned reflex. Any act of the man can be explained with material remuneration or aspiration to avoid corporal punishments. '''Founders of behaviorism''': John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Behaviourism. .</ref> In my opinion, the mistake of Behaviorism consists that consciousness of the man is arranged more difficult, than consciousness of a rats over which B. F. Skinner made experiments. Man, unlike a rat, has not only conditioned reflexes, but also man has abstract thinking, oral speech and ability to tool activity, the merit of behaviorism consists in what the theory of behaviorism (stimulus-response) has much in common with my theory of social control (norm-sanction) '''Main thought''' of Social exchange theory: people exchange goods, services, information, thanks, etc. in the course of social interaction People weigh future remunerations and expenses before entering to social interaction. If the expected expenses are more than the remuneration, then people refuse to enter in interaction. Exchange happens by the principle "If you give me, then I will give you". Man is forced to spend efforts in the course of communication of people that to find general subject for a conversation, that to make our communication steady. The behavior of the man is caused by how his acts were rewarded in the past, for example, the man has gone fishing today because his fishing was successful yesterday. '''Author '''of Social exchange theory theory: George C. Homans.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Exchange theory. .</ref> ===Symbolic interactionism=== '''Main thought:''' it is possible to communicate and exercise psychological control with help of a language of gestures and body language. It is possible to humiliate or show own high opinion about the person with help of playing of sketches (scenes). Man is forced to create the image at work and in policy. "Badge of shame " prevents communication. The confusion is sign of a mistake in a game and expression of a request to repeat attempt. '''Authors, who worked within this direction ''': George Herbert Mead, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman, Harold Garfinkel. <ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe.symbol interactionism.</ref> In my opinion, exchange of information and social control with help of gestures are an ancient, primitive way of exchange of information and psychological control which is inherited by man from animal ancestors. In addition to it man has invented other, more modern ways of exchange of information with help of words and ways of social control with help of threat of sanctions and introduction of stereotypes. ===Axiology=== '''Main thought:''' man looks at the world through a prism of the values (this thing is good, and this thing is bad) and man works according to these values. Man seeks to reach good thing and to avoid bad thing. The systems of values differ from each other during different eras. The system of values is imposed to man by his environment in the course of socialization, in the course of assimilation of norms. '''Author, who worked within this direction:''' Max Weber.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Weber Max. .</ref> ===The functionalism=== '''The main thought''' of functionalism: each organization, each custom, each idea and each belief have own function in the society. '''Authors''' of functionalism: Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, Bronisław Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, Robert K. Merton, Piotr Sztompka, Talcott Parsons. Bronisław Malinowski and Alfred Radcliffe-Brown were anthropologists and they proved this main idea on the example of the customs, discovered by them in the primitive societies of Melanesia and Andaman Islands. In opinion of this authors the social phenomena, which do not have own function must disappear, for example, conflict is dysfunction and conflict must disappear. In the opinion of Émile Durkheim, the refusal of man from the performance of own family and religious functions leads to the solitude and, after all, to the suicide. Thus, society revenges to person for the refusal from the performance of own functions. Function of crime consists that punishment for this crime allows people to confirm rules, the forbidding crime. Division of labor between people didn't exist in primitive society where people were similar at each other. Public opinion soars above the people and this public opinion dictates to people behavior in the contemporary society. <ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Functionalism. .</ref> '''Conclusions:''' the mistakes of the functionalism are the underestimation of the role of conflicts in the society, the use of excessively abstract notions and the absence of the classification of the stages of the development of society. ===Conflict theory=== '''The main thought''' of conflict theory: social conflicts are inevitable, but this conflicts must be settled. Lewis A. Coser considered that the conflicts give road to large innovations, the conflicts prevent the “ossification” of society and conflicts are reason of the developments of society. '''Authors''' of conflict theories: Karl Marx, Lewis A. Coser, Georg Simmel, Ralf Dahrendorf, Theodor Geiger. In the opinion of Lewis A. Coser, the functions of the conflicts, consist in the fact that, * conflicts promote the defusing of tension between people and conflicts are "diversion channels", * people know each other through the conflicts better. Ralf Dahrendorf considered that the conflict is result of resistance to the relations of supremacy and subordination that conflicts are the generator of changes that the suppression of conflict leads to its aggravation, and settlement of conflict leads to the controlled evolution. Person which is subordinated on the work can quiet his vanity by the fact that he will become leader and controller in off-duty hours (in the sport command, in the church community, in the party organization, and so on.). It is impossible to influence on the reasons of the conflicts, but it is possible to reduce intensity of course of the conflicts. State, law court, press ‐ these institutes settle conflicts. Theodor Geiger considers that methods, tools and technology of class struggle were officially recognized and legislated by society in 20 century, thanks to it class struggle are put under control. Class struggle proceeds according to certain rules and, therefore, class struggle has lost own edge. Capital and wage labour conclude mutual compromises, capital and wage labour conduct the negotiations about solution of disputes and thus capital and wage labour determine the working conditions (level of wages and the duration of workday). The Socialist Revolution does not threaten to West today; therefore Karl Marx had made a mistake in his forecasts. There are three methods of solutionof conflict (method of avoidance, method of conquest or method of subjugations).<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Conflict theory. .</ref> In my opinion, the conflict can be settled in such case if loser recognize fact that loser had become by object of control by winner or loser had conceded own sphere of influence to the winner. The purpose to settle the conflict is an unfeasible task until moment this recognition this fact by the loser in the conflict. It is possible to settle only a question about the price for readiness to obey. ===Technological determinism=== '''Main thought:''' the equipment develops irrespective of will of man under the law of infinite improvement of technical parameters. ''' Authors''' of technological determinism: Thorstein Veblen, Clarence Ayres, Marshall McLuhan, James Burnham, Leslie White.<ref> Collins. Dictionary of sociology. Second edition. David Jary & Julia Jary Associate Editors Phillip Nichols and Alan Sillitoe. Technological determinism. </ref> Conclusion: forecast about transfer of power to technocrats as a result of The Managerial Revolution was a utopia. ===Integrative theory=== Many sociologists tried to create the theory of synthesis of these schools and the directions in Macrosociology that to unite in one theory all the best that was accumulated at other schools. Talcott Parsons tried to make it on the basis of association of an axiology and the structurally functional analysis. George C. Homans tried to make it on the basis of the theory of exchange. My version of the integrative theory is presented in the theory of interrelation between the social conflict and social control. === Citations and references.=== {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} jho8r0xqlrqn3uuvio1edwhqcwl4ldu 0 417631 4673886 4670091 2026-10-03T15:35:48Z Tyoyafud 6233 4673886 wikitext text/x-wiki {{status|100%}} {{Chapter navigation with TOC||Introduction|}} {{print version|Mirad Grammar/print version|(No dictionary)|Mirad Grammar}} {{Book search | style=image}} <small> Welcome to a textbook on the grammar of <big><b>Mirad</b></big>.&nbsp;&nbsp;Formerly known as '''Unilingua''', Mirad is an artificially constructed auxiliary language ([[Constructed language|conlang]]) developed originally by Paris-based author Noubar Agopoff [https://books.google.com/books/about/Unilingua.html?id=I7ghxwEACAAJ] as a ''serious'' medium for easy, regular, expressive, and logical international communication. This textbook is a revision of the language with many new features, plus access to a bilingual dictionary containing over 150,000 word/expression pairings, over ten times the size the original Unilingua vocabulary. The vocabulary is internally consistent, [[wikt:oligosynthetic|oligosynthetic]] (built from a minimal set of roots), and [[wikt:a priori|a priori]], i.e. it was developed systematically from scratch with no relation to existing natural languages except for a few universally-adopted words like "karaoke" or "falafel", and flora/fauna terms, which are based partially on Latin syllables of the Linnaeus taxonomy.". </small> [[File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|left|'''Yubjo, ha mir gonbio yansauna gabyuxea dalzeyn.''' (''Soon, the world will share a common auxiliary language.'')]] {| class="wikitable" style="font-size:smaller; margin: 0 auto;" |+ Table of Contents |- |valign="top"| * [[/Introduction/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Why Mirad?/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Alphabet/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Pronunciation/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Syllabification/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Stress/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Phonotactics/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Parts of Speech/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Nouns/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Nouns#Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article|Articles]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Adjectives/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Adverbs/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Determiners/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Numbers/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Pronouns/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Verbs/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Prepositions/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Conjunctions/]] {{stage short|100%}} |valign="top"| * [[/Interjections/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Hybrids/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Greetings and Euphemisms/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Acronyms and Abbreviations/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Onomatopoeia/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Vocabulary Formation/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Word Families/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Syntax/]]{{stage short|100%}} * [[/Sample Texts Analyzed/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Lesson 1/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Lesson 2/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Lesson 3/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Lesson 4/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Lesson 5/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Mirad-English Dictionary/]] {{stage short|100%}} * [[/Flaws in Mirad/]] {{stage short|%25}} |} {{Alphabetical|M}} {{Shelves|Constructed languages}} aa444xrn2vzexxlyxrb1eius7cu1yuh 0 417636 4673902 4669717 2026-10-03T17:35:30Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Noun Suffixes */ 4673902 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Noun Types == : Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following ways: ::# '''''common''''' vs. '''''proper''''' ::# '''''concrete''''' vs. '''''abstract''''' ::# '''''countable''''' vs. '''''mass''''' ::# '''''gender-neutral''''' vs. '''''masculine/feminine''''' ::# '''''singular''''' vs. '''''plural''''' ::# '''''animate''''' vs. '''''inanimate''''' ::# '''''full form''''' vs. '''''acronym/abbreviation/stub''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Common vs. Proper Nouns |- ! Common !! Proper |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''Emer'''....''Venus'' |- | '''yagsim'''....''bench'' || '''Ferom'''....''France'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''Notre Dame'''...''Notre Dame'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''Tot'''....''God'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns |- ! Concrete !! Abstract |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''ifon'''....''love'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''oyman'''....''coolness'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzen'''....''singing'' |} : Abstract nouns include '''''gerunds''''', i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like '''deuzen'''....''singing'' < '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' or '''osexen'''....''destruction'' < '''osexer'''....''to destroy''. Infinitives like ''deuzer''....'''to sing''' are also considered abstract nouns. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Countable vs. Mass Nouns |- ! Countable !! Mass |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattel'''....''bird food'' |- | '''patayebi'''....''feathers'' || '''patayebyan'''....''plumage'' |- | '''megi'''....''rocks'' || '''mil'''....''water'' |} : In native Mirad, all '''''common''''' nouns in their '''''singular''''' dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as '''Roma'''....''Rome''. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel ''i'' ('''pat'''....''bird'' ⇒ '''pat<u>i</u>'''....''birds''). :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Gender-neutral vs. Gendered |- ! Gender-neutral !! Feminine !! Masculine |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''twob'''....''man'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' || '''twed'''....''father'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Singular vs. Plural Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''domi'''....''cities'' |- | '''gon'''....''part'' || '''goni'''....''parts'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubi'''....''days'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns |- ! Inanimate !! Animate |- | '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''aot'''....''person'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''tobet'''....''child'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Full form vs. Abbreviated Form ! Full Form !! Acronym/Abbreviation/Stub |- | '''Anxwa Doobi'''....''United Nations'' || '''AD'''....''UN'' |- | '''Mir Nunuien Xob'''....''World Trade Organization'' || '''MNX'''....''WTO'' |- | '''iza makilp'''....''direct current'' || '''i.m'''....''d.c.'' |- | '''tiaybil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' (stub) |- | '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''-um'''....''cell, closet, compartment'' (stub) |} : The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar. == Pluralization of Common Nouns == : A '''''singular countable common noun''''' always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker '''-i'''. So, the plural of '''pur'''....''car'' is '''pur<u>i</u>'''....''cars''. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages ('''la belle fleur''' <big>→</big>'''les belles fleurs'''). The plural suffix '''-i''' is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc. : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Pluralization of Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''tam'''....''house''|| '''tam<u>i</u>'''....''houses'' |- | '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>i</u>'''....''women'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>i</u>'''....''lives'' |- | '''ha via dom'''....''the beautiful city'' || '''ha via dom<u>i</u>'''....''the beautiful cities'' |} == Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article == : In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article '''ha''' (''the''). There is no '''''indefinite article''''' like English ''a / an''. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article '''ha''' (which in reality is a '''''definite deictic determiner''''', discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners]]). The definite article '''ha''' is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Use of the Definite Article |- ! Mirad !! English !! Specificity |- | '''tam''' || ''a house'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tam''' || ''<u>the</u> house'' || definite |- | '''<u>ha</u> tami''' || ''<u>the</u> houses'' || definite, plural |- | '''tej''' || ''life'' || general, no article |- | '''fitejawa <u>tej</u>''' || ''<u>a life</u> well-lived'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tej (...ho at bayse)''' || ''<u>the</u> life (... that I have)'' || specific |- | '''Ferad''' || ''French'' || language name, already specific, no article |- | '''Ivan''' || ''Ivan'' || person's name, no article |- | '''Ifliu <u>yivan</u>!''' || ''Cherish <u>freedom</u>'' || abstraction, no article |- | '''<u>Ha</u> yivani ho yat ifie.''' || ''<u>The</u> freedoms that we enjoy.'' || abstraction specified |- | '''Yata <u>yivani</u>...''' || ''Our <u>freedoms</u>...'' || abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article |} : Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like ''love'', ''life'', ''freedom'' do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases ''the love that dare not speak its name'' or ''the life well-lived'' or ''the freedoms we possess''. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew." == Proper Nouns == : Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar#Countries_of_the_World|Countries of the World]] and [[Mirad_Grammar#Languages of the World|Languages of the World]]. It can be said here, though, that country names end in '''-m'''; the inhabitants of those places end in '''-t''' or pl. '''-ti'''; and the languages they speak end in '''-d'''. Language names are capitalized, eg. '''At tixe Ferad.''' (''I study French.''). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. '''Usama tel Feramxweye.''' ''American food is being Frenchified.''. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc. : Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example: ::* '''Xikago'''....''Chicago'' ::* '''Paris'''....''Paris'' ::* '''Munxen'''....''Munich/M&uuml;nchen'' ::* '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' ::* '''Nu York'''....''New York'' ::* '''Nu Orlinz'''....''New Orleans'' ::* '''Xampanya'''....''Champagne'' ::* '''Mehiko Dom'''....''Mexico City'' ::* '''Waxington'''....''Washington'' ::* '''Seol'''....''Seoul'' ::* '''Xeykspir'''....''Shakespeare'' : An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding '''-t''' or '''-at''' to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. '''Parisat'''....''a Parisian'' or '''Waxingtonati'''....''Washingtonians''. ''Chicago's main newspaper'' is expressed in Mirad as '''ha agala jubdindref bi Xikago'''. The English preposition ''in'' used before cities, states, and countries is translated by '''be''' in Mirad, eg. '''At tambese <u>be</u> Paris.'''....''I live <u>in</u> Paris.'' or '''Iyt yexe be Deum.'''....''She works in Germany.'' == Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement == : Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as '''ewa'''....''two'' naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Modifiers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''ha <u>ewa</u> aga tami''' || ''the <u>two</u> big houses'' |- | '''<u>gla</u> ifxea taxi''' || ''<u>many</u> pleasant memories'' |- | '''hya <u>fia</u> tob''' || ''every <u>good</u> man'' |- | '''ha yaga <u>via</u> mepi''' || ''the long, <u>beautiful</u> roads'' |- | '''gra <u>vua</u> sexen''' || ''too much <u>ugly</u> construction'' |- | '''ata <u>aja</u> teji''' || ''my <u>past</u> lives'' |} == Noun Linkage == : Nouns can be ::# '''''linked''''' with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or ::# '''''juxtaposed''''', where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or ::# '''''compounded''''', where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or ::# '''''hyphenated''''', where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Linkage |- ! Linkage Example !! Construction |- | '''Ivan <u>ay Maria</u>'''....''Ivan <u>and Maria</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ay''' (''and'') |- | '''ha tam <u>ey ha par</u>'''....''the house <u>or the car</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ey''' (''or'') |- | '''hyati <u>oy ha toybi</u>'''....''all <u>but the women</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''or''' (''but'') |- | '''nyandras <u>boy eta dyun</u>'''....''a list <u>without your name</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''boy''' (''without'') |- |'''tej <u>bi nasuk</u>'''....''a life <u>of poverty</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''ha tam <u>bi Maria</u>''' ....''Mary&apos;s house (the house <u>of Mary</u>''|| nouns linked possessively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''job <u>bi aga ivan</u>'''....''a time <u>of great joy</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''dyes <u>ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek</u>'''....''a book <u>about the Second World War</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''ayv''' (''about'') |- | '''dropek <u>jwabeni</u>'''....''war <u>preparations</u>'' || modifier noun '''dropek''' (''war'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''jwabeni'''</u> (''preparations'') |- | '''dom <u>yuzpur</u>'''....''a city <u>bus</u>'' || modifier noun '''dom''' (''city'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''yuzpur'''</u> (''bus'') |- | '''toj<u>ojfon</u>'''....''a death <u>wish</u>'' || modifier noun '''toj''' (''death'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>ojfon</u>''' (''wish'') |- | '''jogat<u>anyaf</u>'''....''youth <u>league</u>'' || modifier noun '''jogat''' (''youth'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>anyaf</u>''' (''league'') |- | '''maj-moj'''....''a day-and-night'' || two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated |} : The '''X bi Y''' prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a '''''named''''' person, eg. '''ha tam <u>bi</u> Sam''' (Sam's house = the house <u>of</u> Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as ''his car'' is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition '''bi'''....''of'' is used in partitive expressions like '''tilzyeb <u>bi</u> vifil'''....''a glass <u>of</u> wine'' (but: '''vifil tilzeb'''....''wine glass'', where ''wine'' modifies ''the glass'' associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions]] or [[Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions]]. : Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation]]. == Noun Derivational Affixes == : Nouns can be divided into: ::* '''''simple nouns''''' such as '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''compound nouns''''' such as '''bixpur'''....''train'' < '''bix'''....''pull'' + '''pur'''....''vehicle'' (This is one of the most widespread ways for forming new concepts in Mirad.) ::* '''''hybrid nouns''''' such as '''vaod'''....''decision'' < '''va'''....''yes'' + '''vo'''....''no'' (hybridized to '''vao''') + '''d'''....''utterance'' ::* '''''derived nouns''''' such as '''fabyan'''....''forest'' < '''fab'''....''tree'' + '''-yan'''....''collection'' : Other derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building. === Noun Suffixes === {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Derivational Suffixes |- valign=top ! Suffix !! Meaning !! Base Onto Which<br>Suffix Is Added !! Examples |- | '''-ag''' || big || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ag</u>'''....''mansion''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>ag</u>'''....''banquet''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon'' → '''tilar<u>ag</u>'''....''ladle'' |- | -'''an''' || abstact quality<br> -ness<br> -hood, -ity || adjective stem ||'''vi<s>a</s>'''....''beautiful'' → '''vi<u>an</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yev<s>a</s>'''....''fair'' → '''yev<u>an</u>'''....''fairness, equity''<br>'''tob<s>a</s>'''....''human'' → '''tob<u>an</u>'''....''humanity, humanness, manhood'' |- | -'''ayg''' || big and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ayg</u>'''....''cozy mansion''<br>'''kapet'''....''dog'' → '''kapet<u>ayg</u>'''....''wolfie'' |- | -'''ambok''' || -itis, inflammation || noun || '''buixtaib'''....''tendon'' → '''buixtaib<u>ambok</u>'''....''tendonitis'' |- | -'''d''' || language<br>speech<br>utterance || adjective and other stems|| '''Enigem'''....''English'' → '''Enige<u>d</u>'''....''English (language)''<br>'''Mira'''....''of the world'' → '''Mirad'''....''Mirad (world speech)''<br>'''ekpe<s>t</s>'''....''horse'' →'''ekpe<u>d</u>'''....''neigh, whinny'' |- | -'''drun''' || -gram || noun stems || '''tiib'''....''heart'' → '''tiib<u>drun</u>'''....''cardiogram'' |- | -'''dra/i/ur''' || -graph || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>drar</u>'''....''thermograph'' |- | -'''dren''' || -graphy || mostly noun stems || '''yib'''....''far'' → '''yib<u>dren</u>'''....''telegraphy'' |- | -'''ef''' || need of || various stems || '''tel'''....''food''→'''tel<u>ef</u>'''....''hunger''<br>'''ig<s>a</s>'''....''fast''→'''ig<u>ef</u>'''....''emergency''<br>'''til'''....''drink''→ '''til<u>ef</u>'''....''thirst'' |- | -'''en''' || present gerund<br> -ing<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''ifi-'''....''enjoy'' →'''ifi<u>en</u>'''....''enjoyment''<br>'''deuz-'''....''sing''→'''deuz<u>en</u>'''....''singing''<br>'''axl-'''....'''act''' → '''axl<u>en</u>'''....''acting'' |- | -'''eyn''' || present gerund of single instance<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''x-'''....''do'' →'''x<u>eyn</u>'''....''deed''<br>'''s-'''....''to be''→'''s<u>eyn</u>'''....''essence''<br>'''jaup-'''....''precede'' → '''jaup<u>eyn</u>'''....''precedent'' |- | -'''es''' || smaller counterpart thing || noun || '''tef'''....''hat''→ '''tef<u>es</u>''' cap<br>'''saun'''....''kind''→ '''saun<u>es</u>'''....''sample''<br>'''dreuz'''....''poem'' → '''deuz<u>es</u>'''....''stanza''<br>'''mek'''....''dust, powder''→'''mek<u>es</u>'''....''speck, grain'' |- | -'''et''' || smaller counterpart person || noun || '''twob'''....''man'' → '''twob<u>et</u>'''....''boy''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''→ '''toyb<u>et</u>'''....''girl'' |- | -'''if''' || love of<br> -philia || noun || '''tel'''....''food'' → '''tel<u>if</u>'''....''gourmandise''<br>'''doab'''....''homeland'' → '''doab<u>if</u>'''....''patriotism''<br>'''dyes'''....''book'' → '''dyes<u>if</u>'''....''bibliophilia, love of books'' |- | -'''ig''' || quick || noun and verb stem || '''man'''....''light'' → '''man<u>ig</u>'''....''flash''<br>'''pyex'''....''stroke''→'''pyexig'''....''swat''<br>'''yopap-'''....''dive, fly down'' → '''yopap<u>ig</u>'''....''swoop'' |- | -'''im''' || room, chamber || various stems || '''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' →'''faydil<u>im</u>'''....''chapel''<br>'''magel-'''....''to cook'' → '''magel<u>im</u>'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tof-'''....''to dress'' → '''tof<u>im</u>'''....''dressing room'' |- | -'''in''' || doctrine, dogma, -ism || various stems || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''totin'''....''religion, theism''<br>'''otof<s>a</s>'''....''nude''→'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''<br>'''yufr-'''....'''terror''' → '''yufr<u>in</u>'''....''terrorism'' |- | -'''kyaoxar''' || -stat || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>kyaoxar</u>'''....''thermostat'' |- | -'''n''' || abstract noun || various stems || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' → '''zen'''....''center''<br>'''za'''....''in front of'' →'''za<u>n</u>'''....''face''<br>'''byi'''....''since, starting with'' → '''byi<u>n</u>'''....''source''<br>'''go'''....''less''→ '''go<u>n</u>'''....''part'' |- |-'''kunid''' || -hedron, sided volume || number prefixes || '''alen'''....''dodeca (twelve)'' → '''alenkunid'''....''dodecahedron'' |- | -'''am''' || house<br> building || various stems || '''nun-'''....''merchandise'' → '''nun<u>am</u>'''....''store''<br>'''til''' drink → '''til<u>am</u>'''....''bar, tavern''<br>'''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' → '''fyadil<u>am</u>'''....''church'' |- | -'''(e)m''' || place || various stems || '''duho-?''' what-?→ '''duho<u>m</u>?'''....''where''?<br>'''yex'''....''work'' → '''yex<u>em</u>'''....''worksite''<br>'''ab'''....''on, above'' → '''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''<br>'''ku<s>a</s>'''....''lateral''→'''ku<u>m</u>'''....''side'' |- | -'''um''' || compartment<br> booth || various stems || '''teuzibar'''....''telephone'' → '''teuzibar<u>um</u>'''....''telephone booth'' |- | -'''yem''' || enclosure, box || various stems || '''ekpet'''....''horse'' →'''ekpet<u>yem</u>'''....''corral''<br>'''b-'''....''put'' → '''b<u>yem</u>'''....''position'' |- | -'''ud''' || offspring, baby of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>ud</u>'''....''foal'' |- | -'''wud''' || son of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>wud</u>'''....''colt'' |- | -'''uyd''' || daughter of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>uyd</u>'''....''filly'' |- | -'''og''' || little || noun || '''tab''' body→ '''tab<u>og</u>'''....''corpuscle''<br>'''ekpet'''....''horse'' → '''ekpet<u>og</u>'''....''pony''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>og</u>'''....''snack''<br>'''golbun'''....''cut'' → '''golbun<u>og</u>'''....''cutlet'' |- | -'''oyg''' || little and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>oyg</u>'''....''cottage''<br>'''gafapayt'''....''chicken'' →'''gafapayt<u>oyg</u>'''....''chickadee''<br>'''mimpar'''....''boat'' → '''mirpar<u>oyg</u>'''....''dingy'' |- | -'''nagar''' || ''-ometer'' || noun || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>nagar</u>'''....''thermometer'' |- | -'''ar''', '''-ir''', '''-ur''' || tool, machine, engine || usu. verb stem || '''p-'''....''to go''→ '''p<u>ur</u>'''....''car''<br>'''dr-'''....''to write'' → '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''gobl-'''....''to cut'' → '''gobl<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''<br>'''yaobl-'''....''to lift up and down'' → '''yaobl<u>ur</u>'''....''elevator, lift''<br>'''yaobl<u>ir</u>'''....''lift, crane''<br>'''dop'''....''military'' → '''dop<u>ar</u>'''....''gun''<br>'''dop<u>ur</u>'''....''machine gun''<br>'''dop<u>ir</u>'''....''artillery, cannon''<br> |- | -'''s''' || thing, object, the X one || adjective || '''aa''' first → '''aa<u>s</u>'''....''first one, first thing''<br>'''otwa'''....''unknown'' → '''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery, an unknown''<br>'''tejea'''....''living'' → '''tejea<u>s</u>'''....''living thing'' |- | -'''(s)on''' || abstract thing<br> issue || various stems || '''if-'''....''to love''→'''if<u>on</u>'''....''love''<br>'''ov against'''→ '''ov<u>on</u>'''....''obstacle''<br> '''az<s>a</s>''' strong → '''az<u>on</u>'''....''force''<br>'''yik<s>a</s>'''....''difficult'' → '''yik<u>son</u>'''....''problem'' |- | -'''(s)un''' || object<br> thing<br> result of an action || various stems || '''vyu<s>a</s>'''....''dirty'' → '''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''<br>'''tamb-'''....''settle'' →'''tambi<u>un</u>'''....''settlement''<br>'''gofr-''' ''shred'' → '''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''scrap, shred''<br>'''hyo'''....''not a single''→ '''hyo<u>sun</u>'''....''not a single thing'' |- | -'''t''' || person || adjective || '''ea''' second → '''eat'''....''second one, second person''<br>'''fya-'''....''holy'' → '''fya<u>t</u>'''....''saint''<br>'''ujna'''....''last''→'''uja<u>t</u>'''....''last one, last person''<br>'''Usoma'''....''American'' →'''Usoma<u>t</u>'''....''an American'' |- | -'''tajbus''' || -ogen, producer || noun || '''om'''....''cold, cry-'' → '''omtajbus'''....''cryogen''<br>'''bok'''....''illness'' → '''tajbus'''....''pathogen'' |- | -'''tun''' || science of, -ology || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tun</u>'''....''theology''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tun</u>'''....''anthropology''<br>'''vob'''....''plant'' →'''vob<u>tun</u>'''....''botany'' |- | -'''tuyn''' || pseudo-science || noun || '''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>tuyn</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | -'''tuin''' || theory || noun || '''vyelan'''....''relativity''→ '''vyelan<u>tuin</u>'''....''theory of relativity'' |- | -'''tyen''' || skill, craft || noun || '''sur'''....''engine'' → '''sur<u>tyen</u>'''....''engineering''<br>'''koex-'''....''spying'' → '''koextyen'''....''spycraft'' |- | -'''(t)in''' || doctrine, -ism || noun || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' → '''zaypas<u>in</u>'''....''progressivism'' |- | -'''tut''', '''tuyt''' (f.) || scientist<br> -ologist<br> -ist || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tut</u>'''....''theologist''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tuyt</u>'''....''woman anthropologist''<br>'''vob'''....''plant''→ '''vob<u>tut</u>'''....''botanist'' |- | -'''uf'''<br>'''yuf'''|| hate of<br>fear of, -phobia || noun || '''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>yuf</u>'''....''hydrophobia''<br>'''totin'''....''religion'' → '''totin<u>uf</u>'''....''hatred of religion''<br> '''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>uf</u>'''....''misogyny'' |- | -'''ut''', '''uyt''' (f.)|| agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist || verb stem || '''bek-'''....''treat'' → '''bek<u>uyt</u>'''....''female nurse''<br>'''pop-'''....''travel''→'''pop<u>ut</u>'''....''traveler''<br>'''ak-'''....''win'' → '''ak<u>ut</u>'''....''winner'' |- |-'''teliut''' || eater, -phage, -vore || verb stem || '''hyas'''....''everything, omni-'' → '''hyas<u>teliut</u>'''....''omnivore''<br>'''bokogrun'''....''bacteria'' → '''bokogrunteliut'''....''bacteriophage'' |- | -'''yaf'''|| ability to, power<br> -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yaf</u>'''....''ability to see''<br>'''tex-'''....''to think'' → '''tex<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognition''<br>'''test-'''....''to understand'' → '''test<u>yaf</u>'''....''comprehension''<br>'''nos-'''....''to spend'' → '''nos<u>yaf</u>'''....''spending power''<br>'''t-'''....''to know'' → '''t<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognizance'' |- | -'''yafwan''' || possibility, -bility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yafwan</u>'''....''visibility'' |- | -'''yof''' || inability to, disability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yof</u>'''....''blindness''<br>'''teet-'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yof</u>'''....''deafness''<br>'''pas-'''....''to move''→'''pas<u>yof</u>'''....''paralysis''<br>'''tuj-'''....''to sleep'' → '''tuj<u>yof</u>'''....''insomnia'' |- | -'''yofwan''' || impossibility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yofwan</u>'''....''invisibility'' |- | -'''yag''' || big and ugly, long || noun || '''tetwid'''....''uncle''→ '''tetwid<u>yag</u>'''....''dirty old uncle''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>yag</u>'''....''hag'' |- | -'''yan''' || collection, grouping<br> -ary || noun || '''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>yan</u>'''....''mankind''<br>'''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''<br>'''fab'''....''tree'' → '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''→ '''dyes<u>yan</u>'''....''library'' |- | -'''yen''' || manner, kind || noun || '''dal'''....''talk'' →'''dal<u>yen</u>'''....''idiom''<br>'''sex-'''....''build'' →'''sex<u>yen</u>'''....''structure'' |- | -'''yef''' || duty, obligation || verb stem || '''dud-'''....''to answer'' → '''dud<u>yef</u>'''....''responsibility''<br>'''byok-'''....''to ache'' → '''byok<u>yef</u>'''....''punishment'' |- | -'''yik''' || difficulty to || verb stem || '''teet<u>er</u>'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty hearing''<br>'''tiex-'''....''to breathe'' → '''tiex<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty breathing, asthma'' |- | -'''yog''' || little and ugly || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' →'''tam<u>yog</u>'''....''shack''<br>'''anpiat'''....''duck'' → '''anpiat<u>yog</u>'''....''ugly duckling''<br>'''kod'''....''secret'' → '''kod<u>yog</u>'''....''little dirty secret'' |- | -'''yuk'''<br>'''yukwan''' || ease of || verb stem || '''pes-''' ''to wait'' → '''pes<u>yuk</u>'''....''patience''<br>'''kovyox-''' ''to fool'' → '''kovyox<u>yukwan</u>'''....''gullibility, foolhardiness'' |} {{small/end}} === Differences between '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' === : The noun suffixes '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' create nominalized forms from a verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix '''-en''' is equivalent to the English '''-ing''' and forms a gerundive. It also used to translate many English verbal nominalizations ending in ''-tion''. The suffix '''-eyn''' is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending '''-un''' forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes '''-eyn''' is used instead of '''-un''' where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples: ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' :::* '''xen'''....''doing'' :::* '''xeyn'''....''deed'' :::* '''xun'''....''fact'' ::* '''yugxer'''....''to slow up'' :::* '''yugxen'''....''decelera<u>tion</u>'' :::* '''yugxun'''....''bottleneck'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' :::* '''den'''....''saying'' :::* '''deyn'''....''utterance, a saying'' :::* '''dun'''....''word'' ::* '''ujer'''....''to end'' :::* '''ujen'''....''ending'' eg. ''I like <u>ending</u> on a happy note.'' :::* '''ujeyn'''....''an ending, finale'' eg. ''This play's <u>finale</u> was emotional.'' :::* '''ujun'''....''end, tail end'' eg. ''The road came to a sudden <u>end</u>.'' === Examples of the Suffix '''-yen''' === : This suffix is a stub of '''byen'''....''way, manner''. {{small/top}} ::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Wording Ending in -yen |- valign=top ! Base Word !! Derivation |- | '''ajtyod'''....''past people'' || '''ajtyodyen'''....''tradition'' |- | '''d-'''....''to say'' || '''dyen'''....''expression'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''tactic'' |- | '''dre(r)'''....''to write'' || '''dreyen'''....''writing system'' |- | '''amal'''....''atmosphere'' || '''amalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''an-'''....''single'' || '''anyen'''....''quirk, idio-'' |- | '''axl-'''....''to act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''character, personality'' |- | '''t(y)-'''....''to know how'' || '''tyen'''....''skill, craft'' |- | '''x-'''....''to do'' || '''xyen'''....''profession'' |- | '''ze-'''....''middle'' || '''zeyen'''....''means'' |- | '''bas-'''....''gesture'' || '''basyen'''....''body language'' |- | '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''es-'''....''to exist'' || '''esyen'''....''state'' |- | '''kya-'''....''change'' || '''kyayen'''....''version'' |- | '''p-'''....''to go'' || '''pyen'''....''pace, gait'' |- | '''yex-'''....''to work'' || '''yexyen'''....''line of work'' |- | '''tayot-'''....''to feel'' || '''tayotyen'''....''texture'' |} {{small/end}} === Noun Prefixes === : Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Prefixes |- valign=top ! Prefix !! Meaning !! Base Noun !! Derivations |- | '''aa-''' || ''first, arch-'' || '''deb'''....''leader''<br>'''dezun'''....''performance''<br>'''tat'''....''angel'' || '''aadeb'''....''premier''<br>'''aadezun'''....''premiere''<br>'''aatat'''....''archangel'' |- | '''aag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''donex'''....''economics'' || '''aagdonex'''....''macroeconomics'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-, proto-'' || '''tejsan'''...''life form''<br>'''tobtun'''....''anthropology'' || '''aajtejsan'''....''protozoon''<br>'''aajtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology'' |- | '''ab-''' || ''superior, sur-, on'' || '''donab'''....''rank''<br>'''dout'''....''gentleman''<br>'''dyun'''....''name'' || '''abdonab'''....''superior rank''<br>'''abdout'''....''aristocrat''<br>'''abdyun'''....''title, surname'' |- | '''ag-''' || ''mega-, megalo-, grandi-'' || '''amlot'''....''millionaire''<br>'''dal'''....''talk''|| '''agamlot'''....''megamillionaire''<br>'''agdal'''....''grandiloquence'' |- | '''agal-''' || ''arch-, main-'' || '''mem'''....''land''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''agalmem'''....''mainland''<br>'''agalnad'''....''mainline'' |- | '''agr(a)-''' || ''mega-, megalo-'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''akuj'''...''success'' || '''agrameg'''....''megalith''<br>'''agrakuj'''....''megahit'' |- | '''an-''' || ''one, uni-, mono-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle''<br>'''dungon'''....''syllable'' || '''anzyukpar'''....''unicycle''<br>'''andungon'''....''monosyllable'' |- | '''ao-''' || ''vertical'' || '''nab'''....''rank''<br>'''muf'''....''pole'' || '''aonab'''....''column''<br>'''aomuf'''....''column'' |- | '''aoyeb-''' || ''in-and-out'' || '''belen'''....''carrying'' || '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports'' |- | '''aov-''' || ''for-and-against'' || '''dalson'''....''subject'' || '''aovdalson'''...''controversy'' |- | '''ayb-''' || ''over-, super-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow''<br>'''mas'''....''name'' || '''aybdrun'''....''superscript''<br>'''aybilp'''....''overflow''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''ayn-''' || ''holo-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''sag'''....''number'' || '''ayndras'''....''hologram''<br>'''aynmeg'''....''hololith''<br>'''aynsag'''....''integer'' |- | '''aj-''' || ''past, pre-, fore-, ex-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''gex'''....''equity''<br>'''tayd'''....''wife'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ajgex'''....''revenge''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''anyen-''' || ''idio-, odd'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''fin'''....''quality'' || '''anyendyen'''....''idiom''<br>'''anyenfin'''....''quirk'' |- | '''av-''' || ''pro-, for'' || '''bol'''....''support''<br>'''dun'''....''word'' || '''avbol'''....''endorsement''<br>'''avdun'''....''pronoun'' |- | '''az-''' || ''strong'' || '''hihid'''....''laugh''<br>'''ojvad'''....''promise''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''azhihid'''....''guffaw''<br>'''azojvad'''....''covenant''<br>'''aztos'''....''passion'' |- | '''do-''' || ''public'' || '''del'''....''statement''<br>'''did'''....''question''<br>'''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''dodel'''....''announcement''<br>'''dodid'''....''inquiry''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law'' |- | '''eb-''' || ''inter-, dia-'' || '''dal'''....''statement''<br>'''ifek'''....''gram''<br>'''kyax'''....''change'' || '''ebdal'''....''dialog''<br>'''ebifek'''....''interlude''<br>'''ebkyax'''....''interchange'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-, di-, two-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle'' || '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle'' |- | '''eg-''' || ''normal'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''egbyen'''....''norm'' |- | '''ej-''' || ''step-, current'' || '''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''din'''....''story'' || '''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''ejdin'''....''current news item'' |- | '''ejna-''' || ''neo-'' || '''dun'''....''word'' || '''ejnadun'''....''neologism'' |- | '''ev-''' || ''a-, neutral'' || '''totin'''....''deism''<br>'''dofina'''....''moral'' || '''evtotin'''....''atheism''<br>'''evdofina'''....''amoral'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, hemi-, pen-, half-, quasi-''|| '''moyn'''....''shade''<br>'''zyum'''....''sphere''<br>'''ayma'''....''warm''<br>'''dobyena'''<br>'''daba'''....''governmental'' || '''eynmoyn'''....''penumbra''<br>'''eynzyum'''....''hemisphere''<br>'''aynayma'''....''lukewarm''<br>'''anydobyena'''....''semi-official''<br>'''aydaba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''eu-, bene-, well-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' <br>'''fon'''....''will''|| '''fidyen'''....''euphemism''<br>'''fitos'''....''euphoria''<br>'''fifon'''....''benevolence'' |- | '''fyi-''' || ''useful'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''fyidal'''....''advice'' |- | '''fu-''' || ''caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-'' || '''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''fuseux'''....''cacophony''<br>'''fufon'''....''ill-will, malevolence''<br>'''futos'''....''dysphoria'' |- | '''fyu-''' || ''harmful'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''pelt'''...''insect'' <br>'''mul'''....''stuff''|| '''fyumil'''....''waste water''<br>'''fyupelt'''....''pest''<br>'''fyumul'''....''garbage'' |- | '''fya-''' || ''holy'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''byekut'''....''healer'' || '''fyadin'''....''gospel''<br>'''fyabuun'''....''oblation, offering''<br>'''fyabyekut'''....''shaman, witchdoctor'' |- | '''fye-''' || ''fantasy, mytho-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''diyn'''....''tale''<br>'''mir'''....''world'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, fantasy''<br>'''fyediyn'''....''fairy-tale, fable''<br>'''fyemir'''....''fantasia, fantasy-world'' |- | '''fyo-''' || ''evil'' || '''tat'''....''angel''<br>'''xeyn'''....''deed'' || '''fyotat'''....''demon''<br>'''fyoxeyn'''....''sin'' |- | '''gab-''' || ''plus'' || '''nix'''....''earning'' || '''gabnix'''....''interest'' |- | '''gaw-''' || ''re-'' || '''aklen'''....''conquest''<br>'''del'''....''statement'' || '''gawaklen'''....''reconquest''<br>'''gawdel'''....''restatement'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''equi-, iso-, even-'' || '''eksag'''....''score''<br>'''kyin'''....''weight'' || '''geeksag'''....''tie''<br> '''gekyin'''....''equilibrium'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-, like-, simul-'' || '''dredun'''....''speling''<br>'''san'''....''form'' || '''geldredun'''....''homograph''<br>'''gelsan'''....''isomorph, clone'' |- | '''gla-''' || ''multi-, plur-, poly-'' || '''gon'''....''part'' || '''glagon'''....''plurality'' |- | '''glo-''' || ''few, poorly, little, hypo-, ligo-''|| '''tiibilnid'''....''blood volume'' || '''glotiibilnid'''....''hypovolemia, oligemia'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''hypo-, under-'' || '''agxen'''....''growth''<br>'''del''' || '''grogxen'''....''hypotrophy''<br>'''grodel'''....''understatement'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''too, hyper-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''grabik'''....''hypercaution'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-, super-'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''hyi-''' || ''homo-, same'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference'' || '''hyitoobif'''....''homosexualtiy'' |- | '''hyu-''' || ''hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference''<br>'''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''san'''....''shape'' || '''hyutoobif'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''hyumer'''....''alien planet''<br>'''hyusan'''....''allomorph'' |- | '''hya-''' || ''omni-, pan-, all-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism'' || '''hyadoobin'''....''pan-nationalism'' |- | '''hye-''' || ''any, whatever'' || '''saun'''....''kind'' || '''hyesaun'''....''any kind'' |- | '''hyo(s)-''' || ''nothing'' || '''ten'''....''knowledge'' || '''hyosten'''....''ignorance'' |- | '''hyuit-''' || ''mutual'' || '''fizuen'''....''respect'' || '''hyuitfizuen'''....''mutual respect'' |- | '''ig-''' || ''fast'' || '''didyan'''....''questionnaire'' || '''igdidyan'''....''pop quiz'' |- | '''ij-''' || ''initial, head'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''miap'''....''stream'' || '''ijdun'''....''prologue''<br>'''ijmiap'''....''headstream'' |- | '''ik-''' || ''full'' || '''nuxen'''....''payment'' || '''iknuxen'''....''liquidation'' |- | '''il-''' || ''liquid'' || '''ok'''....''loss'' || '''ilok'''....''leak'' |- | '''im''' || ''wet'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''immel'''....''loam, wetland'' |- | '''in-''' || ''tri-, three'' || '''goblun'''....''cut'' || '''ingoblun'''....''trisection'' |- | '''iv-''' || ''happy'' || '''din'''....''story'' || '''ivdin'''....''comedy'' |- | '''iz-''' || ''straight, orth-, rect-, direct'' || '''fin'''....''quality''<br>'''mep'''....''path'' || '''izfin'''....''rectitude''<br>'''izmep'''....''beeline, vector'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''before, pre-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''jabik'''....''precaution'' |- | '''je-''' || ''continuous'' || '''teaxer'''....''to look'' || '''jeteax'''....''watch, vigil'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''after, post-'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''jodren'''....''postscript'' |- | '''jwa-''' || ''proto-, eo-, early'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ejob'''....''modern era'' || '''jwaajdin'''....''protohistory''<br>'''jwaejob'''....''eocene'' |- | '''jwe-''' || ''prompt'' || '''puen'''....''arrival'' || '''jwepuen'''....''on-time arrival'' |- | '''jwo-''' || ''latter, late'' || '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''side, aside, lateral'' || '''bux'''....''push''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying'' || '''kubux'''....''rebuff''<br>'''kudeyn'''....''remark'' |- | '''ki-''' || ''diagonal, slant'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''texyen'''....''opinion'' || '''kinad'''....''diagonal, slant''<br>'''kitexyen'''....''bias'' |- | '''ko-''' || ''hide, covert, pseudo-'' || '''d'''....''utterance''<br>'''exut'''....''operative''<br>'''flen'''....''desire''<br>'''jadrun'''....''plan'' || '''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''koflen'''....''envy''<br>'''kojadrun'''....''plot'' |- | '''kya-'''|| ''change, para-, re-''||'''bax'''....''movement''<br>'''dyan'''....''phrase''<br>'''din'''....''story''<br>'''naz'''....''value''<br>'''napxen'''....''ordering''||'''kyabax'''....''shift''<br>'''kyadyan'''....''paraphrase''<br>'''kyadin'''....''version''<br>'''kyanaz'''....''variable''<br>'''kyanapxen'''....''reordering, shuffling'' |- | '''kye-''' || ''haphazard'' || '''den'''....''saying''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''kaxun'''....''find'' || '''kyeden'''....''guesswork''<br>'''kyefyun'''....''danger''<br>'''kyekaxun'''....''discovery'' |- | '''kyo-''' || ''fixed'' || '''byen'''....''manner''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying''<br>'''doneg'''....''social class'' || '''kyobyen'''....''habit''<br>'''kyodeyn'''....''clich&eacute;''<br>'''kyodoneg'''....''caste'' |- | '''kyi-''' || ''heavy'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''bal'''....''pressure''|| '''kyiazon'''....''gravity''<br>'''kyites'''....''importance''<br>'''kyibal'''....''strain'' |- | '''kyu-''' || ''light'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''mamil''' || '''kyuazon'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyumamil'''....''drizzle'' |- | '''lo-''' || ''dis-, de-, un-'' || '''bexun'''....''possession'' <br>'''bokulxen'''....''toxification''<br>'''box'''...''quiet''|| '''lobexun'''....''dispossession, divestment''<br>'''lobokulxen'''....''detoxification''<br>'''lobox'''....''disquiet'' |- | '''lyo-''' || ''totally not'' || '''fibyen'''....''good manner''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''lyofibyen'''....''insolence''<br>'''lyodot'''....''wilderness'' |- | '''mak-''' || ''electro-, e-'' || '''ebdras'''....''letter''<br>'''nagar'''....''meter'' || '''makebdras'''....''email''<br>'''maknagar'''....''electrometer'' |- | '''o-''' || ''not, un-'' || '''bik'''....''care''|| '''obik'''....''neglect'' |- | '''ob-''' || ''off-, vice-'' || '''goflun'''....''rip''<br>'''fub'''....''branch'' || '''obgoflun'''....''stub''<br>'''obfub'''....''offshoot'' |- | '''oge-''' || ''unequal, aniso-'' || '''izonan'''...''orientation'' || '''ogeizonan'''....''anisotropy'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-, different'' || '''toobifan'''....''sexual preference''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''ogeltoobifan'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''ogeltin'''....''heterodoxy'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''under-, sub-, infra-'' || '''mos'''....''floor''<br>'''neg'''....''level''<br>'''alza'''....''red''|| '''oybmos'''....''basement''<br>'''oybneg'''....''sublevel''<br>'''oybalza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''of-''' || ''prohibited'' || '''birun'''....''grab''<br>'''dresini'''....''drawings''<br>'''gelxun'''....''copy'' || '''ofbirun'''....''loot''<br>'''ofdresini'''....''grafitti''<br>'''ofgelxun'''....''plagiarism'' |- | '''og-''' || ''small'' || '''soni'''....''matters'' || '''ogsoni'''....''trivia'' |- | '''oog-''' || ''micro-, mini-'' || '''drenod'''....''dot''<br>'''naab'''....''file''<br>'''tyoyf'''....''skirt''|| '''oogdrenod'''....''microdot''<br>'''oognaab'''....''microfiche''<br>'''oogtyoyf'''....''miniskirt'' |- | '''oj-''' || ''future, fore-'' || '''buen'''....''giving''<br>'''deyn'''....''utterance'' || '''ojbuen'''....''lending''<br>'''ojdeyn'''....''forecast'' |- | '''ok-''' || ''loss'' || '''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''okbuun'''....''sacrifice''<br>'''oktos'''....''heartache'' |- | '''ov-''' || ''against, counter-, contra-, anti-'' || '''adabinut'''....''imperialist''<br>'''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''ovadabinut'''....''anti-imperialist''<br>'''ovapyex'''....''counterattack'' |- | '''oy-''' || ''without'' || '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''oytofa'''....''naked'' |- | '''oz-''' || ''weak'' || '''duun'''....''suggestion'' || '''ozduun'''....''hint'' |- | '''ug-''' || ''slow'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''ilok'''....''leak'' <br>'''teax'''....''look''|| '''ugdal'''....''drawl''<br>'''ugilok'''....''seepage''<br>'''ugteax'''....''gaze'' |- | '''ui-''' || '''horizontal'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' || '''uinab'''....''row'' |- | '''un-''' || ''quadri-, tetra-, four-'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' <br>'''yan'''....''collection''|| '''undrezun'''....''quatrain''<br>'''unyan'''....''tetrad'' |- |'''uj-''' || ''end'' || '''ak'''....''win''<br>'''dun'''....''word''<br>'''jud'''....''date'' || '''ujak'''....''success''<br>'''ujdun'''....''epilogue''<br>'''ujjud'''....''deadline'' |- | '''uk''' || ''empty'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''mel'''....''soil''<br>'''nod'''....''point'' || '''ukdal'''....''blather''<br>'''ukmel'''....''desert''<br>'''uknod'''....''puncture'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''self-, sui-, aut(o)-'' || '''tojben'''....''killing''<br>'''dab'''....''government'' || '''uttojben'''....''suicide''<br>'''utdab'''....''autarchy'' |- | '''uv-''' || ''sad'' || '''deuzun''''....''song''<br>'''dolen'''....''silence''<br>'''kyeuj'''....''fate'' || '''uvdeuzun'''....''dirge''<br>'''uvdolen'''....''sulking''<br>'''uvkyeuj'''....''tragedy'' |- | '''uf-''' || ''hate'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''ufdal'''....''rant''<br>'''uftos'''....''anger'' |- | '''uz-''' || ''crooked, curved, arc'' || '''aybmas'''....''roof''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge'' || '''uzaybmas'''....''vault, arch''<br>'''uzdopar'''....''bow, arch''<br>'''uzkunad'''....''rim'' |- | '''va-''' || ''yes'' || '''bien'''....''taking''<br>'''diun'''....''request''<br>'''dud'''....''answer'' || '''vabien'''....''acceptance''<br>'''vadiun'''....''claim''<br>'''vadud'''....''assent'' |- | '''vao-''' || ''yes-or-no'' || '''d'''....''utterance'' || '''vaod'''....''decision'' |- | '''ve-''' || ''maybe'' || '''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''yovdeyn'''....''inculpation'' || '''vetexen'''....''supposition''<br>'''veyovdeyn'''....''indictment'' |- | '''vo-''' || ''no'' || ''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''fon'''....''will'' || '''votexen'''....''doubting''<br>'''vofon'''....''disinclination'' |- | '''vya-''' || ''true'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''dud'''....''answer''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''vyadeyn'''....''avowal''<br>'''vyadud'''....''solution''<br>'''vyanad'''....''guideline'' |- | '''vye-''' || ''relative'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''vyedren'''....''correspondence'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''wrong, mis-'' || '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''vyobek'''....''mistreatment''<br>'''vyodat'''....''false friend'' |- | '''yag-''' || ''long'' || '''igpek'''....''race'' || '''yagigpek'''....''marathon'' |- | '''yan-''' || ''together, con-'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''yandal'''....''conversation'' |- | '''yog-''' || ''short, steno-'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''job'''....''time'' || '''yogdrir'''....''stenograph''<br>'''jogjob'''....''short while'' |- | '''yok-''' || ''sudden'' || ''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''yokapyex'''....''raid'' |- | '''yon-''' || ''apart'' || '''byex'''....''strike'' || '''yonbyex'''....''breach'' |- | '''yov-''' || ''shame'' || '''bixen'''....''pulling''<br>'''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''yovbixen'''....''seduction''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''punishment''<br>'''yovif'''....''schadenfreude'' |- | '''yab-''' || ''up, super-, high-, hyper-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''yabdom'''....''uptown''<br>'''yabdot'''....''high society'' |- | '''yabnan-''' || ''hypso-, acro-, height'' || '''dren'''....''recording'' || '''yabnandren'''....''hypsography'' |- | '''yaob-''' || ''up-and-down'' || '''yuijar'''....''valve''<br>'''pusen'''....''jumping'' || '''yaobyuijar'''....''piston''<br>'''yaopusen'''....''bouncing'' |- | '''yaz-''' || ''swollen, protruding, convex'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''buk'''....''wound''<br>'''tiub'''....''belly''<br>'''mem'''....''land'' || '''yazdal'''....''bombast''<br>'''yazbuk'''....''boil, blister''<br>'''yaztiub'''....''potbelly''<br>'''memyaz'''....''mountain'' |- | '''yez-''' || ''flush, along, para-'' || '''baktut'''....''medic''<br>'''mel'''....''terrain'' || '''yezbaktut'''....''paramedic''<br>'''yezmel'''....''meadow'' |- | '''yiz-''' || ''beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''yizdoobin'''....''ultra-nationalism''<br>'''yizdreniv'''....''hypertext'' |- | '''yoz-''' || ''sunken, concave'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''yoznad'''....''groove, gutter'' |- | '''yaoz-''' || ''saw-toothed, convex-concave'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''goblar'''....''knife'' || '''yaoznad'''....''tilde''<br>'''yaozgoblar'''....''saw'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''around, circ-, circum-, peri-'' || '''pipen'''....''navigation''<br>'''teaxar'''....''scope''<br>'''tyop'''....''walk'' || '''yuzpipen'''....''circumnavigation''<br>'''yuzteaxar'''....''periscope''<br>'''yuztyop'''....''stroll'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''in-, intro-, inner-'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''deym'''....''yard, court'' || '''yebdungab'''....''infix''<br>'''yebdeym'''...''courtyard'' |- | '''oyeb-''' || ''out-, extro-, outer-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dovyaban'''....''legality'' || '''oyebdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''oyebdovyaban'''....''extralegality'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''teaxar'''....''viewer, scope'' || '''yibdrir'''....''teletype''<br>'''yibteaxar'''....''telescope'' |- | '''yibaj''' || ''ancient, archaeo-, paleo-'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''tun'''....''science'' || '''yibajdeyn'''....''archaism''<br>'''yibajtun'''....''archaeology'' |- | '''yub-''' || ''near, para-, juxta-'' || '''gexen'''....''equaling''<br>'''kex'''....''search''<br>'''dop'''....''military''<br>'''tayov'''....''membrane''|| '''yubgexen'''....''approximation''<br>'''yubkex'''....''examination''<br>'''yubdop'''....''paramilitary''<br>'''juxtamembrane''' |- | '''yubaj-''' || ''recent, ceno-'' || || |- | '''yob-''' || ''down, sub-, de-'' || '''doneg'''....''class''<br>'''byex'''....''beat'' || '''yobdoneg'''....''low class''<br>'''yobbyex'''....''downbeat'' |- | '''za-''' || ''front, fore-, pre-, north'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''mer'''....''planet'' || '''zadungab'''....''prefix''<br>'''zadyun'''....''forename''<br>'''zamer'''....''north'' |- | '''ze-''' || ''middle, mid-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''zejub'''....''midday'' |- | '''zo-''' || ''behind, back'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull'' || '''zobex'''....''delay''<br>'''zobix'''....''drag'' |- | '''zay-''' || ''forward, pro-'' || '''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''bux'''....''push'' || '''zaybix'''....''protraction''<br>'''zaybux'''....''propulsion'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''across, trans-, meta-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow'' || '''zeydras'''....''transcript''<br>'''zeyilp'''....''crosscurrent'' |- | '''zoy-''' || ''re-, retro-, back'' || '''axlen'''....''action''<br>'''kix'''....''bend''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mav'''....''flash'' || '''zoyaxlen'''....''reaction''<br>'''zoykix'''....''reflection''<br>'''zoymag'''....''retrofire''<br>'''zoymav'''....''flashback'' |- | '''zya-''' || ''wide'' || '''dodal'''....''speech''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout'' || '''zyadodal'''....''propaganda''<br>'''zyadrurun'''....''poster'' |- | '''zye-''' || ''through, per-, trans-, dia-'' || '''belun'''....''cargo''<br>'''muf'''....''rod''<br>'''bwas'''....''something put'' || '''zyebelun'''....''shipment''<br>'''zyebuxmuf'''....''ramrod (through-push-rod)''<br>'''zyebwas'''....''metaphor'' |- | '''zyi-''' || ''flat, plat-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''mos'''....''floor'' || '''zyidyen'''....''platitude''<br>'''zyimemyaz'''....''plateau''<br>'''zyimos'''....''platform'' |- | '''zyo-''' || ''narrow'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''gun'''....''angle'' || '''zyobex'''....''clasp, grip''<br>'''zyobix'''....''tension''<br>'''zyogun'''....''acute angle'' |- | '''zyu-''' || ''round, roto-, cyclo-'' || '''abaun'''....''cover''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout''<br>'''tom'''....''building'' || '''zyuabaun'''....''dome''<br>'''zyudrurun'''....''rotograph''<br>'''zyutom'''....''tower'' |} {{small/end}} == Gender == [[File:Gender Neutral (13777) - The Noun Project.svg|thumb|]] : Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with the letter '''w'''. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with '''y'''. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix '''-ut''', that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending '''-ut''' is changed to '''-uyt''' for the female form, but the male form ending stays the same or becomes '''-twob'''. The reason for this is that the addition of a '''w''' to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker '''w''' (see the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs]]. The chart below shows how this works: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Making Nouns Gender-specific |- ! Neutral !! Masculine !! Feminine |- | '''tob'''....''human being, person'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''child'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ejtad'''....''step spouse'' || '''ejtwad'''....''step-husband'' || '''ejtayd'''....''step-wife'' |- | '''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse'' || '''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband'' || '''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''datif'''....''sweetheart'' || '''dwatif'''....''boyfriend'' || '''daytif'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''supet'''....''pig''|| '''supwet'''....''boar'' || '''supeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''gafapat'''....''fowl'' || '''gafapwat'''....''rooster'' || '''gafapayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''tiuv'''....''underwear'' || '''twiuv'''....''briefs'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''anbopet'''....''antelope'' || '''anbopwet'''....''deer'' || '''anbopeyt'''....''doe'' |- | '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzut / deuztwob'''....''male singer'' || '''deuzuyt''' ....''songstress'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} : For gender specification in pronouns, see [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns]], below). <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Parts of Speech|Adjectives}}</noinclude> nw68jq959tql92dglb1hmqcamgroom7 4673903 4673902 2026-10-03T17:39:36Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Noun Prefixes */ 4673903 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Noun Types == : Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following ways: ::# '''''common''''' vs. '''''proper''''' ::# '''''concrete''''' vs. '''''abstract''''' ::# '''''countable''''' vs. '''''mass''''' ::# '''''gender-neutral''''' vs. '''''masculine/feminine''''' ::# '''''singular''''' vs. '''''plural''''' ::# '''''animate''''' vs. '''''inanimate''''' ::# '''''full form''''' vs. '''''acronym/abbreviation/stub''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Common vs. Proper Nouns |- ! Common !! Proper |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''Emer'''....''Venus'' |- | '''yagsim'''....''bench'' || '''Ferom'''....''France'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''Notre Dame'''...''Notre Dame'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''Tot'''....''God'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns |- ! Concrete !! Abstract |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''ifon'''....''love'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''oyman'''....''coolness'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzen'''....''singing'' |} : Abstract nouns include '''''gerunds''''', i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like '''deuzen'''....''singing'' < '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' or '''osexen'''....''destruction'' < '''osexer'''....''to destroy''. Infinitives like ''deuzer''....'''to sing''' are also considered abstract nouns. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Countable vs. Mass Nouns |- ! Countable !! Mass |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattel'''....''bird food'' |- | '''patayebi'''....''feathers'' || '''patayebyan'''....''plumage'' |- | '''megi'''....''rocks'' || '''mil'''....''water'' |} : In native Mirad, all '''''common''''' nouns in their '''''singular''''' dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as '''Roma'''....''Rome''. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel ''i'' ('''pat'''....''bird'' ⇒ '''pat<u>i</u>'''....''birds''). :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Gender-neutral vs. Gendered |- ! Gender-neutral !! Feminine !! Masculine |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''twob'''....''man'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' || '''twed'''....''father'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Singular vs. Plural Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''domi'''....''cities'' |- | '''gon'''....''part'' || '''goni'''....''parts'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubi'''....''days'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns |- ! Inanimate !! Animate |- | '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''aot'''....''person'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''tobet'''....''child'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Full form vs. Abbreviated Form ! Full Form !! Acronym/Abbreviation/Stub |- | '''Anxwa Doobi'''....''United Nations'' || '''AD'''....''UN'' |- | '''Mir Nunuien Xob'''....''World Trade Organization'' || '''MNX'''....''WTO'' |- | '''iza makilp'''....''direct current'' || '''i.m'''....''d.c.'' |- | '''tiaybil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' (stub) |- | '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''-um'''....''cell, closet, compartment'' (stub) |} : The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar. == Pluralization of Common Nouns == : A '''''singular countable common noun''''' always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker '''-i'''. So, the plural of '''pur'''....''car'' is '''pur<u>i</u>'''....''cars''. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages ('''la belle fleur''' <big>→</big>'''les belles fleurs'''). The plural suffix '''-i''' is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc. : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Pluralization of Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''tam'''....''house''|| '''tam<u>i</u>'''....''houses'' |- | '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>i</u>'''....''women'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>i</u>'''....''lives'' |- | '''ha via dom'''....''the beautiful city'' || '''ha via dom<u>i</u>'''....''the beautiful cities'' |} == Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article == : In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article '''ha''' (''the''). There is no '''''indefinite article''''' like English ''a / an''. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article '''ha''' (which in reality is a '''''definite deictic determiner''''', discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners]]). The definite article '''ha''' is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Use of the Definite Article |- ! Mirad !! English !! Specificity |- | '''tam''' || ''a house'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tam''' || ''<u>the</u> house'' || definite |- | '''<u>ha</u> tami''' || ''<u>the</u> houses'' || definite, plural |- | '''tej''' || ''life'' || general, no article |- | '''fitejawa <u>tej</u>''' || ''<u>a life</u> well-lived'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tej (...ho at bayse)''' || ''<u>the</u> life (... that I have)'' || specific |- | '''Ferad''' || ''French'' || language name, already specific, no article |- | '''Ivan''' || ''Ivan'' || person's name, no article |- | '''Ifliu <u>yivan</u>!''' || ''Cherish <u>freedom</u>'' || abstraction, no article |- | '''<u>Ha</u> yivani ho yat ifie.''' || ''<u>The</u> freedoms that we enjoy.'' || abstraction specified |- | '''Yata <u>yivani</u>...''' || ''Our <u>freedoms</u>...'' || abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article |} : Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like ''love'', ''life'', ''freedom'' do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases ''the love that dare not speak its name'' or ''the life well-lived'' or ''the freedoms we possess''. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew." == Proper Nouns == : Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar#Countries_of_the_World|Countries of the World]] and [[Mirad_Grammar#Languages of the World|Languages of the World]]. It can be said here, though, that country names end in '''-m'''; the inhabitants of those places end in '''-t''' or pl. '''-ti'''; and the languages they speak end in '''-d'''. Language names are capitalized, eg. '''At tixe Ferad.''' (''I study French.''). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. '''Usama tel Feramxweye.''' ''American food is being Frenchified.''. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc. : Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example: ::* '''Xikago'''....''Chicago'' ::* '''Paris'''....''Paris'' ::* '''Munxen'''....''Munich/M&uuml;nchen'' ::* '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' ::* '''Nu York'''....''New York'' ::* '''Nu Orlinz'''....''New Orleans'' ::* '''Xampanya'''....''Champagne'' ::* '''Mehiko Dom'''....''Mexico City'' ::* '''Waxington'''....''Washington'' ::* '''Seol'''....''Seoul'' ::* '''Xeykspir'''....''Shakespeare'' : An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding '''-t''' or '''-at''' to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. '''Parisat'''....''a Parisian'' or '''Waxingtonati'''....''Washingtonians''. ''Chicago's main newspaper'' is expressed in Mirad as '''ha agala jubdindref bi Xikago'''. The English preposition ''in'' used before cities, states, and countries is translated by '''be''' in Mirad, eg. '''At tambese <u>be</u> Paris.'''....''I live <u>in</u> Paris.'' or '''Iyt yexe be Deum.'''....''She works in Germany.'' == Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement == : Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as '''ewa'''....''two'' naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Modifiers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''ha <u>ewa</u> aga tami''' || ''the <u>two</u> big houses'' |- | '''<u>gla</u> ifxea taxi''' || ''<u>many</u> pleasant memories'' |- | '''hya <u>fia</u> tob''' || ''every <u>good</u> man'' |- | '''ha yaga <u>via</u> mepi''' || ''the long, <u>beautiful</u> roads'' |- | '''gra <u>vua</u> sexen''' || ''too much <u>ugly</u> construction'' |- | '''ata <u>aja</u> teji''' || ''my <u>past</u> lives'' |} == Noun Linkage == : Nouns can be ::# '''''linked''''' with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or ::# '''''juxtaposed''''', where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or ::# '''''compounded''''', where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or ::# '''''hyphenated''''', where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Linkage |- ! Linkage Example !! Construction |- | '''Ivan <u>ay Maria</u>'''....''Ivan <u>and Maria</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ay''' (''and'') |- | '''ha tam <u>ey ha par</u>'''....''the house <u>or the car</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ey''' (''or'') |- | '''hyati <u>oy ha toybi</u>'''....''all <u>but the women</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''or''' (''but'') |- | '''nyandras <u>boy eta dyun</u>'''....''a list <u>without your name</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''boy''' (''without'') |- |'''tej <u>bi nasuk</u>'''....''a life <u>of poverty</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''ha tam <u>bi Maria</u>''' ....''Mary&apos;s house (the house <u>of Mary</u>''|| nouns linked possessively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''job <u>bi aga ivan</u>'''....''a time <u>of great joy</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''dyes <u>ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek</u>'''....''a book <u>about the Second World War</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''ayv''' (''about'') |- | '''dropek <u>jwabeni</u>'''....''war <u>preparations</u>'' || modifier noun '''dropek''' (''war'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''jwabeni'''</u> (''preparations'') |- | '''dom <u>yuzpur</u>'''....''a city <u>bus</u>'' || modifier noun '''dom''' (''city'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''yuzpur'''</u> (''bus'') |- | '''toj<u>ojfon</u>'''....''a death <u>wish</u>'' || modifier noun '''toj''' (''death'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>ojfon</u>''' (''wish'') |- | '''jogat<u>anyaf</u>'''....''youth <u>league</u>'' || modifier noun '''jogat''' (''youth'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>anyaf</u>''' (''league'') |- | '''maj-moj'''....''a day-and-night'' || two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated |} : The '''X bi Y''' prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a '''''named''''' person, eg. '''ha tam <u>bi</u> Sam''' (Sam's house = the house <u>of</u> Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as ''his car'' is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition '''bi'''....''of'' is used in partitive expressions like '''tilzyeb <u>bi</u> vifil'''....''a glass <u>of</u> wine'' (but: '''vifil tilzeb'''....''wine glass'', where ''wine'' modifies ''the glass'' associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions]] or [[Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions]]. : Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation]]. == Noun Derivational Affixes == : Nouns can be divided into: ::* '''''simple nouns''''' such as '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''compound nouns''''' such as '''bixpur'''....''train'' < '''bix'''....''pull'' + '''pur'''....''vehicle'' (This is one of the most widespread ways for forming new concepts in Mirad.) ::* '''''hybrid nouns''''' such as '''vaod'''....''decision'' < '''va'''....''yes'' + '''vo'''....''no'' (hybridized to '''vao''') + '''d'''....''utterance'' ::* '''''derived nouns''''' such as '''fabyan'''....''forest'' < '''fab'''....''tree'' + '''-yan'''....''collection'' : Other derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building. === Noun Suffixes === {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Derivational Suffixes |- valign=top ! Suffix !! Meaning !! Base Onto Which<br>Suffix Is Added !! Examples |- | '''-ag''' || big || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ag</u>'''....''mansion''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>ag</u>'''....''banquet''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon'' → '''tilar<u>ag</u>'''....''ladle'' |- | -'''an''' || abstact quality<br> -ness<br> -hood, -ity || adjective stem ||'''vi<s>a</s>'''....''beautiful'' → '''vi<u>an</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yev<s>a</s>'''....''fair'' → '''yev<u>an</u>'''....''fairness, equity''<br>'''tob<s>a</s>'''....''human'' → '''tob<u>an</u>'''....''humanity, humanness, manhood'' |- | -'''ayg''' || big and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ayg</u>'''....''cozy mansion''<br>'''kapet'''....''dog'' → '''kapet<u>ayg</u>'''....''wolfie'' |- | -'''ambok''' || -itis, inflammation || noun || '''buixtaib'''....''tendon'' → '''buixtaib<u>ambok</u>'''....''tendonitis'' |- | -'''d''' || language<br>speech<br>utterance || adjective and other stems|| '''Enigem'''....''English'' → '''Enige<u>d</u>'''....''English (language)''<br>'''Mira'''....''of the world'' → '''Mirad'''....''Mirad (world speech)''<br>'''ekpe<s>t</s>'''....''horse'' →'''ekpe<u>d</u>'''....''neigh, whinny'' |- | -'''drun''' || -gram || noun stems || '''tiib'''....''heart'' → '''tiib<u>drun</u>'''....''cardiogram'' |- | -'''dra/i/ur''' || -graph || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>drar</u>'''....''thermograph'' |- | -'''dren''' || -graphy || mostly noun stems || '''yib'''....''far'' → '''yib<u>dren</u>'''....''telegraphy'' |- | -'''ef''' || need of || various stems || '''tel'''....''food''→'''tel<u>ef</u>'''....''hunger''<br>'''ig<s>a</s>'''....''fast''→'''ig<u>ef</u>'''....''emergency''<br>'''til'''....''drink''→ '''til<u>ef</u>'''....''thirst'' |- | -'''en''' || present gerund<br> -ing<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''ifi-'''....''enjoy'' →'''ifi<u>en</u>'''....''enjoyment''<br>'''deuz-'''....''sing''→'''deuz<u>en</u>'''....''singing''<br>'''axl-'''....'''act''' → '''axl<u>en</u>'''....''acting'' |- | -'''eyn''' || present gerund of single instance<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''x-'''....''do'' →'''x<u>eyn</u>'''....''deed''<br>'''s-'''....''to be''→'''s<u>eyn</u>'''....''essence''<br>'''jaup-'''....''precede'' → '''jaup<u>eyn</u>'''....''precedent'' |- | -'''es''' || smaller counterpart thing || noun || '''tef'''....''hat''→ '''tef<u>es</u>''' cap<br>'''saun'''....''kind''→ '''saun<u>es</u>'''....''sample''<br>'''dreuz'''....''poem'' → '''deuz<u>es</u>'''....''stanza''<br>'''mek'''....''dust, powder''→'''mek<u>es</u>'''....''speck, grain'' |- | -'''et''' || smaller counterpart person || noun || '''twob'''....''man'' → '''twob<u>et</u>'''....''boy''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''→ '''toyb<u>et</u>'''....''girl'' |- | -'''if''' || love of<br> -philia || noun || '''tel'''....''food'' → '''tel<u>if</u>'''....''gourmandise''<br>'''doab'''....''homeland'' → '''doab<u>if</u>'''....''patriotism''<br>'''dyes'''....''book'' → '''dyes<u>if</u>'''....''bibliophilia, love of books'' |- | -'''ig''' || quick || noun and verb stem || '''man'''....''light'' → '''man<u>ig</u>'''....''flash''<br>'''pyex'''....''stroke''→'''pyexig'''....''swat''<br>'''yopap-'''....''dive, fly down'' → '''yopap<u>ig</u>'''....''swoop'' |- | -'''im''' || room, chamber || various stems || '''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' →'''faydil<u>im</u>'''....''chapel''<br>'''magel-'''....''to cook'' → '''magel<u>im</u>'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tof-'''....''to dress'' → '''tof<u>im</u>'''....''dressing room'' |- | -'''in''' || doctrine, dogma, -ism || various stems || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''totin'''....''religion, theism''<br>'''otof<s>a</s>'''....''nude''→'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''<br>'''yufr-'''....'''terror''' → '''yufr<u>in</u>'''....''terrorism'' |- | -'''kyaoxar''' || -stat || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>kyaoxar</u>'''....''thermostat'' |- | -'''n''' || abstract noun || various stems || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' → '''zen'''....''center''<br>'''za'''....''in front of'' →'''za<u>n</u>'''....''face''<br>'''byi'''....''since, starting with'' → '''byi<u>n</u>'''....''source''<br>'''go'''....''less''→ '''go<u>n</u>'''....''part'' |- |-'''kunid''' || -hedron, sided volume || number prefixes || '''alen'''....''dodeca (twelve)'' → '''alenkunid'''....''dodecahedron'' |- | -'''am''' || house<br> building || various stems || '''nun-'''....''merchandise'' → '''nun<u>am</u>'''....''store''<br>'''til''' drink → '''til<u>am</u>'''....''bar, tavern''<br>'''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' → '''fyadil<u>am</u>'''....''church'' |- | -'''(e)m''' || place || various stems || '''duho-?''' what-?→ '''duho<u>m</u>?'''....''where''?<br>'''yex'''....''work'' → '''yex<u>em</u>'''....''worksite''<br>'''ab'''....''on, above'' → '''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''<br>'''ku<s>a</s>'''....''lateral''→'''ku<u>m</u>'''....''side'' |- | -'''um''' || compartment<br> booth || various stems || '''teuzibar'''....''telephone'' → '''teuzibar<u>um</u>'''....''telephone booth'' |- | -'''yem''' || enclosure, box || various stems || '''ekpet'''....''horse'' →'''ekpet<u>yem</u>'''....''corral''<br>'''b-'''....''put'' → '''b<u>yem</u>'''....''position'' |- | -'''ud''' || offspring, baby of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>ud</u>'''....''foal'' |- | -'''wud''' || son of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>wud</u>'''....''colt'' |- | -'''uyd''' || daughter of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>uyd</u>'''....''filly'' |- | -'''og''' || little || noun || '''tab''' body→ '''tab<u>og</u>'''....''corpuscle''<br>'''ekpet'''....''horse'' → '''ekpet<u>og</u>'''....''pony''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>og</u>'''....''snack''<br>'''golbun'''....''cut'' → '''golbun<u>og</u>'''....''cutlet'' |- | -'''oyg''' || little and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>oyg</u>'''....''cottage''<br>'''gafapayt'''....''chicken'' →'''gafapayt<u>oyg</u>'''....''chickadee''<br>'''mimpar'''....''boat'' → '''mirpar<u>oyg</u>'''....''dingy'' |- | -'''nagar''' || ''-ometer'' || noun || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>nagar</u>'''....''thermometer'' |- | -'''ar''', '''-ir''', '''-ur''' || tool, machine, engine || usu. verb stem || '''p-'''....''to go''→ '''p<u>ur</u>'''....''car''<br>'''dr-'''....''to write'' → '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''gobl-'''....''to cut'' → '''gobl<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''<br>'''yaobl-'''....''to lift up and down'' → '''yaobl<u>ur</u>'''....''elevator, lift''<br>'''yaobl<u>ir</u>'''....''lift, crane''<br>'''dop'''....''military'' → '''dop<u>ar</u>'''....''gun''<br>'''dop<u>ur</u>'''....''machine gun''<br>'''dop<u>ir</u>'''....''artillery, cannon''<br> |- | -'''s''' || thing, object, the X one || adjective || '''aa''' first → '''aa<u>s</u>'''....''first one, first thing''<br>'''otwa'''....''unknown'' → '''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery, an unknown''<br>'''tejea'''....''living'' → '''tejea<u>s</u>'''....''living thing'' |- | -'''(s)on''' || abstract thing<br> issue || various stems || '''if-'''....''to love''→'''if<u>on</u>'''....''love''<br>'''ov against'''→ '''ov<u>on</u>'''....''obstacle''<br> '''az<s>a</s>''' strong → '''az<u>on</u>'''....''force''<br>'''yik<s>a</s>'''....''difficult'' → '''yik<u>son</u>'''....''problem'' |- | -'''(s)un''' || object<br> thing<br> result of an action || various stems || '''vyu<s>a</s>'''....''dirty'' → '''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''<br>'''tamb-'''....''settle'' →'''tambi<u>un</u>'''....''settlement''<br>'''gofr-''' ''shred'' → '''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''scrap, shred''<br>'''hyo'''....''not a single''→ '''hyo<u>sun</u>'''....''not a single thing'' |- | -'''t''' || person || adjective || '''ea''' second → '''eat'''....''second one, second person''<br>'''fya-'''....''holy'' → '''fya<u>t</u>'''....''saint''<br>'''ujna'''....''last''→'''uja<u>t</u>'''....''last one, last person''<br>'''Usoma'''....''American'' →'''Usoma<u>t</u>'''....''an American'' |- | -'''tajbus''' || -ogen, producer || noun || '''om'''....''cold, cry-'' → '''omtajbus'''....''cryogen''<br>'''bok'''....''illness'' → '''tajbus'''....''pathogen'' |- | -'''tun''' || science of, -ology || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tun</u>'''....''theology''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tun</u>'''....''anthropology''<br>'''vob'''....''plant'' →'''vob<u>tun</u>'''....''botany'' |- | -'''tuyn''' || pseudo-science || noun || '''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>tuyn</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | -'''tuin''' || theory || noun || '''vyelan'''....''relativity''→ '''vyelan<u>tuin</u>'''....''theory of relativity'' |- | -'''tyen''' || skill, craft || noun || '''sur'''....''engine'' → '''sur<u>tyen</u>'''....''engineering''<br>'''koex-'''....''spying'' → '''koextyen'''....''spycraft'' |- | -'''(t)in''' || doctrine, -ism || noun || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' → '''zaypas<u>in</u>'''....''progressivism'' |- | -'''tut''', '''tuyt''' (f.) || scientist<br> -ologist<br> -ist || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tut</u>'''....''theologist''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tuyt</u>'''....''woman anthropologist''<br>'''vob'''....''plant''→ '''vob<u>tut</u>'''....''botanist'' |- | -'''uf'''<br>'''yuf'''|| hate of<br>fear of, -phobia || noun || '''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>yuf</u>'''....''hydrophobia''<br>'''totin'''....''religion'' → '''totin<u>uf</u>'''....''hatred of religion''<br> '''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>uf</u>'''....''misogyny'' |- | -'''ut''', '''uyt''' (f.)|| agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist || verb stem || '''bek-'''....''treat'' → '''bek<u>uyt</u>'''....''female nurse''<br>'''pop-'''....''travel''→'''pop<u>ut</u>'''....''traveler''<br>'''ak-'''....''win'' → '''ak<u>ut</u>'''....''winner'' |- |-'''teliut''' || eater, -phage, -vore || verb stem || '''hyas'''....''everything, omni-'' → '''hyas<u>teliut</u>'''....''omnivore''<br>'''bokogrun'''....''bacteria'' → '''bokogrunteliut'''....''bacteriophage'' |- | -'''yaf'''|| ability to, power<br> -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yaf</u>'''....''ability to see''<br>'''tex-'''....''to think'' → '''tex<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognition''<br>'''test-'''....''to understand'' → '''test<u>yaf</u>'''....''comprehension''<br>'''nos-'''....''to spend'' → '''nos<u>yaf</u>'''....''spending power''<br>'''t-'''....''to know'' → '''t<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognizance'' |- | -'''yafwan''' || possibility, -bility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yafwan</u>'''....''visibility'' |- | -'''yof''' || inability to, disability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yof</u>'''....''blindness''<br>'''teet-'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yof</u>'''....''deafness''<br>'''pas-'''....''to move''→'''pas<u>yof</u>'''....''paralysis''<br>'''tuj-'''....''to sleep'' → '''tuj<u>yof</u>'''....''insomnia'' |- | -'''yofwan''' || impossibility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yofwan</u>'''....''invisibility'' |- | -'''yag''' || big and ugly, long || noun || '''tetwid'''....''uncle''→ '''tetwid<u>yag</u>'''....''dirty old uncle''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>yag</u>'''....''hag'' |- | -'''yan''' || collection, grouping<br> -ary || noun || '''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>yan</u>'''....''mankind''<br>'''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''<br>'''fab'''....''tree'' → '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''→ '''dyes<u>yan</u>'''....''library'' |- | -'''yen''' || manner, kind || noun || '''dal'''....''talk'' →'''dal<u>yen</u>'''....''idiom''<br>'''sex-'''....''build'' →'''sex<u>yen</u>'''....''structure'' |- | -'''yef''' || duty, obligation || verb stem || '''dud-'''....''to answer'' → '''dud<u>yef</u>'''....''responsibility''<br>'''byok-'''....''to ache'' → '''byok<u>yef</u>'''....''punishment'' |- | -'''yik''' || difficulty to || verb stem || '''teet<u>er</u>'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty hearing''<br>'''tiex-'''....''to breathe'' → '''tiex<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty breathing, asthma'' |- | -'''yog''' || little and ugly || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' →'''tam<u>yog</u>'''....''shack''<br>'''anpiat'''....''duck'' → '''anpiat<u>yog</u>'''....''ugly duckling''<br>'''kod'''....''secret'' → '''kod<u>yog</u>'''....''little dirty secret'' |- | -'''yuk'''<br>'''yukwan''' || ease of || verb stem || '''pes-''' ''to wait'' → '''pes<u>yuk</u>'''....''patience''<br>'''kovyox-''' ''to fool'' → '''kovyox<u>yukwan</u>'''....''gullibility, foolhardiness'' |} {{small/end}} === Differences between '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' === : The noun suffixes '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' create nominalized forms from a verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix '''-en''' is equivalent to the English '''-ing''' and forms a gerundive. It also used to translate many English verbal nominalizations ending in ''-tion''. The suffix '''-eyn''' is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending '''-un''' forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes '''-eyn''' is used instead of '''-un''' where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples: ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' :::* '''xen'''....''doing'' :::* '''xeyn'''....''deed'' :::* '''xun'''....''fact'' ::* '''yugxer'''....''to slow up'' :::* '''yugxen'''....''decelera<u>tion</u>'' :::* '''yugxun'''....''bottleneck'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' :::* '''den'''....''saying'' :::* '''deyn'''....''utterance, a saying'' :::* '''dun'''....''word'' ::* '''ujer'''....''to end'' :::* '''ujen'''....''ending'' eg. ''I like <u>ending</u> on a happy note.'' :::* '''ujeyn'''....''an ending, finale'' eg. ''This play's <u>finale</u> was emotional.'' :::* '''ujun'''....''end, tail end'' eg. ''The road came to a sudden <u>end</u>.'' === Examples of the Suffix '''-yen''' === : This suffix is a stub of '''byen'''....''way, manner''. {{small/top}} ::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Wording Ending in -yen |- valign=top ! Base Word !! Derivation |- | '''ajtyod'''....''past people'' || '''ajtyodyen'''....''tradition'' |- | '''d-'''....''to say'' || '''dyen'''....''expression'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''tactic'' |- | '''dre(r)'''....''to write'' || '''dreyen'''....''writing system'' |- | '''amal'''....''atmosphere'' || '''amalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''an-'''....''single'' || '''anyen'''....''quirk, idio-'' |- | '''axl-'''....''to act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''character, personality'' |- | '''t(y)-'''....''to know how'' || '''tyen'''....''skill, craft'' |- | '''x-'''....''to do'' || '''xyen'''....''profession'' |- | '''ze-'''....''middle'' || '''zeyen'''....''means'' |- | '''bas-'''....''gesture'' || '''basyen'''....''body language'' |- | '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''es-'''....''to exist'' || '''esyen'''....''state'' |- | '''kya-'''....''change'' || '''kyayen'''....''version'' |- | '''p-'''....''to go'' || '''pyen'''....''pace, gait'' |- | '''yex-'''....''to work'' || '''yexyen'''....''line of work'' |- | '''tayot-'''....''to feel'' || '''tayotyen'''....''texture'' |} {{small/end}} === Noun Prefixes === : Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Prefixes |- valign=top ! Prefix !! Meaning !! Base Noun !! Derivations |- | '''aa-''' || ''first, arch-'' || '''deb'''....''leader''<br>'''dezun'''....''performance''<br>'''tat'''....''angel'' || '''aadeb'''....''premier''<br>'''aadezun'''....''premiere''<br>'''aatat'''....''archangel'' |- | '''aag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''donex'''....''economics'' || '''aagdonex'''....''macroeconomics'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''paleo-, proto-'' || '''tejsan'''...''life form''<br>'''tobtun'''....''anthropology'' || '''aajtejsan'''....''protozoon''<br>'''aajtobtun'''....''paleoanthropology'' |- | '''ab-''' || ''superior, sur-, on'' || '''donab'''....''rank''<br>'''dout'''....''gentleman''<br>'''dyun'''....''name'' || '''abdonab'''....''superior rank''<br>'''abdout'''....''aristocrat''<br>'''abdyun'''....''title, surname'' |- | '''ag-''' || ''mega-, megalo-, grandi-'' || '''amlot'''....''millionaire''<br>'''dal'''....''talk''|| '''agamlot'''....''megamillionaire''<br>'''agdal'''....''grandiloquence'' |- | '''agal-''' || ''arch-, main-'' || '''mem'''....''land''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''agalmem'''....''mainland''<br>'''agalnad'''....''mainline'' |- | '''agr(a)-''' || ''mega-, megalo-'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''akuj'''...''success'' || '''agrameg'''....''megalith''<br>'''agrakuj'''....''megahit'' |- | '''an-''' || ''one, uni-, mono-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle''<br>'''dungon'''....''syllable'' || '''anzyukpar'''....''unicycle''<br>'''andungon'''....''monosyllable'' |- | '''ao-''' || ''vertical'' || '''nab'''....''rank''<br>'''muf'''....''pole'' || '''aonab'''....''column''<br>'''aomuf'''....''column'' |- | '''aoyeb-''' || ''in-and-out'' || '''belen'''....''carrying'' || '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports'' |- | '''aov-''' || ''for-and-against'' || '''dalson'''....''subject'' || '''aovdalson'''...''controversy'' |- | '''ayb-''' || ''over-, super-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow''<br>'''mas'''....''name'' || '''aybdrun'''....''superscript''<br>'''aybilp'''....''overflow''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''ayn-''' || ''holo-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''sag'''....''number'' || '''ayndras'''....''hologram''<br>'''aynmeg'''....''hololith''<br>'''aynsag'''....''integer'' |- | '''aj-''' || ''past, pre-, fore-, ex-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''gex'''....''equity''<br>'''tayd'''....''wife'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ajgex'''....''revenge''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''anyen-''' || ''idio-, odd'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''fin'''....''quality'' || '''anyendyen'''....''idiom''<br>'''anyenfin'''....''quirk'' |- | '''av-''' || ''pro-, for'' || '''bol'''....''support''<br>'''dun'''....''word'' || '''avbol'''....''endorsement''<br>'''avdun'''....''pronoun'' |- | '''az-''' || ''strong'' || '''hihid'''....''laugh''<br>'''ojvad'''....''promise''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''azhihid'''....''guffaw''<br>'''azojvad'''....''covenant''<br>'''aztos'''....''passion'' |- | '''do-''' || ''public'' || '''del'''....''statement''<br>'''did'''....''question''<br>'''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''dodel'''....''announcement''<br>'''dodid'''....''inquiry''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law'' |- | '''eb-''' || ''inter-, dia-'' || '''dal'''....''statement''<br>'''ifek'''....''gram''<br>'''kyax'''....''change'' || '''ebdal'''....''dialog''<br>'''ebifek'''....''interlude''<br>'''ebkyax'''....''interchange'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-, di-, two-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle'' || '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle'' |- | '''eg-''' || ''normal'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''egbyen'''....''norm'' |- | '''ej-''' || ''step-, current'' || '''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''din'''....''story'' || '''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''ejdin'''....''current news item'' |- | '''ejna-''' || ''neo-'' || '''dun'''....''word'' || '''ejnadun'''....''neologism'' |- | '''ev-''' || ''a-, neutral'' || '''totin'''....''deism''<br>'''dofina'''....''moral'' || '''evtotin'''....''atheism''<br>'''evdofina'''....''amoral'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, hemi-, pen-, half-, quasi-''|| '''moyn'''....''shade''<br>'''zyum'''....''sphere''<br>'''ayma'''....''warm''<br>'''dobyena'''<br>'''daba'''....''governmental'' || '''eynmoyn'''....''penumbra''<br>'''eynzyum'''....''hemisphere''<br>'''aynayma'''....''lukewarm''<br>'''anydobyena'''....''semi-official''<br>'''aydaba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''eu-, bene-, well-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' <br>'''fon'''....''will''|| '''fidyen'''....''euphemism''<br>'''fitos'''....''euphoria''<br>'''fifon'''....''benevolence'' |- | '''fyi-''' || ''useful'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''fyidal'''....''advice'' |- | '''fu-''' || ''caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-'' || '''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''fuseux'''....''cacophony''<br>'''fufon'''....''ill-will, malevolence''<br>'''futos'''....''dysphoria'' |- | '''fyu-''' || ''harmful'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''pelt'''...''insect'' <br>'''mul'''....''stuff''|| '''fyumil'''....''waste water''<br>'''fyupelt'''....''pest''<br>'''fyumul'''....''garbage'' |- | '''fya-''' || ''holy'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''byekut'''....''healer'' || '''fyadin'''....''gospel''<br>'''fyabuun'''....''oblation, offering''<br>'''fyabyekut'''....''shaman, witchdoctor'' |- | '''fye-''' || ''fantasy, mytho-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''diyn'''....''tale''<br>'''mir'''....''world'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, fantasy''<br>'''fyediyn'''....''fairy-tale, fable''<br>'''fyemir'''....''fantasia, fantasy-world'' |- | '''fyo-''' || ''evil'' || '''tat'''....''angel''<br>'''xeyn'''....''deed'' || '''fyotat'''....''demon''<br>'''fyoxeyn'''....''sin'' |- | '''gab-''' || ''plus'' || '''nix'''....''earning'' || '''gabnix'''....''interest'' |- | '''gaw-''' || ''re-'' || '''aklen'''....''conquest''<br>'''del'''....''statement'' || '''gawaklen'''....''reconquest''<br>'''gawdel'''....''restatement'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''equi-, iso-, even-'' || '''eksag'''....''score''<br>'''kyin'''....''weight'' || '''geeksag'''....''tie''<br> '''gekyin'''....''equilibrium'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-, like-, simul-'' || '''dredun'''....''speling''<br>'''san'''....''form'' || '''geldredun'''....''homograph''<br>'''gelsan'''....''isomorph, clone'' |- | '''gla-''' || ''multi-, plur-, poly-'' || '''gon'''....''part'' || '''glagon'''....''plurality'' |- | '''glo-''' || ''few, poorly, little, hypo-, ligo-''|| '''tiibilnid'''....''blood volume'' || '''glotiibilnid'''....''hypovolemia, oligemia'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''hypo-, under-'' || '''agxen'''....''growth''<br>'''del''' || '''grogxen'''....''hypotrophy''<br>'''grodel'''....''understatement'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''too, hyper-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''grabik'''....''hypercaution'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-, super-'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''hyi-''' || ''homo-, same'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference'' || '''hyitoobif'''....''homosexualtiy'' |- | '''hyu-''' || ''hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference''<br>'''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''san'''....''shape'' || '''hyutoobif'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''hyumer'''....''alien planet''<br>'''hyusan'''....''allomorph'' |- | '''hya-''' || ''omni-, pan-, all-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism'' || '''hyadoobin'''....''pan-nationalism'' |- | '''hye-''' || ''any, whatever'' || '''saun'''....''kind'' || '''hyesaun'''....''any kind'' |- | '''hyo(s)-''' || ''nothing'' || '''ten'''....''knowledge'' || '''hyosten'''....''ignorance'' |- | '''hyuit-''' || ''mutual'' || '''fizuen'''....''respect'' || '''hyuitfizuen'''....''mutual respect'' |- | '''ig-''' || ''fast'' || '''didyan'''....''questionnaire'' || '''igdidyan'''....''pop quiz'' |- | '''ij-''' || ''initial, head'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''miap'''....''stream'' || '''ijdun'''....''prologue''<br>'''ijmiap'''....''headstream'' |- | '''ik-''' || ''full'' || '''nuxen'''....''payment'' || '''iknuxen'''....''liquidation'' |- | '''il-''' || ''liquid'' || '''ok'''....''loss'' || '''ilok'''....''leak'' |- | '''im''' || ''wet'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''immel'''....''loam, wetland'' |- | '''in-''' || ''tri-, three'' || '''goblun'''....''cut'' || '''ingoblun'''....''trisection'' |- | '''iv-''' || ''happy'' || '''din'''....''story'' || '''ivdin'''....''comedy'' |- | '''iz-''' || ''straight, orth-, rect-, direct'' || '''fin'''....''quality''<br>'''mep'''....''path'' || '''izfin'''....''rectitude''<br>'''izmep'''....''beeline, vector'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''before, pre-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''jabik'''....''precaution'' |- | '''je-''' || ''continuous'' || '''teaxer'''....''to look'' || '''jeteax'''....''watch, vigil'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''after, post-'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''jodren'''....''postscript'' |- | '''jwa-''' || ''proto-, eo-, early'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ejob'''....''modern era'' || '''jwaajdin'''....''protohistory''<br>'''jwaejob'''....''eocene'' |- | '''jwe-''' || ''prompt'' || '''puen'''....''arrival'' || '''jwepuen'''....''on-time arrival'' |- | '''jwo-''' || ''latter, late'' || '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''side, aside, lateral'' || '''bux'''....''push''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying'' || '''kubux'''....''rebuff''<br>'''kudeyn'''....''remark'' |- | '''ki-''' || ''diagonal, slant'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''texyen'''....''opinion'' || '''kinad'''....''diagonal, slant''<br>'''kitexyen'''....''bias'' |- | '''ko-''' || ''hide, covert, pseudo-'' || '''d'''....''utterance''<br>'''exut'''....''operative''<br>'''flen'''....''desire''<br>'''jadrun'''....''plan'' || '''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''koflen'''....''envy''<br>'''kojadrun'''....''plot'' |- | '''kya-'''|| ''change, para-, re-''||'''bax'''....''movement''<br>'''dyan'''....''phrase''<br>'''din'''....''story''<br>'''naz'''....''value''<br>'''napxen'''....''ordering''||'''kyabax'''....''shift''<br>'''kyadyan'''....''paraphrase''<br>'''kyadin'''....''version''<br>'''kyanaz'''....''variable''<br>'''kyanapxen'''....''reordering, shuffling'' |- | '''kye-''' || ''haphazard'' || '''den'''....''saying''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''kaxun'''....''find'' || '''kyeden'''....''guesswork''<br>'''kyefyun'''....''danger''<br>'''kyekaxun'''....''discovery'' |- | '''kyo-''' || ''fixed'' || '''byen'''....''manner''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying''<br>'''doneg'''....''social class'' || '''kyobyen'''....''habit''<br>'''kyodeyn'''....''clich&eacute;''<br>'''kyodoneg'''....''caste'' |- | '''kyi-''' || ''heavy'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''bal'''....''pressure''|| '''kyiazon'''....''gravity''<br>'''kyites'''....''importance''<br>'''kyibal'''....''strain'' |- | '''kyu-''' || ''light'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''mamil''' || '''kyuazon'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyumamil'''....''drizzle'' |- | '''lo-''' || ''dis-, de-, un-'' || '''bexun'''....''possession'' <br>'''bokulxen'''....''toxification''<br>'''box'''...''quiet''|| '''lobexun'''....''dispossession, divestment''<br>'''lobokulxen'''....''detoxification''<br>'''lobox'''....''disquiet'' |- | '''lyo-''' || ''totally not'' || '''fibyen'''....''good manner''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''lyofibyen'''....''insolence''<br>'''lyodot'''....''wilderness'' |- | '''mak-''' || ''electro-, e-'' || '''ebdras'''....''letter''<br>'''nagar'''....''meter'' || '''makebdras'''....''email''<br>'''maknagar'''....''electrometer'' |- | '''o-''' || ''not, un-'' || '''bik'''....''care''|| '''obik'''....''neglect'' |- | '''ob-''' || ''off-, vice-'' || '''goflun'''....''rip''<br>'''fub'''....''branch'' || '''obgoflun'''....''stub''<br>'''obfub'''....''offshoot'' |- | '''oge-''' || ''unequal, aniso-'' || '''izonan'''...''orientation'' || '''ogeizonan'''....''anisotropy'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-, different'' || '''toobifan'''....''sexual preference''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''ogeltoobifan'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''ogeltin'''....''heterodoxy'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''under-, sub-, infra-'' || '''mos'''....''floor''<br>'''neg'''....''level''<br>'''alza'''....''red''|| '''oybmos'''....''basement''<br>'''oybneg'''....''sublevel''<br>'''oybalza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''of-''' || ''prohibited'' || '''birun'''....''grab''<br>'''dresini'''....''drawings''<br>'''gelxun'''....''copy'' || '''ofbirun'''....''loot''<br>'''ofdresini'''....''grafitti''<br>'''ofgelxun'''....''plagiarism'' |- | '''og-''' || ''small'' || '''soni'''....''matters'' || '''ogsoni'''....''trivia'' |- | '''oog-''' || ''micro-, mini-'' || '''drenod'''....''dot''<br>'''naab'''....''file''<br>'''tyoyf'''....''skirt''|| '''oogdrenod'''....''microdot''<br>'''oognaab'''....''microfiche''<br>'''oogtyoyf'''....''miniskirt'' |- | '''oj-''' || ''future, fore-'' || '''buen'''....''giving''<br>'''deyn'''....''utterance'' || '''ojbuen'''....''lending''<br>'''ojdeyn'''....''forecast'' |- | '''ok-''' || ''loss'' || '''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''okbuun'''....''sacrifice''<br>'''oktos'''....''heartache'' |- | '''ov-''' || ''against, counter-, contra-, anti-'' || '''adabinut'''....''imperialist''<br>'''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''ovadabinut'''....''anti-imperialist''<br>'''ovapyex'''....''counterattack'' |- | '''oy-''' || ''without'' || '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''oytofa'''....''naked'' |- | '''oz-''' || ''weak'' || '''duun'''....''suggestion'' || '''ozduun'''....''hint'' |- | '''ug-''' || ''slow'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''ilok'''....''leak'' <br>'''teax'''....''look''|| '''ugdal'''....''drawl''<br>'''ugilok'''....''seepage''<br>'''ugteax'''....''gaze'' |- | '''ui-''' || '''horizontal'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' || '''uinab'''....''row'' |- | '''un-''' || ''quadri-, tetra-, four-'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' <br>'''yan'''....''collection''|| '''undrezun'''....''quatrain''<br>'''unyan'''....''tetrad'' |- |'''uj-''' || ''end'' || '''ak'''....''win''<br>'''dun'''....''word''<br>'''jud'''....''date'' || '''ujak'''....''success''<br>'''ujdun'''....''epilogue''<br>'''ujjud'''....''deadline'' |- | '''uk''' || ''empty'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''mel'''....''soil''<br>'''nod'''....''point'' || '''ukdal'''....''blather''<br>'''ukmel'''....''desert''<br>'''uknod'''....''puncture'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''self-, sui-, aut(o)-'' || '''tojben'''....''killing''<br>'''dab'''....''government'' || '''uttojben'''....''suicide''<br>'''utdab'''....''autarchy'' |- | '''uv-''' || ''sad'' || '''deuzun''''....''song''<br>'''dolen'''....''silence''<br>'''kyeuj'''....''fate'' || '''uvdeuzun'''....''dirge''<br>'''uvdolen'''....''sulking''<br>'''uvkyeuj'''....''tragedy'' |- | '''uf-''' || ''hate'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''ufdal'''....''rant''<br>'''uftos'''....''anger'' |- | '''uz-''' || ''crooked, curved, arc'' || '''aybmas'''....''roof''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge'' || '''uzaybmas'''....''vault, arch''<br>'''uzdopar'''....''bow, arch''<br>'''uzkunad'''....''rim'' |- | '''va-''' || ''yes'' || '''bien'''....''taking''<br>'''diun'''....''request''<br>'''dud'''....''answer'' || '''vabien'''....''acceptance''<br>'''vadiun'''....''claim''<br>'''vadud'''....''assent'' |- | '''vao-''' || ''yes-or-no'' || '''d'''....''utterance'' || '''vaod'''....''decision'' |- | '''ve-''' || ''maybe'' || '''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''yovdeyn'''....''inculpation'' || '''vetexen'''....''supposition''<br>'''veyovdeyn'''....''indictment'' |- | '''vo-''' || ''no'' || ''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''fon'''....''will'' || '''votexen'''....''doubting''<br>'''vofon'''....''disinclination'' |- | '''vya-''' || ''true'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''dud'''....''answer''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''vyadeyn'''....''avowal''<br>'''vyadud'''....''solution''<br>'''vyanad'''....''guideline'' |- | '''vye-''' || ''relative'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''vyedren'''....''correspondence'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''wrong, mis-'' || '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''vyobek'''....''mistreatment''<br>'''vyodat'''....''false friend'' |- | '''yag-''' || ''long'' || '''igpek'''....''race'' || '''yagigpek'''....''marathon'' |- | '''yan-''' || ''together, con-'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''yandal'''....''conversation'' |- | '''yibaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''fobtun'''....''botany'' || '''yibajfobtun'''....''paleobotany'' |- | '''yog-''' || ''short, steno-'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''job'''....''time'' || '''yogdrir'''....''stenograph''<br>'''jogjob'''....''short while'' |- | '''yok-''' || ''sudden'' || ''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''yokapyex'''....''raid'' |- | '''yon-''' || ''apart'' || '''byex'''....''strike'' || '''yonbyex'''....''breach'' |- | '''yov-''' || ''shame'' || '''bixen'''....''pulling''<br>'''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''yovbixen'''....''seduction''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''punishment''<br>'''yovif'''....''schadenfreude'' |- | '''yab-''' || ''up, super-, high-, hyper-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''yabdom'''....''uptown''<br>'''yabdot'''....''high society'' |- | '''yabnan-''' || ''hypso-, acro-, height'' || '''dren'''....''recording'' || '''yabnandren'''....''hypsography'' |- | '''yaob-''' || ''up-and-down'' || '''yuijar'''....''valve''<br>'''pusen'''....''jumping'' || '''yaobyuijar'''....''piston''<br>'''yaopusen'''....''bouncing'' |- | '''yaz-''' || ''swollen, protruding, convex'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''buk'''....''wound''<br>'''tiub'''....''belly''<br>'''mem'''....''land'' || '''yazdal'''....''bombast''<br>'''yazbuk'''....''boil, blister''<br>'''yaztiub'''....''potbelly''<br>'''memyaz'''....''mountain'' |- | '''yez-''' || ''flush, along, para-'' || '''baktut'''....''medic''<br>'''mel'''....''terrain'' || '''yezbaktut'''....''paramedic''<br>'''yezmel'''....''meadow'' |- | '''yiz-''' || ''beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''yizdoobin'''....''ultra-nationalism''<br>'''yizdreniv'''....''hypertext'' |- | '''yoz-''' || ''sunken, concave'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''yoznad'''....''groove, gutter'' |- | '''yaoz-''' || ''saw-toothed, convex-concave'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''goblar'''....''knife'' || '''yaoznad'''....''tilde''<br>'''yaozgoblar'''....''saw'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''around, circ-, circum-, peri-'' || '''pipen'''....''navigation''<br>'''teaxar'''....''scope''<br>'''tyop'''....''walk'' || '''yuzpipen'''....''circumnavigation''<br>'''yuzteaxar'''....''periscope''<br>'''yuztyop'''....''stroll'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''in-, intro-, inner-'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''deym'''....''yard, court'' || '''yebdungab'''....''infix''<br>'''yebdeym'''...''courtyard'' |- | '''oyeb-''' || ''out-, extro-, outer-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dovyaban'''....''legality'' || '''oyebdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''oyebdovyaban'''....''extralegality'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''teaxar'''....''viewer, scope'' || '''yibdrir'''....''teletype''<br>'''yibteaxar'''....''telescope'' |- | '''yibaj''' || ''ancient, archaeo-, paleo-'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''tun'''....''science'' || '''yibajdeyn'''....''archaism''<br>'''yibajtun'''....''archaeology'' |- | '''yub-''' || ''near, para-, juxta-'' || '''gexen'''....''equaling''<br>'''kex'''....''search''<br>'''dop'''....''military''<br>'''tayov'''....''membrane''|| '''yubgexen'''....''approximation''<br>'''yubkex'''....''examination''<br>'''yubdop'''....''paramilitary''<br>'''juxtamembrane''' |- | '''yubaj-''' || ''recent, ceno-'' || || |- | '''yob-''' || ''down, sub-, de-'' || '''doneg'''....''class''<br>'''byex'''....''beat'' || '''yobdoneg'''....''low class''<br>'''yobbyex'''....''downbeat'' |- | '''za-''' || ''front, fore-, pre-, north'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''mer'''....''planet'' || '''zadungab'''....''prefix''<br>'''zadyun'''....''forename''<br>'''zamer'''....''north'' |- | '''ze-''' || ''middle, mid-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''zejub'''....''midday'' |- | '''zo-''' || ''behind, back'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull'' || '''zobex'''....''delay''<br>'''zobix'''....''drag'' |- | '''zay-''' || ''forward, pro-'' || '''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''bux'''....''push'' || '''zaybix'''....''protraction''<br>'''zaybux'''....''propulsion'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''across, trans-, meta-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow'' || '''zeydras'''....''transcript''<br>'''zeyilp'''....''crosscurrent'' |- | '''zoy-''' || ''re-, retro-, back'' || '''axlen'''....''action''<br>'''kix'''....''bend''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mav'''....''flash'' || '''zoyaxlen'''....''reaction''<br>'''zoykix'''....''reflection''<br>'''zoymag'''....''retrofire''<br>'''zoymav'''....''flashback'' |- | '''zya-''' || ''wide'' || '''dodal'''....''speech''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout'' || '''zyadodal'''....''propaganda''<br>'''zyadrurun'''....''poster'' |- | '''zye-''' || ''through, per-, trans-, dia-'' || '''belun'''....''cargo''<br>'''muf'''....''rod''<br>'''bwas'''....''something put'' || '''zyebelun'''....''shipment''<br>'''zyebuxmuf'''....''ramrod (through-push-rod)''<br>'''zyebwas'''....''metaphor'' |- | '''zyi-''' || ''flat, plat-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''mos'''....''floor'' || '''zyidyen'''....''platitude''<br>'''zyimemyaz'''....''plateau''<br>'''zyimos'''....''platform'' |- | '''zyo-''' || ''narrow'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''gun'''....''angle'' || '''zyobex'''....''clasp, grip''<br>'''zyobix'''....''tension''<br>'''zyogun'''....''acute angle'' |- | '''zyu-''' || ''round, roto-, cyclo-'' || '''abaun'''....''cover''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout''<br>'''tom'''....''building'' || '''zyuabaun'''....''dome''<br>'''zyudrurun'''....''rotograph''<br>'''zyutom'''....''tower'' |} {{small/end}} == Gender == [[File:Gender Neutral (13777) - The Noun Project.svg|thumb|]] : Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with the letter '''w'''. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with '''y'''. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix '''-ut''', that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending '''-ut''' is changed to '''-uyt''' for the female form, but the male form ending stays the same or becomes '''-twob'''. The reason for this is that the addition of a '''w''' to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker '''w''' (see the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs]]. The chart below shows how this works: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Making Nouns Gender-specific |- ! Neutral !! Masculine !! Feminine |- | '''tob'''....''human being, person'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''child'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ejtad'''....''step spouse'' || '''ejtwad'''....''step-husband'' || '''ejtayd'''....''step-wife'' |- | '''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse'' || '''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband'' || '''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''datif'''....''sweetheart'' || '''dwatif'''....''boyfriend'' || '''daytif'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''supet'''....''pig''|| '''supwet'''....''boar'' || '''supeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''gafapat'''....''fowl'' || '''gafapwat'''....''rooster'' || '''gafapayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''tiuv'''....''underwear'' || '''twiuv'''....''briefs'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''anbopet'''....''antelope'' || '''anbopwet'''....''deer'' || '''anbopeyt'''....''doe'' |- | '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzut / deuztwob'''....''male singer'' || '''deuzuyt''' ....''songstress'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} : For gender specification in pronouns, see [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns]], below). <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Parts of Speech|Adjectives}}</noinclude> mtttfmpogcgehlxfpm5w8xpdonhzdes 4673904 4673903 2026-10-03T17:41:29Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Noun Prefixes */ 4673904 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Noun Types == : Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following ways: ::# '''''common''''' vs. '''''proper''''' ::# '''''concrete''''' vs. '''''abstract''''' ::# '''''countable''''' vs. '''''mass''''' ::# '''''gender-neutral''''' vs. '''''masculine/feminine''''' ::# '''''singular''''' vs. '''''plural''''' ::# '''''animate''''' vs. '''''inanimate''''' ::# '''''full form''''' vs. '''''acronym/abbreviation/stub''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Common vs. Proper Nouns |- ! Common !! Proper |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''Emer'''....''Venus'' |- | '''yagsim'''....''bench'' || '''Ferom'''....''France'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''Notre Dame'''...''Notre Dame'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''Tot'''....''God'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns |- ! Concrete !! Abstract |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''ifon'''....''love'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''oyman'''....''coolness'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzen'''....''singing'' |} : Abstract nouns include '''''gerunds''''', i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like '''deuzen'''....''singing'' < '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' or '''osexen'''....''destruction'' < '''osexer'''....''to destroy''. Infinitives like ''deuzer''....'''to sing''' are also considered abstract nouns. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Countable vs. Mass Nouns |- ! Countable !! Mass |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattel'''....''bird food'' |- | '''patayebi'''....''feathers'' || '''patayebyan'''....''plumage'' |- | '''megi'''....''rocks'' || '''mil'''....''water'' |} : In native Mirad, all '''''common''''' nouns in their '''''singular''''' dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as '''Roma'''....''Rome''. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel ''i'' ('''pat'''....''bird'' ⇒ '''pat<u>i</u>'''....''birds''). :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Gender-neutral vs. Gendered |- ! Gender-neutral !! Feminine !! Masculine |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''twob'''....''man'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' || '''twed'''....''father'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Singular vs. Plural Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''domi'''....''cities'' |- | '''gon'''....''part'' || '''goni'''....''parts'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubi'''....''days'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns |- ! Inanimate !! Animate |- | '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''aot'''....''person'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''tobet'''....''child'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Full form vs. Abbreviated Form ! Full Form !! Acronym/Abbreviation/Stub |- | '''Anxwa Doobi'''....''United Nations'' || '''AD'''....''UN'' |- | '''Mir Nunuien Xob'''....''World Trade Organization'' || '''MNX'''....''WTO'' |- | '''iza makilp'''....''direct current'' || '''i.m'''....''d.c.'' |- | '''tiaybil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' (stub) |- | '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''-um'''....''cell, closet, compartment'' (stub) |} : The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar. == Pluralization of Common Nouns == : A '''''singular countable common noun''''' always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker '''-i'''. So, the plural of '''pur'''....''car'' is '''pur<u>i</u>'''....''cars''. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages ('''la belle fleur''' <big>→</big>'''les belles fleurs'''). The plural suffix '''-i''' is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc. : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Pluralization of Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''tam'''....''house''|| '''tam<u>i</u>'''....''houses'' |- | '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>i</u>'''....''women'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>i</u>'''....''lives'' |- | '''ha via dom'''....''the beautiful city'' || '''ha via dom<u>i</u>'''....''the beautiful cities'' |} == Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article == : In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article '''ha''' (''the''). There is no '''''indefinite article''''' like English ''a / an''. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article '''ha''' (which in reality is a '''''definite deictic determiner''''', discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners]]). The definite article '''ha''' is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Use of the Definite Article |- ! Mirad !! English !! Specificity |- | '''tam''' || ''a house'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tam''' || ''<u>the</u> house'' || definite |- | '''<u>ha</u> tami''' || ''<u>the</u> houses'' || definite, plural |- | '''tej''' || ''life'' || general, no article |- | '''fitejawa <u>tej</u>''' || ''<u>a life</u> well-lived'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tej (...ho at bayse)''' || ''<u>the</u> life (... that I have)'' || specific |- | '''Ferad''' || ''French'' || language name, already specific, no article |- | '''Ivan''' || ''Ivan'' || person's name, no article |- | '''Ifliu <u>yivan</u>!''' || ''Cherish <u>freedom</u>'' || abstraction, no article |- | '''<u>Ha</u> yivani ho yat ifie.''' || ''<u>The</u> freedoms that we enjoy.'' || abstraction specified |- | '''Yata <u>yivani</u>...''' || ''Our <u>freedoms</u>...'' || abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article |} : Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like ''love'', ''life'', ''freedom'' do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases ''the love that dare not speak its name'' or ''the life well-lived'' or ''the freedoms we possess''. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew." == Proper Nouns == : Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar#Countries_of_the_World|Countries of the World]] and [[Mirad_Grammar#Languages of the World|Languages of the World]]. It can be said here, though, that country names end in '''-m'''; the inhabitants of those places end in '''-t''' or pl. '''-ti'''; and the languages they speak end in '''-d'''. Language names are capitalized, eg. '''At tixe Ferad.''' (''I study French.''). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. '''Usama tel Feramxweye.''' ''American food is being Frenchified.''. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc. : Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example: ::* '''Xikago'''....''Chicago'' ::* '''Paris'''....''Paris'' ::* '''Munxen'''....''Munich/M&uuml;nchen'' ::* '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' ::* '''Nu York'''....''New York'' ::* '''Nu Orlinz'''....''New Orleans'' ::* '''Xampanya'''....''Champagne'' ::* '''Mehiko Dom'''....''Mexico City'' ::* '''Waxington'''....''Washington'' ::* '''Seol'''....''Seoul'' ::* '''Xeykspir'''....''Shakespeare'' : An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding '''-t''' or '''-at''' to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. '''Parisat'''....''a Parisian'' or '''Waxingtonati'''....''Washingtonians''. ''Chicago's main newspaper'' is expressed in Mirad as '''ha agala jubdindref bi Xikago'''. The English preposition ''in'' used before cities, states, and countries is translated by '''be''' in Mirad, eg. '''At tambese <u>be</u> Paris.'''....''I live <u>in</u> Paris.'' or '''Iyt yexe be Deum.'''....''She works in Germany.'' == Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement == : Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as '''ewa'''....''two'' naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Modifiers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''ha <u>ewa</u> aga tami''' || ''the <u>two</u> big houses'' |- | '''<u>gla</u> ifxea taxi''' || ''<u>many</u> pleasant memories'' |- | '''hya <u>fia</u> tob''' || ''every <u>good</u> man'' |- | '''ha yaga <u>via</u> mepi''' || ''the long, <u>beautiful</u> roads'' |- | '''gra <u>vua</u> sexen''' || ''too much <u>ugly</u> construction'' |- | '''ata <u>aja</u> teji''' || ''my <u>past</u> lives'' |} == Noun Linkage == : Nouns can be ::# '''''linked''''' with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or ::# '''''juxtaposed''''', where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or ::# '''''compounded''''', where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or ::# '''''hyphenated''''', where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Linkage |- ! Linkage Example !! Construction |- | '''Ivan <u>ay Maria</u>'''....''Ivan <u>and Maria</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ay''' (''and'') |- | '''ha tam <u>ey ha par</u>'''....''the house <u>or the car</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ey''' (''or'') |- | '''hyati <u>oy ha toybi</u>'''....''all <u>but the women</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''or''' (''but'') |- | '''nyandras <u>boy eta dyun</u>'''....''a list <u>without your name</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''boy''' (''without'') |- |'''tej <u>bi nasuk</u>'''....''a life <u>of poverty</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''ha tam <u>bi Maria</u>''' ....''Mary&apos;s house (the house <u>of Mary</u>''|| nouns linked possessively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''job <u>bi aga ivan</u>'''....''a time <u>of great joy</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''dyes <u>ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek</u>'''....''a book <u>about the Second World War</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''ayv''' (''about'') |- | '''dropek <u>jwabeni</u>'''....''war <u>preparations</u>'' || modifier noun '''dropek''' (''war'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''jwabeni'''</u> (''preparations'') |- | '''dom <u>yuzpur</u>'''....''a city <u>bus</u>'' || modifier noun '''dom''' (''city'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''yuzpur'''</u> (''bus'') |- | '''toj<u>ojfon</u>'''....''a death <u>wish</u>'' || modifier noun '''toj''' (''death'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>ojfon</u>''' (''wish'') |- | '''jogat<u>anyaf</u>'''....''youth <u>league</u>'' || modifier noun '''jogat''' (''youth'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>anyaf</u>''' (''league'') |- | '''maj-moj'''....''a day-and-night'' || two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated |} : The '''X bi Y''' prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a '''''named''''' person, eg. '''ha tam <u>bi</u> Sam''' (Sam's house = the house <u>of</u> Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as ''his car'' is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition '''bi'''....''of'' is used in partitive expressions like '''tilzyeb <u>bi</u> vifil'''....''a glass <u>of</u> wine'' (but: '''vifil tilzeb'''....''wine glass'', where ''wine'' modifies ''the glass'' associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions]] or [[Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions]]. : Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation]]. == Noun Derivational Affixes == : Nouns can be divided into: ::* '''''simple nouns''''' such as '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''compound nouns''''' such as '''bixpur'''....''train'' < '''bix'''....''pull'' + '''pur'''....''vehicle'' (This is one of the most widespread ways for forming new concepts in Mirad.) ::* '''''hybrid nouns''''' such as '''vaod'''....''decision'' < '''va'''....''yes'' + '''vo'''....''no'' (hybridized to '''vao''') + '''d'''....''utterance'' ::* '''''derived nouns''''' such as '''fabyan'''....''forest'' < '''fab'''....''tree'' + '''-yan'''....''collection'' : Other derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building. === Noun Suffixes === {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Derivational Suffixes |- valign=top ! Suffix !! Meaning !! Base Onto Which<br>Suffix Is Added !! Examples |- | '''-ag''' || big || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ag</u>'''....''mansion''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>ag</u>'''....''banquet''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon'' → '''tilar<u>ag</u>'''....''ladle'' |- | -'''an''' || abstact quality<br> -ness<br> -hood, -ity || adjective stem ||'''vi<s>a</s>'''....''beautiful'' → '''vi<u>an</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yev<s>a</s>'''....''fair'' → '''yev<u>an</u>'''....''fairness, equity''<br>'''tob<s>a</s>'''....''human'' → '''tob<u>an</u>'''....''humanity, humanness, manhood'' |- | -'''ayg''' || big and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ayg</u>'''....''cozy mansion''<br>'''kapet'''....''dog'' → '''kapet<u>ayg</u>'''....''wolfie'' |- | -'''ambok''' || -itis, inflammation || noun || '''buixtaib'''....''tendon'' → '''buixtaib<u>ambok</u>'''....''tendonitis'' |- | -'''d''' || language<br>speech<br>utterance || adjective and other stems|| '''Enigem'''....''English'' → '''Enige<u>d</u>'''....''English (language)''<br>'''Mira'''....''of the world'' → '''Mirad'''....''Mirad (world speech)''<br>'''ekpe<s>t</s>'''....''horse'' →'''ekpe<u>d</u>'''....''neigh, whinny'' |- | -'''drun''' || -gram || noun stems || '''tiib'''....''heart'' → '''tiib<u>drun</u>'''....''cardiogram'' |- | -'''dra/i/ur''' || -graph || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>drar</u>'''....''thermograph'' |- | -'''dren''' || -graphy || mostly noun stems || '''yib'''....''far'' → '''yib<u>dren</u>'''....''telegraphy'' |- | -'''ef''' || need of || various stems || '''tel'''....''food''→'''tel<u>ef</u>'''....''hunger''<br>'''ig<s>a</s>'''....''fast''→'''ig<u>ef</u>'''....''emergency''<br>'''til'''....''drink''→ '''til<u>ef</u>'''....''thirst'' |- | -'''en''' || present gerund<br> -ing<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''ifi-'''....''enjoy'' →'''ifi<u>en</u>'''....''enjoyment''<br>'''deuz-'''....''sing''→'''deuz<u>en</u>'''....''singing''<br>'''axl-'''....'''act''' → '''axl<u>en</u>'''....''acting'' |- | -'''eyn''' || present gerund of single instance<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''x-'''....''do'' →'''x<u>eyn</u>'''....''deed''<br>'''s-'''....''to be''→'''s<u>eyn</u>'''....''essence''<br>'''jaup-'''....''precede'' → '''jaup<u>eyn</u>'''....''precedent'' |- | -'''es''' || smaller counterpart thing || noun || '''tef'''....''hat''→ '''tef<u>es</u>''' cap<br>'''saun'''....''kind''→ '''saun<u>es</u>'''....''sample''<br>'''dreuz'''....''poem'' → '''deuz<u>es</u>'''....''stanza''<br>'''mek'''....''dust, powder''→'''mek<u>es</u>'''....''speck, grain'' |- | -'''et''' || smaller counterpart person || noun || '''twob'''....''man'' → '''twob<u>et</u>'''....''boy''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''→ '''toyb<u>et</u>'''....''girl'' |- | -'''if''' || love of<br> -philia || noun || '''tel'''....''food'' → '''tel<u>if</u>'''....''gourmandise''<br>'''doab'''....''homeland'' → '''doab<u>if</u>'''....''patriotism''<br>'''dyes'''....''book'' → '''dyes<u>if</u>'''....''bibliophilia, love of books'' |- | -'''ig''' || quick || noun and verb stem || '''man'''....''light'' → '''man<u>ig</u>'''....''flash''<br>'''pyex'''....''stroke''→'''pyexig'''....''swat''<br>'''yopap-'''....''dive, fly down'' → '''yopap<u>ig</u>'''....''swoop'' |- | -'''im''' || room, chamber || various stems || '''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' →'''faydil<u>im</u>'''....''chapel''<br>'''magel-'''....''to cook'' → '''magel<u>im</u>'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tof-'''....''to dress'' → '''tof<u>im</u>'''....''dressing room'' |- | -'''in''' || doctrine, dogma, -ism || various stems || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''totin'''....''religion, theism''<br>'''otof<s>a</s>'''....''nude''→'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''<br>'''yufr-'''....'''terror''' → '''yufr<u>in</u>'''....''terrorism'' |- | -'''kyaoxar''' || -stat || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>kyaoxar</u>'''....''thermostat'' |- | -'''n''' || abstract noun || various stems || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' → '''zen'''....''center''<br>'''za'''....''in front of'' →'''za<u>n</u>'''....''face''<br>'''byi'''....''since, starting with'' → '''byi<u>n</u>'''....''source''<br>'''go'''....''less''→ '''go<u>n</u>'''....''part'' |- |-'''kunid''' || -hedron, sided volume || number prefixes || '''alen'''....''dodeca (twelve)'' → '''alenkunid'''....''dodecahedron'' |- | -'''am''' || house<br> building || various stems || '''nun-'''....''merchandise'' → '''nun<u>am</u>'''....''store''<br>'''til''' drink → '''til<u>am</u>'''....''bar, tavern''<br>'''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' → '''fyadil<u>am</u>'''....''church'' |- | -'''(e)m''' || place || various stems || '''duho-?''' what-?→ '''duho<u>m</u>?'''....''where''?<br>'''yex'''....''work'' → '''yex<u>em</u>'''....''worksite''<br>'''ab'''....''on, above'' → '''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''<br>'''ku<s>a</s>'''....''lateral''→'''ku<u>m</u>'''....''side'' |- | -'''um''' || compartment<br> booth || various stems || '''teuzibar'''....''telephone'' → '''teuzibar<u>um</u>'''....''telephone booth'' |- | -'''yem''' || enclosure, box || various stems || '''ekpet'''....''horse'' →'''ekpet<u>yem</u>'''....''corral''<br>'''b-'''....''put'' → '''b<u>yem</u>'''....''position'' |- | -'''ud''' || offspring, baby of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>ud</u>'''....''foal'' |- | -'''wud''' || son of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>wud</u>'''....''colt'' |- | -'''uyd''' || daughter of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>uyd</u>'''....''filly'' |- | -'''og''' || little || noun || '''tab''' body→ '''tab<u>og</u>'''....''corpuscle''<br>'''ekpet'''....''horse'' → '''ekpet<u>og</u>'''....''pony''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>og</u>'''....''snack''<br>'''golbun'''....''cut'' → '''golbun<u>og</u>'''....''cutlet'' |- | -'''oyg''' || little and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>oyg</u>'''....''cottage''<br>'''gafapayt'''....''chicken'' →'''gafapayt<u>oyg</u>'''....''chickadee''<br>'''mimpar'''....''boat'' → '''mirpar<u>oyg</u>'''....''dingy'' |- | -'''nagar''' || ''-ometer'' || noun || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>nagar</u>'''....''thermometer'' |- | -'''ar''', '''-ir''', '''-ur''' || tool, machine, engine || usu. verb stem || '''p-'''....''to go''→ '''p<u>ur</u>'''....''car''<br>'''dr-'''....''to write'' → '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''gobl-'''....''to cut'' → '''gobl<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''<br>'''yaobl-'''....''to lift up and down'' → '''yaobl<u>ur</u>'''....''elevator, lift''<br>'''yaobl<u>ir</u>'''....''lift, crane''<br>'''dop'''....''military'' → '''dop<u>ar</u>'''....''gun''<br>'''dop<u>ur</u>'''....''machine gun''<br>'''dop<u>ir</u>'''....''artillery, cannon''<br> |- | -'''s''' || thing, object, the X one || adjective || '''aa''' first → '''aa<u>s</u>'''....''first one, first thing''<br>'''otwa'''....''unknown'' → '''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery, an unknown''<br>'''tejea'''....''living'' → '''tejea<u>s</u>'''....''living thing'' |- | -'''(s)on''' || abstract thing<br> issue || various stems || '''if-'''....''to love''→'''if<u>on</u>'''....''love''<br>'''ov against'''→ '''ov<u>on</u>'''....''obstacle''<br> '''az<s>a</s>''' strong → '''az<u>on</u>'''....''force''<br>'''yik<s>a</s>'''....''difficult'' → '''yik<u>son</u>'''....''problem'' |- | -'''(s)un''' || object<br> thing<br> result of an action || various stems || '''vyu<s>a</s>'''....''dirty'' → '''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''<br>'''tamb-'''....''settle'' →'''tambi<u>un</u>'''....''settlement''<br>'''gofr-''' ''shred'' → '''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''scrap, shred''<br>'''hyo'''....''not a single''→ '''hyo<u>sun</u>'''....''not a single thing'' |- | -'''t''' || person || adjective || '''ea''' second → '''eat'''....''second one, second person''<br>'''fya-'''....''holy'' → '''fya<u>t</u>'''....''saint''<br>'''ujna'''....''last''→'''uja<u>t</u>'''....''last one, last person''<br>'''Usoma'''....''American'' →'''Usoma<u>t</u>'''....''an American'' |- | -'''tajbus''' || -ogen, producer || noun || '''om'''....''cold, cry-'' → '''omtajbus'''....''cryogen''<br>'''bok'''....''illness'' → '''tajbus'''....''pathogen'' |- | -'''tun''' || science of, -ology || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tun</u>'''....''theology''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tun</u>'''....''anthropology''<br>'''vob'''....''plant'' →'''vob<u>tun</u>'''....''botany'' |- | -'''tuyn''' || pseudo-science || noun || '''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>tuyn</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | -'''tuin''' || theory || noun || '''vyelan'''....''relativity''→ '''vyelan<u>tuin</u>'''....''theory of relativity'' |- | -'''tyen''' || skill, craft || noun || '''sur'''....''engine'' → '''sur<u>tyen</u>'''....''engineering''<br>'''koex-'''....''spying'' → '''koextyen'''....''spycraft'' |- | -'''(t)in''' || doctrine, -ism || noun || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' → '''zaypas<u>in</u>'''....''progressivism'' |- | -'''tut''', '''tuyt''' (f.) || scientist<br> -ologist<br> -ist || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tut</u>'''....''theologist''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tuyt</u>'''....''woman anthropologist''<br>'''vob'''....''plant''→ '''vob<u>tut</u>'''....''botanist'' |- | -'''uf'''<br>'''yuf'''|| hate of<br>fear of, -phobia || noun || '''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>yuf</u>'''....''hydrophobia''<br>'''totin'''....''religion'' → '''totin<u>uf</u>'''....''hatred of religion''<br> '''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>uf</u>'''....''misogyny'' |- | -'''ut''', '''uyt''' (f.)|| agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist || verb stem || '''bek-'''....''treat'' → '''bek<u>uyt</u>'''....''female nurse''<br>'''pop-'''....''travel''→'''pop<u>ut</u>'''....''traveler''<br>'''ak-'''....''win'' → '''ak<u>ut</u>'''....''winner'' |- |-'''teliut''' || eater, -phage, -vore || verb stem || '''hyas'''....''everything, omni-'' → '''hyas<u>teliut</u>'''....''omnivore''<br>'''bokogrun'''....''bacteria'' → '''bokogrunteliut'''....''bacteriophage'' |- | -'''yaf'''|| ability to, power<br> -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yaf</u>'''....''ability to see''<br>'''tex-'''....''to think'' → '''tex<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognition''<br>'''test-'''....''to understand'' → '''test<u>yaf</u>'''....''comprehension''<br>'''nos-'''....''to spend'' → '''nos<u>yaf</u>'''....''spending power''<br>'''t-'''....''to know'' → '''t<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognizance'' |- | -'''yafwan''' || possibility, -bility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yafwan</u>'''....''visibility'' |- | -'''yof''' || inability to, disability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yof</u>'''....''blindness''<br>'''teet-'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yof</u>'''....''deafness''<br>'''pas-'''....''to move''→'''pas<u>yof</u>'''....''paralysis''<br>'''tuj-'''....''to sleep'' → '''tuj<u>yof</u>'''....''insomnia'' |- | -'''yofwan''' || impossibility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yofwan</u>'''....''invisibility'' |- | -'''yag''' || big and ugly, long || noun || '''tetwid'''....''uncle''→ '''tetwid<u>yag</u>'''....''dirty old uncle''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>yag</u>'''....''hag'' |- | -'''yan''' || collection, grouping<br> -ary || noun || '''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>yan</u>'''....''mankind''<br>'''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''<br>'''fab'''....''tree'' → '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''→ '''dyes<u>yan</u>'''....''library'' |- | -'''yen''' || manner, kind || noun || '''dal'''....''talk'' →'''dal<u>yen</u>'''....''idiom''<br>'''sex-'''....''build'' →'''sex<u>yen</u>'''....''structure'' |- | -'''yef''' || duty, obligation || verb stem || '''dud-'''....''to answer'' → '''dud<u>yef</u>'''....''responsibility''<br>'''byok-'''....''to ache'' → '''byok<u>yef</u>'''....''punishment'' |- | -'''yik''' || difficulty to || verb stem || '''teet<u>er</u>'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty hearing''<br>'''tiex-'''....''to breathe'' → '''tiex<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty breathing, asthma'' |- | -'''yog''' || little and ugly || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' →'''tam<u>yog</u>'''....''shack''<br>'''anpiat'''....''duck'' → '''anpiat<u>yog</u>'''....''ugly duckling''<br>'''kod'''....''secret'' → '''kod<u>yog</u>'''....''little dirty secret'' |- | -'''yuk'''<br>'''yukwan''' || ease of || verb stem || '''pes-''' ''to wait'' → '''pes<u>yuk</u>'''....''patience''<br>'''kovyox-''' ''to fool'' → '''kovyox<u>yukwan</u>'''....''gullibility, foolhardiness'' |} {{small/end}} === Differences between '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' === : The noun suffixes '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' create nominalized forms from a verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix '''-en''' is equivalent to the English '''-ing''' and forms a gerundive. It also used to translate many English verbal nominalizations ending in ''-tion''. The suffix '''-eyn''' is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending '''-un''' forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes '''-eyn''' is used instead of '''-un''' where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples: ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' :::* '''xen'''....''doing'' :::* '''xeyn'''....''deed'' :::* '''xun'''....''fact'' ::* '''yugxer'''....''to slow up'' :::* '''yugxen'''....''decelera<u>tion</u>'' :::* '''yugxun'''....''bottleneck'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' :::* '''den'''....''saying'' :::* '''deyn'''....''utterance, a saying'' :::* '''dun'''....''word'' ::* '''ujer'''....''to end'' :::* '''ujen'''....''ending'' eg. ''I like <u>ending</u> on a happy note.'' :::* '''ujeyn'''....''an ending, finale'' eg. ''This play's <u>finale</u> was emotional.'' :::* '''ujun'''....''end, tail end'' eg. ''The road came to a sudden <u>end</u>.'' === Examples of the Suffix '''-yen''' === : This suffix is a stub of '''byen'''....''way, manner''. {{small/top}} ::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Wording Ending in -yen |- valign=top ! Base Word !! Derivation |- | '''ajtyod'''....''past people'' || '''ajtyodyen'''....''tradition'' |- | '''d-'''....''to say'' || '''dyen'''....''expression'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''tactic'' |- | '''dre(r)'''....''to write'' || '''dreyen'''....''writing system'' |- | '''amal'''....''atmosphere'' || '''amalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''an-'''....''single'' || '''anyen'''....''quirk, idio-'' |- | '''axl-'''....''to act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''character, personality'' |- | '''t(y)-'''....''to know how'' || '''tyen'''....''skill, craft'' |- | '''x-'''....''to do'' || '''xyen'''....''profession'' |- | '''ze-'''....''middle'' || '''zeyen'''....''means'' |- | '''bas-'''....''gesture'' || '''basyen'''....''body language'' |- | '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''es-'''....''to exist'' || '''esyen'''....''state'' |- | '''kya-'''....''change'' || '''kyayen'''....''version'' |- | '''p-'''....''to go'' || '''pyen'''....''pace, gait'' |- | '''yex-'''....''to work'' || '''yexyen'''....''line of work'' |- | '''tayot-'''....''to feel'' || '''tayotyen'''....''texture'' |} {{small/end}} === Noun Prefixes === : Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Prefixes |- valign=top ! Prefix !! Meaning !! Base Noun !! Derivations |- | '''aa-''' || ''first, arch-'' || '''deb'''....''leader''<br>'''dezun'''....''performance''<br>'''tat'''....''angel'' || '''aadeb'''....''premier''<br>'''aadezun'''....''premiere''<br>'''aatat'''....''archangel'' |- | '''aag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''donex'''....''economics'' || '''aagdonex'''....''macroeconomics'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''proto-'' || '''tejsan'''...''life form''<br>'''tobtun'''....''anthropology'' || '''aajtejsan'''....''protozoon'' |- | '''ab-''' || ''superior, sur-, on'' || '''donab'''....''rank''<br>'''dout'''....''gentleman''<br>'''dyun'''....''name'' || '''abdonab'''....''superior rank''<br>'''abdout'''....''aristocrat''<br>'''abdyun'''....''title, surname'' |- | '''ag-''' || ''mega-, megalo-, grandi-'' || '''amlot'''....''millionaire''<br>'''dal'''....''talk''|| '''agamlot'''....''megamillionaire''<br>'''agdal'''....''grandiloquence'' |- | '''agal-''' || ''arch-, main-'' || '''mem'''....''land''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''agalmem'''....''mainland''<br>'''agalnad'''....''mainline'' |- | '''agr(a)-''' || ''mega-, megalo-'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''akuj'''...''success'' || '''agrameg'''....''megalith''<br>'''agrakuj'''....''megahit'' |- | '''an-''' || ''one, uni-, mono-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle''<br>'''dungon'''....''syllable'' || '''anzyukpar'''....''unicycle''<br>'''andungon'''....''monosyllable'' |- | '''ao-''' || ''vertical'' || '''nab'''....''rank''<br>'''muf'''....''pole'' || '''aonab'''....''column''<br>'''aomuf'''....''column'' |- | '''aoyeb-''' || ''in-and-out'' || '''belen'''....''carrying'' || '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports'' |- | '''aov-''' || ''for-and-against'' || '''dalson'''....''subject'' || '''aovdalson'''...''controversy'' |- | '''ayb-''' || ''over-, super-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow''<br>'''mas'''....''name'' || '''aybdrun'''....''superscript''<br>'''aybilp'''....''overflow''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''ayn-''' || ''holo-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''sag'''....''number'' || '''ayndras'''....''hologram''<br>'''aynmeg'''....''hololith''<br>'''aynsag'''....''integer'' |- | '''aj-''' || ''past, pre-, fore-, ex-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''gex'''....''equity''<br>'''tayd'''....''wife'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ajgex'''....''revenge''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''anyen-''' || ''idio-, odd'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''fin'''....''quality'' || '''anyendyen'''....''idiom''<br>'''anyenfin'''....''quirk'' |- | '''av-''' || ''pro-, for'' || '''bol'''....''support''<br>'''dun'''....''word'' || '''avbol'''....''endorsement''<br>'''avdun'''....''pronoun'' |- | '''az-''' || ''strong'' || '''hihid'''....''laugh''<br>'''ojvad'''....''promise''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''azhihid'''....''guffaw''<br>'''azojvad'''....''covenant''<br>'''aztos'''....''passion'' |- | '''do-''' || ''public'' || '''del'''....''statement''<br>'''did'''....''question''<br>'''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''dodel'''....''announcement''<br>'''dodid'''....''inquiry''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law'' |- | '''eb-''' || ''inter-, dia-'' || '''dal'''....''statement''<br>'''ifek'''....''gram''<br>'''kyax'''....''change'' || '''ebdal'''....''dialog''<br>'''ebifek'''....''interlude''<br>'''ebkyax'''....''interchange'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-, di-, two-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle'' || '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle'' |- | '''eg-''' || ''normal'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''egbyen'''....''norm'' |- | '''ej-''' || ''step-, current'' || '''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''din'''....''story'' || '''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''ejdin'''....''current news item'' |- | '''ejna-''' || ''neo-'' || '''dun'''....''word'' || '''ejnadun'''....''neologism'' |- | '''ev-''' || ''a-, neutral'' || '''totin'''....''deism''<br>'''dofina'''....''moral'' || '''evtotin'''....''atheism''<br>'''evdofina'''....''amoral'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, hemi-, pen-, half-, quasi-''|| '''moyn'''....''shade''<br>'''zyum'''....''sphere''<br>'''ayma'''....''warm''<br>'''dobyena'''<br>'''daba'''....''governmental'' || '''eynmoyn'''....''penumbra''<br>'''eynzyum'''....''hemisphere''<br>'''aynayma'''....''lukewarm''<br>'''anydobyena'''....''semi-official''<br>'''aydaba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''eu-, bene-, well-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' <br>'''fon'''....''will''|| '''fidyen'''....''euphemism''<br>'''fitos'''....''euphoria''<br>'''fifon'''....''benevolence'' |- | '''fyi-''' || ''useful'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''fyidal'''....''advice'' |- | '''fu-''' || ''caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-'' || '''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''fuseux'''....''cacophony''<br>'''fufon'''....''ill-will, malevolence''<br>'''futos'''....''dysphoria'' |- | '''fyu-''' || ''harmful'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''pelt'''...''insect'' <br>'''mul'''....''stuff''|| '''fyumil'''....''waste water''<br>'''fyupelt'''....''pest''<br>'''fyumul'''....''garbage'' |- | '''fya-''' || ''holy'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''byekut'''....''healer'' || '''fyadin'''....''gospel''<br>'''fyabuun'''....''oblation, offering''<br>'''fyabyekut'''....''shaman, witchdoctor'' |- | '''fye-''' || ''fantasy, mytho-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''diyn'''....''tale''<br>'''mir'''....''world'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, fantasy''<br>'''fyediyn'''....''fairy-tale, fable''<br>'''fyemir'''....''fantasia, fantasy-world'' |- | '''fyo-''' || ''evil'' || '''tat'''....''angel''<br>'''xeyn'''....''deed'' || '''fyotat'''....''demon''<br>'''fyoxeyn'''....''sin'' |- | '''gab-''' || ''plus'' || '''nix'''....''earning'' || '''gabnix'''....''interest'' |- | '''gaw-''' || ''re-'' || '''aklen'''....''conquest''<br>'''del'''....''statement'' || '''gawaklen'''....''reconquest''<br>'''gawdel'''....''restatement'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''equi-, iso-, even-'' || '''eksag'''....''score''<br>'''kyin'''....''weight'' || '''geeksag'''....''tie''<br> '''gekyin'''....''equilibrium'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-, like-, simul-'' || '''dredun'''....''speling''<br>'''san'''....''form'' || '''geldredun'''....''homograph''<br>'''gelsan'''....''isomorph, clone'' |- | '''gla-''' || ''multi-, plur-, poly-'' || '''gon'''....''part'' || '''glagon'''....''plurality'' |- | '''glo-''' || ''few, poorly, little, hypo-, ligo-''|| '''tiibilnid'''....''blood volume'' || '''glotiibilnid'''....''hypovolemia, oligemia'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''hypo-, under-'' || '''agxen'''....''growth''<br>'''del''' || '''grogxen'''....''hypotrophy''<br>'''grodel'''....''understatement'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''too, hyper-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''grabik'''....''hypercaution'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-, super-'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''hyi-''' || ''homo-, same'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference'' || '''hyitoobif'''....''homosexualtiy'' |- | '''hyu-''' || ''hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference''<br>'''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''san'''....''shape'' || '''hyutoobif'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''hyumer'''....''alien planet''<br>'''hyusan'''....''allomorph'' |- | '''hya-''' || ''omni-, pan-, all-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism'' || '''hyadoobin'''....''pan-nationalism'' |- | '''hye-''' || ''any, whatever'' || '''saun'''....''kind'' || '''hyesaun'''....''any kind'' |- | '''hyo(s)-''' || ''nothing'' || '''ten'''....''knowledge'' || '''hyosten'''....''ignorance'' |- | '''hyuit-''' || ''mutual'' || '''fizuen'''....''respect'' || '''hyuitfizuen'''....''mutual respect'' |- | '''ig-''' || ''fast'' || '''didyan'''....''questionnaire'' || '''igdidyan'''....''pop quiz'' |- | '''ij-''' || ''initial, head'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''miap'''....''stream'' || '''ijdun'''....''prologue''<br>'''ijmiap'''....''headstream'' |- | '''ik-''' || ''full'' || '''nuxen'''....''payment'' || '''iknuxen'''....''liquidation'' |- | '''il-''' || ''liquid'' || '''ok'''....''loss'' || '''ilok'''....''leak'' |- | '''im''' || ''wet'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''immel'''....''loam, wetland'' |- | '''in-''' || ''tri-, three'' || '''goblun'''....''cut'' || '''ingoblun'''....''trisection'' |- | '''iv-''' || ''happy'' || '''din'''....''story'' || '''ivdin'''....''comedy'' |- | '''iz-''' || ''straight, orth-, rect-, direct'' || '''fin'''....''quality''<br>'''mep'''....''path'' || '''izfin'''....''rectitude''<br>'''izmep'''....''beeline, vector'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''before, pre-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''jabik'''....''precaution'' |- | '''je-''' || ''continuous'' || '''teaxer'''....''to look'' || '''jeteax'''....''watch, vigil'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''after, post-'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''jodren'''....''postscript'' |- | '''jwa-''' || ''proto-, eo-, early'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ejob'''....''modern era'' || '''jwaajdin'''....''protohistory''<br>'''jwaejob'''....''eocene'' |- | '''jwe-''' || ''prompt'' || '''puen'''....''arrival'' || '''jwepuen'''....''on-time arrival'' |- | '''jwo-''' || ''latter, late'' || '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''side, aside, lateral'' || '''bux'''....''push''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying'' || '''kubux'''....''rebuff''<br>'''kudeyn'''....''remark'' |- | '''ki-''' || ''diagonal, slant'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''texyen'''....''opinion'' || '''kinad'''....''diagonal, slant''<br>'''kitexyen'''....''bias'' |- | '''ko-''' || ''hide, covert, pseudo-'' || '''d'''....''utterance''<br>'''exut'''....''operative''<br>'''flen'''....''desire''<br>'''jadrun'''....''plan'' || '''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''koflen'''....''envy''<br>'''kojadrun'''....''plot'' |- | '''kya-'''|| ''change, para-, re-''||'''bax'''....''movement''<br>'''dyan'''....''phrase''<br>'''din'''....''story''<br>'''naz'''....''value''<br>'''napxen'''....''ordering''||'''kyabax'''....''shift''<br>'''kyadyan'''....''paraphrase''<br>'''kyadin'''....''version''<br>'''kyanaz'''....''variable''<br>'''kyanapxen'''....''reordering, shuffling'' |- | '''kye-''' || ''haphazard'' || '''den'''....''saying''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''kaxun'''....''find'' || '''kyeden'''....''guesswork''<br>'''kyefyun'''....''danger''<br>'''kyekaxun'''....''discovery'' |- | '''kyo-''' || ''fixed'' || '''byen'''....''manner''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying''<br>'''doneg'''....''social class'' || '''kyobyen'''....''habit''<br>'''kyodeyn'''....''clich&eacute;''<br>'''kyodoneg'''....''caste'' |- | '''kyi-''' || ''heavy'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''bal'''....''pressure''|| '''kyiazon'''....''gravity''<br>'''kyites'''....''importance''<br>'''kyibal'''....''strain'' |- | '''kyu-''' || ''light'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''mamil''' || '''kyuazon'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyumamil'''....''drizzle'' |- | '''lo-''' || ''dis-, de-, un-'' || '''bexun'''....''possession'' <br>'''bokulxen'''....''toxification''<br>'''box'''...''quiet''|| '''lobexun'''....''dispossession, divestment''<br>'''lobokulxen'''....''detoxification''<br>'''lobox'''....''disquiet'' |- | '''lyo-''' || ''totally not'' || '''fibyen'''....''good manner''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''lyofibyen'''....''insolence''<br>'''lyodot'''....''wilderness'' |- | '''mak-''' || ''electro-, e-'' || '''ebdras'''....''letter''<br>'''nagar'''....''meter'' || '''makebdras'''....''email''<br>'''maknagar'''....''electrometer'' |- | '''o-''' || ''not, un-'' || '''bik'''....''care''|| '''obik'''....''neglect'' |- | '''ob-''' || ''off-, vice-'' || '''goflun'''....''rip''<br>'''fub'''....''branch'' || '''obgoflun'''....''stub''<br>'''obfub'''....''offshoot'' |- | '''oge-''' || ''unequal, aniso-'' || '''izonan'''...''orientation'' || '''ogeizonan'''....''anisotropy'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-, different'' || '''toobifan'''....''sexual preference''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''ogeltoobifan'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''ogeltin'''....''heterodoxy'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''under-, sub-, infra-'' || '''mos'''....''floor''<br>'''neg'''....''level''<br>'''alza'''....''red''|| '''oybmos'''....''basement''<br>'''oybneg'''....''sublevel''<br>'''oybalza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''of-''' || ''prohibited'' || '''birun'''....''grab''<br>'''dresini'''....''drawings''<br>'''gelxun'''....''copy'' || '''ofbirun'''....''loot''<br>'''ofdresini'''....''grafitti''<br>'''ofgelxun'''....''plagiarism'' |- | '''og-''' || ''small'' || '''soni'''....''matters'' || '''ogsoni'''....''trivia'' |- | '''oog-''' || ''micro-, mini-'' || '''drenod'''....''dot''<br>'''naab'''....''file''<br>'''tyoyf'''....''skirt''|| '''oogdrenod'''....''microdot''<br>'''oognaab'''....''microfiche''<br>'''oogtyoyf'''....''miniskirt'' |- | '''oj-''' || ''future, fore-'' || '''buen'''....''giving''<br>'''deyn'''....''utterance'' || '''ojbuen'''....''lending''<br>'''ojdeyn'''....''forecast'' |- | '''ok-''' || ''loss'' || '''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''okbuun'''....''sacrifice''<br>'''oktos'''....''heartache'' |- | '''ov-''' || ''against, counter-, contra-, anti-'' || '''adabinut'''....''imperialist''<br>'''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''ovadabinut'''....''anti-imperialist''<br>'''ovapyex'''....''counterattack'' |- | '''oy-''' || ''without'' || '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''oytofa'''....''naked'' |- | '''oz-''' || ''weak'' || '''duun'''....''suggestion'' || '''ozduun'''....''hint'' |- | '''ug-''' || ''slow'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''ilok'''....''leak'' <br>'''teax'''....''look''|| '''ugdal'''....''drawl''<br>'''ugilok'''....''seepage''<br>'''ugteax'''....''gaze'' |- | '''ui-''' || '''horizontal'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' || '''uinab'''....''row'' |- | '''un-''' || ''quadri-, tetra-, four-'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' <br>'''yan'''....''collection''|| '''undrezun'''....''quatrain''<br>'''unyan'''....''tetrad'' |- |'''uj-''' || ''end'' || '''ak'''....''win''<br>'''dun'''....''word''<br>'''jud'''....''date'' || '''ujak'''....''success''<br>'''ujdun'''....''epilogue''<br>'''ujjud'''....''deadline'' |- | '''uk''' || ''empty'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''mel'''....''soil''<br>'''nod'''....''point'' || '''ukdal'''....''blather''<br>'''ukmel'''....''desert''<br>'''uknod'''....''puncture'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''self-, sui-, aut(o)-'' || '''tojben'''....''killing''<br>'''dab'''....''government'' || '''uttojben'''....''suicide''<br>'''utdab'''....''autarchy'' |- | '''uv-''' || ''sad'' || '''deuzun''''....''song''<br>'''dolen'''....''silence''<br>'''kyeuj'''....''fate'' || '''uvdeuzun'''....''dirge''<br>'''uvdolen'''....''sulking''<br>'''uvkyeuj'''....''tragedy'' |- | '''uf-''' || ''hate'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''ufdal'''....''rant''<br>'''uftos'''....''anger'' |- | '''uz-''' || ''crooked, curved, arc'' || '''aybmas'''....''roof''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge'' || '''uzaybmas'''....''vault, arch''<br>'''uzdopar'''....''bow, arch''<br>'''uzkunad'''....''rim'' |- | '''va-''' || ''yes'' || '''bien'''....''taking''<br>'''diun'''....''request''<br>'''dud'''....''answer'' || '''vabien'''....''acceptance''<br>'''vadiun'''....''claim''<br>'''vadud'''....''assent'' |- | '''vao-''' || ''yes-or-no'' || '''d'''....''utterance'' || '''vaod'''....''decision'' |- | '''ve-''' || ''maybe'' || '''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''yovdeyn'''....''inculpation'' || '''vetexen'''....''supposition''<br>'''veyovdeyn'''....''indictment'' |- | '''vo-''' || ''no'' || ''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''fon'''....''will'' || '''votexen'''....''doubting''<br>'''vofon'''....''disinclination'' |- | '''vya-''' || ''true'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''dud'''....''answer''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''vyadeyn'''....''avowal''<br>'''vyadud'''....''solution''<br>'''vyanad'''....''guideline'' |- | '''vye-''' || ''relative'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''vyedren'''....''correspondence'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''wrong, mis-'' || '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''vyobek'''....''mistreatment''<br>'''vyodat'''....''false friend'' |- | '''yag-''' || ''long'' || '''igpek'''....''race'' || '''yagigpek'''....''marathon'' |- | '''yan-''' || ''together, con-'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''yandal'''....''conversation'' |- | '''yibaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''fobtun'''....''botany'' || '''yibajfobtun'''....''paleobotany'' |- | '''yog-''' || ''short, steno-'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''job'''....''time'' || '''yogdrir'''....''stenograph''<br>'''jogjob'''....''short while'' |- | '''yok-''' || ''sudden'' || ''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''yokapyex'''....''raid'' |- | '''yon-''' || ''apart'' || '''byex'''....''strike'' || '''yonbyex'''....''breach'' |- | '''yov-''' || ''shame'' || '''bixen'''....''pulling''<br>'''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''yovbixen'''....''seduction''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''punishment''<br>'''yovif'''....''schadenfreude'' |- | '''yab-''' || ''up, super-, high-, hyper-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''yabdom'''....''uptown''<br>'''yabdot'''....''high society'' |- | '''yabnan-''' || ''hypso-, acro-, height'' || '''dren'''....''recording'' || '''yabnandren'''....''hypsography'' |- | '''yaob-''' || ''up-and-down'' || '''yuijar'''....''valve''<br>'''pusen'''....''jumping'' || '''yaobyuijar'''....''piston''<br>'''yaopusen'''....''bouncing'' |- | '''yaz-''' || ''swollen, protruding, convex'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''buk'''....''wound''<br>'''tiub'''....''belly''<br>'''mem'''....''land'' || '''yazdal'''....''bombast''<br>'''yazbuk'''....''boil, blister''<br>'''yaztiub'''....''potbelly''<br>'''memyaz'''....''mountain'' |- | '''yez-''' || ''flush, along, para-'' || '''baktut'''....''medic''<br>'''mel'''....''terrain'' || '''yezbaktut'''....''paramedic''<br>'''yezmel'''....''meadow'' |- | '''yiz-''' || ''beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''yizdoobin'''....''ultra-nationalism''<br>'''yizdreniv'''....''hypertext'' |- | '''yoz-''' || ''sunken, concave'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''yoznad'''....''groove, gutter'' |- | '''yaoz-''' || ''saw-toothed, convex-concave'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''goblar'''....''knife'' || '''yaoznad'''....''tilde''<br>'''yaozgoblar'''....''saw'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''around, circ-, circum-, peri-'' || '''pipen'''....''navigation''<br>'''teaxar'''....''scope''<br>'''tyop'''....''walk'' || '''yuzpipen'''....''circumnavigation''<br>'''yuzteaxar'''....''periscope''<br>'''yuztyop'''....''stroll'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''in-, intro-, inner-'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''deym'''....''yard, court'' || '''yebdungab'''....''infix''<br>'''yebdeym'''...''courtyard'' |- | '''oyeb-''' || ''out-, extro-, outer-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dovyaban'''....''legality'' || '''oyebdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''oyebdovyaban'''....''extralegality'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''teaxar'''....''viewer, scope'' || '''yibdrir'''....''teletype''<br>'''yibteaxar'''....''telescope'' |- | '''yibaj''' || ''ancient, archaeo-, paleo-'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''tun'''....''science'' || '''yibajdeyn'''....''archaism''<br>'''yibajtun'''....''archaeology'' |- | '''yub-''' || ''near, para-, juxta-'' || '''gexen'''....''equaling''<br>'''kex'''....''search''<br>'''dop'''....''military''<br>'''tayov'''....''membrane''|| '''yubgexen'''....''approximation''<br>'''yubkex'''....''examination''<br>'''yubdop'''....''paramilitary''<br>'''juxtamembrane''' |- | '''yubaj-''' || ''recent, ceno-'' || || |- | '''yob-''' || ''down, sub-, de-'' || '''doneg'''....''class''<br>'''byex'''....''beat'' || '''yobdoneg'''....''low class''<br>'''yobbyex'''....''downbeat'' |- | '''za-''' || ''front, fore-, pre-, north'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''mer'''....''planet'' || '''zadungab'''....''prefix''<br>'''zadyun'''....''forename''<br>'''zamer'''....''north'' |- | '''ze-''' || ''middle, mid-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''zejub'''....''midday'' |- | '''zo-''' || ''behind, back'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull'' || '''zobex'''....''delay''<br>'''zobix'''....''drag'' |- | '''zay-''' || ''forward, pro-'' || '''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''bux'''....''push'' || '''zaybix'''....''protraction''<br>'''zaybux'''....''propulsion'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''across, trans-, meta-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow'' || '''zeydras'''....''transcript''<br>'''zeyilp'''....''crosscurrent'' |- | '''zoy-''' || ''re-, retro-, back'' || '''axlen'''....''action''<br>'''kix'''....''bend''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mav'''....''flash'' || '''zoyaxlen'''....''reaction''<br>'''zoykix'''....''reflection''<br>'''zoymag'''....''retrofire''<br>'''zoymav'''....''flashback'' |- | '''zya-''' || ''wide'' || '''dodal'''....''speech''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout'' || '''zyadodal'''....''propaganda''<br>'''zyadrurun'''....''poster'' |- | '''zye-''' || ''through, per-, trans-, dia-'' || '''belun'''....''cargo''<br>'''muf'''....''rod''<br>'''bwas'''....''something put'' || '''zyebelun'''....''shipment''<br>'''zyebuxmuf'''....''ramrod (through-push-rod)''<br>'''zyebwas'''....''metaphor'' |- | '''zyi-''' || ''flat, plat-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''mos'''....''floor'' || '''zyidyen'''....''platitude''<br>'''zyimemyaz'''....''plateau''<br>'''zyimos'''....''platform'' |- | '''zyo-''' || ''narrow'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''gun'''....''angle'' || '''zyobex'''....''clasp, grip''<br>'''zyobix'''....''tension''<br>'''zyogun'''....''acute angle'' |- | '''zyu-''' || ''round, roto-, cyclo-'' || '''abaun'''....''cover''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout''<br>'''tom'''....''building'' || '''zyuabaun'''....''dome''<br>'''zyudrurun'''....''rotograph''<br>'''zyutom'''....''tower'' |} {{small/end}} == Gender == [[File:Gender Neutral (13777) - The Noun Project.svg|thumb|]] : Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with the letter '''w'''. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with '''y'''. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix '''-ut''', that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending '''-ut''' is changed to '''-uyt''' for the female form, but the male form ending stays the same or becomes '''-twob'''. The reason for this is that the addition of a '''w''' to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker '''w''' (see the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs]]. The chart below shows how this works: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Making Nouns Gender-specific |- ! Neutral !! Masculine !! Feminine |- | '''tob'''....''human being, person'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''child'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ejtad'''....''step spouse'' || '''ejtwad'''....''step-husband'' || '''ejtayd'''....''step-wife'' |- | '''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse'' || '''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband'' || '''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''datif'''....''sweetheart'' || '''dwatif'''....''boyfriend'' || '''daytif'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''supet'''....''pig''|| '''supwet'''....''boar'' || '''supeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''gafapat'''....''fowl'' || '''gafapwat'''....''rooster'' || '''gafapayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''tiuv'''....''underwear'' || '''twiuv'''....''briefs'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''anbopet'''....''antelope'' || '''anbopwet'''....''deer'' || '''anbopeyt'''....''doe'' |- | '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzut / deuztwob'''....''male singer'' || '''deuzuyt''' ....''songstress'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |} : For gender specification in pronouns, see [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns]], below). <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Parts of Speech|Adjectives}}</noinclude> 5njhjvrkk4390xlcw48v7cqf4ofw0di 4673906 4673904 2026-10-03T17:46:16Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Gender */ 4673906 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Noun Types == : Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following ways: ::# '''''common''''' vs. '''''proper''''' ::# '''''concrete''''' vs. '''''abstract''''' ::# '''''countable''''' vs. '''''mass''''' ::# '''''gender-neutral''''' vs. '''''masculine/feminine''''' ::# '''''singular''''' vs. '''''plural''''' ::# '''''animate''''' vs. '''''inanimate''''' ::# '''''full form''''' vs. '''''acronym/abbreviation/stub''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Common vs. Proper Nouns |- ! Common !! Proper |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''Emer'''....''Venus'' |- | '''yagsim'''....''bench'' || '''Ferom'''....''France'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''Notre Dame'''...''Notre Dame'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''Tot'''....''God'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns |- ! Concrete !! Abstract |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''ifon'''....''love'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''oyman'''....''coolness'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzen'''....''singing'' |} : Abstract nouns include '''''gerunds''''', i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like '''deuzen'''....''singing'' < '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' or '''osexen'''....''destruction'' < '''osexer'''....''to destroy''. Infinitives like ''deuzer''....'''to sing''' are also considered abstract nouns. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Countable vs. Mass Nouns |- ! Countable !! Mass |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattel'''....''bird food'' |- | '''patayebi'''....''feathers'' || '''patayebyan'''....''plumage'' |- | '''megi'''....''rocks'' || '''mil'''....''water'' |} : In native Mirad, all '''''common''''' nouns in their '''''singular''''' dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as '''Roma'''....''Rome''. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel ''i'' ('''pat'''....''bird'' ⇒ '''pat<u>i</u>'''....''birds''). :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Gender-neutral vs. Gendered |- ! Gender-neutral !! Feminine !! Masculine |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''twob'''....''man'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' || '''twed'''....''father'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Singular vs. Plural Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''domi'''....''cities'' |- | '''gon'''....''part'' || '''goni'''....''parts'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubi'''....''days'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns |- ! Inanimate !! Animate |- | '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''aot'''....''person'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''tobet'''....''child'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Full form vs. Abbreviated Form ! Full Form !! Acronym/Abbreviation/Stub |- | '''Anxwa Doobi'''....''United Nations'' || '''AD'''....''UN'' |- | '''Mir Nunuien Xob'''....''World Trade Organization'' || '''MNX'''....''WTO'' |- | '''iza makilp'''....''direct current'' || '''i.m'''....''d.c.'' |- | '''tiaybil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' (stub) |- | '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''-um'''....''cell, closet, compartment'' (stub) |} : The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar. == Pluralization of Common Nouns == : A '''''singular countable common noun''''' always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker '''-i'''. So, the plural of '''pur'''....''car'' is '''pur<u>i</u>'''....''cars''. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages ('''la belle fleur''' <big>→</big>'''les belles fleurs'''). The plural suffix '''-i''' is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc. : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Pluralization of Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''tam'''....''house''|| '''tam<u>i</u>'''....''houses'' |- | '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>i</u>'''....''women'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>i</u>'''....''lives'' |- | '''ha via dom'''....''the beautiful city'' || '''ha via dom<u>i</u>'''....''the beautiful cities'' |} == Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article == : In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article '''ha''' (''the''). There is no '''''indefinite article''''' like English ''a / an''. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article '''ha''' (which in reality is a '''''definite deictic determiner''''', discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners]]). The definite article '''ha''' is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Use of the Definite Article |- ! Mirad !! English !! Specificity |- | '''tam''' || ''a house'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tam''' || ''<u>the</u> house'' || definite |- | '''<u>ha</u> tami''' || ''<u>the</u> houses'' || definite, plural |- | '''tej''' || ''life'' || general, no article |- | '''fitejawa <u>tej</u>''' || ''<u>a life</u> well-lived'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tej (...ho at bayse)''' || ''<u>the</u> life (... that I have)'' || specific |- | '''Ferad''' || ''French'' || language name, already specific, no article |- | '''Ivan''' || ''Ivan'' || person's name, no article |- | '''Ifliu <u>yivan</u>!''' || ''Cherish <u>freedom</u>'' || abstraction, no article |- | '''<u>Ha</u> yivani ho yat ifie.''' || ''<u>The</u> freedoms that we enjoy.'' || abstraction specified |- | '''Yata <u>yivani</u>...''' || ''Our <u>freedoms</u>...'' || abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article |} : Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like ''love'', ''life'', ''freedom'' do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases ''the love that dare not speak its name'' or ''the life well-lived'' or ''the freedoms we possess''. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew." == Proper Nouns == : Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar#Countries_of_the_World|Countries of the World]] and [[Mirad_Grammar#Languages of the World|Languages of the World]]. It can be said here, though, that country names end in '''-m'''; the inhabitants of those places end in '''-t''' or pl. '''-ti'''; and the languages they speak end in '''-d'''. Language names are capitalized, eg. '''At tixe Ferad.''' (''I study French.''). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. '''Usama tel Feramxweye.''' ''American food is being Frenchified.''. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc. : Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example: ::* '''Xikago'''....''Chicago'' ::* '''Paris'''....''Paris'' ::* '''Munxen'''....''Munich/M&uuml;nchen'' ::* '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' ::* '''Nu York'''....''New York'' ::* '''Nu Orlinz'''....''New Orleans'' ::* '''Xampanya'''....''Champagne'' ::* '''Mehiko Dom'''....''Mexico City'' ::* '''Waxington'''....''Washington'' ::* '''Seol'''....''Seoul'' ::* '''Xeykspir'''....''Shakespeare'' : An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding '''-t''' or '''-at''' to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. '''Parisat'''....''a Parisian'' or '''Waxingtonati'''....''Washingtonians''. ''Chicago's main newspaper'' is expressed in Mirad as '''ha agala jubdindref bi Xikago'''. The English preposition ''in'' used before cities, states, and countries is translated by '''be''' in Mirad, eg. '''At tambese <u>be</u> Paris.'''....''I live <u>in</u> Paris.'' or '''Iyt yexe be Deum.'''....''She works in Germany.'' == Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement == : Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as '''ewa'''....''two'' naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Modifiers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''ha <u>ewa</u> aga tami''' || ''the <u>two</u> big houses'' |- | '''<u>gla</u> ifxea taxi''' || ''<u>many</u> pleasant memories'' |- | '''hya <u>fia</u> tob''' || ''every <u>good</u> man'' |- | '''ha yaga <u>via</u> mepi''' || ''the long, <u>beautiful</u> roads'' |- | '''gra <u>vua</u> sexen''' || ''too much <u>ugly</u> construction'' |- | '''ata <u>aja</u> teji''' || ''my <u>past</u> lives'' |} == Noun Linkage == : Nouns can be ::# '''''linked''''' with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or ::# '''''juxtaposed''''', where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or ::# '''''compounded''''', where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or ::# '''''hyphenated''''', where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Linkage |- ! Linkage Example !! Construction |- | '''Ivan <u>ay Maria</u>'''....''Ivan <u>and Maria</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ay''' (''and'') |- | '''ha tam <u>ey ha par</u>'''....''the house <u>or the car</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ey''' (''or'') |- | '''hyati <u>oy ha toybi</u>'''....''all <u>but the women</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''or''' (''but'') |- | '''nyandras <u>boy eta dyun</u>'''....''a list <u>without your name</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''boy''' (''without'') |- |'''tej <u>bi nasuk</u>'''....''a life <u>of poverty</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''ha tam <u>bi Maria</u>''' ....''Mary&apos;s house (the house <u>of Mary</u>''|| nouns linked possessively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''job <u>bi aga ivan</u>'''....''a time <u>of great joy</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''dyes <u>ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek</u>'''....''a book <u>about the Second World War</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''ayv''' (''about'') |- | '''dropek <u>jwabeni</u>'''....''war <u>preparations</u>'' || modifier noun '''dropek''' (''war'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''jwabeni'''</u> (''preparations'') |- | '''dom <u>yuzpur</u>'''....''a city <u>bus</u>'' || modifier noun '''dom''' (''city'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''yuzpur'''</u> (''bus'') |- | '''toj<u>ojfon</u>'''....''a death <u>wish</u>'' || modifier noun '''toj''' (''death'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>ojfon</u>''' (''wish'') |- | '''jogat<u>anyaf</u>'''....''youth <u>league</u>'' || modifier noun '''jogat''' (''youth'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>anyaf</u>''' (''league'') |- | '''maj-moj'''....''a day-and-night'' || two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated |} : The '''X bi Y''' prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a '''''named''''' person, eg. '''ha tam <u>bi</u> Sam''' (Sam's house = the house <u>of</u> Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as ''his car'' is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition '''bi'''....''of'' is used in partitive expressions like '''tilzyeb <u>bi</u> vifil'''....''a glass <u>of</u> wine'' (but: '''vifil tilzeb'''....''wine glass'', where ''wine'' modifies ''the glass'' associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions]] or [[Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions]]. : Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation]]. == Noun Derivational Affixes == : Nouns can be divided into: ::* '''''simple nouns''''' such as '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''compound nouns''''' such as '''bixpur'''....''train'' < '''bix'''....''pull'' + '''pur'''....''vehicle'' (This is one of the most widespread ways for forming new concepts in Mirad.) ::* '''''hybrid nouns''''' such as '''vaod'''....''decision'' < '''va'''....''yes'' + '''vo'''....''no'' (hybridized to '''vao''') + '''d'''....''utterance'' ::* '''''derived nouns''''' such as '''fabyan'''....''forest'' < '''fab'''....''tree'' + '''-yan'''....''collection'' : Other derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building. === Noun Suffixes === {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Derivational Suffixes |- valign=top ! Suffix !! Meaning !! Base Onto Which<br>Suffix Is Added !! Examples |- | '''-ag''' || big || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ag</u>'''....''mansion''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>ag</u>'''....''banquet''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon'' → '''tilar<u>ag</u>'''....''ladle'' |- | -'''an''' || abstact quality<br> -ness<br> -hood, -ity || adjective stem ||'''vi<s>a</s>'''....''beautiful'' → '''vi<u>an</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yev<s>a</s>'''....''fair'' → '''yev<u>an</u>'''....''fairness, equity''<br>'''tob<s>a</s>'''....''human'' → '''tob<u>an</u>'''....''humanity, humanness, manhood'' |- | -'''ayg''' || big and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ayg</u>'''....''cozy mansion''<br>'''kapet'''....''dog'' → '''kapet<u>ayg</u>'''....''wolfie'' |- | -'''ambok''' || -itis, inflammation || noun || '''buixtaib'''....''tendon'' → '''buixtaib<u>ambok</u>'''....''tendonitis'' |- | -'''d''' || language<br>speech<br>utterance || adjective and other stems|| '''Enigem'''....''English'' → '''Enige<u>d</u>'''....''English (language)''<br>'''Mira'''....''of the world'' → '''Mirad'''....''Mirad (world speech)''<br>'''ekpe<s>t</s>'''....''horse'' →'''ekpe<u>d</u>'''....''neigh, whinny'' |- | -'''drun''' || -gram || noun stems || '''tiib'''....''heart'' → '''tiib<u>drun</u>'''....''cardiogram'' |- | -'''dra/i/ur''' || -graph || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>drar</u>'''....''thermograph'' |- | -'''dren''' || -graphy || mostly noun stems || '''yib'''....''far'' → '''yib<u>dren</u>'''....''telegraphy'' |- | -'''ef''' || need of || various stems || '''tel'''....''food''→'''tel<u>ef</u>'''....''hunger''<br>'''ig<s>a</s>'''....''fast''→'''ig<u>ef</u>'''....''emergency''<br>'''til'''....''drink''→ '''til<u>ef</u>'''....''thirst'' |- | -'''en''' || present gerund<br> -ing<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''ifi-'''....''enjoy'' →'''ifi<u>en</u>'''....''enjoyment''<br>'''deuz-'''....''sing''→'''deuz<u>en</u>'''....''singing''<br>'''axl-'''....'''act''' → '''axl<u>en</u>'''....''acting'' |- | -'''eyn''' || present gerund of single instance<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''x-'''....''do'' →'''x<u>eyn</u>'''....''deed''<br>'''s-'''....''to be''→'''s<u>eyn</u>'''....''essence''<br>'''jaup-'''....''precede'' → '''jaup<u>eyn</u>'''....''precedent'' |- | -'''es''' || smaller counterpart thing || noun || '''tef'''....''hat''→ '''tef<u>es</u>''' cap<br>'''saun'''....''kind''→ '''saun<u>es</u>'''....''sample''<br>'''dreuz'''....''poem'' → '''deuz<u>es</u>'''....''stanza''<br>'''mek'''....''dust, powder''→'''mek<u>es</u>'''....''speck, grain'' |- | -'''et''' || smaller counterpart person || noun || '''twob'''....''man'' → '''twob<u>et</u>'''....''boy''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''→ '''toyb<u>et</u>'''....''girl'' |- | -'''if''' || love of<br> -philia || noun || '''tel'''....''food'' → '''tel<u>if</u>'''....''gourmandise''<br>'''doab'''....''homeland'' → '''doab<u>if</u>'''....''patriotism''<br>'''dyes'''....''book'' → '''dyes<u>if</u>'''....''bibliophilia, love of books'' |- | -'''ig''' || quick || noun and verb stem || '''man'''....''light'' → '''man<u>ig</u>'''....''flash''<br>'''pyex'''....''stroke''→'''pyexig'''....''swat''<br>'''yopap-'''....''dive, fly down'' → '''yopap<u>ig</u>'''....''swoop'' |- | -'''im''' || room, chamber || various stems || '''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' →'''faydil<u>im</u>'''....''chapel''<br>'''magel-'''....''to cook'' → '''magel<u>im</u>'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tof-'''....''to dress'' → '''tof<u>im</u>'''....''dressing room'' |- | -'''in''' || doctrine, dogma, -ism || various stems || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''totin'''....''religion, theism''<br>'''otof<s>a</s>'''....''nude''→'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''<br>'''yufr-'''....'''terror''' → '''yufr<u>in</u>'''....''terrorism'' |- | -'''kyaoxar''' || -stat || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>kyaoxar</u>'''....''thermostat'' |- | -'''n''' || abstract noun || various stems || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' → '''zen'''....''center''<br>'''za'''....''in front of'' →'''za<u>n</u>'''....''face''<br>'''byi'''....''since, starting with'' → '''byi<u>n</u>'''....''source''<br>'''go'''....''less''→ '''go<u>n</u>'''....''part'' |- |-'''kunid''' || -hedron, sided volume || number prefixes || '''alen'''....''dodeca (twelve)'' → '''alenkunid'''....''dodecahedron'' |- | -'''am''' || house<br> building || various stems || '''nun-'''....''merchandise'' → '''nun<u>am</u>'''....''store''<br>'''til''' drink → '''til<u>am</u>'''....''bar, tavern''<br>'''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' → '''fyadil<u>am</u>'''....''church'' |- | -'''(e)m''' || place || various stems || '''duho-?''' what-?→ '''duho<u>m</u>?'''....''where''?<br>'''yex'''....''work'' → '''yex<u>em</u>'''....''worksite''<br>'''ab'''....''on, above'' → '''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''<br>'''ku<s>a</s>'''....''lateral''→'''ku<u>m</u>'''....''side'' |- | -'''um''' || compartment<br> booth || various stems || '''teuzibar'''....''telephone'' → '''teuzibar<u>um</u>'''....''telephone booth'' |- | -'''yem''' || enclosure, box || various stems || '''ekpet'''....''horse'' →'''ekpet<u>yem</u>'''....''corral''<br>'''b-'''....''put'' → '''b<u>yem</u>'''....''position'' |- | -'''ud''' || offspring, baby of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>ud</u>'''....''foal'' |- | -'''wud''' || son of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>wud</u>'''....''colt'' |- | -'''uyd''' || daughter of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>uyd</u>'''....''filly'' |- | -'''og''' || little || noun || '''tab''' body→ '''tab<u>og</u>'''....''corpuscle''<br>'''ekpet'''....''horse'' → '''ekpet<u>og</u>'''....''pony''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>og</u>'''....''snack''<br>'''golbun'''....''cut'' → '''golbun<u>og</u>'''....''cutlet'' |- | -'''oyg''' || little and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>oyg</u>'''....''cottage''<br>'''gafapayt'''....''chicken'' →'''gafapayt<u>oyg</u>'''....''chickadee''<br>'''mimpar'''....''boat'' → '''mirpar<u>oyg</u>'''....''dingy'' |- | -'''nagar''' || ''-ometer'' || noun || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>nagar</u>'''....''thermometer'' |- | -'''ar''', '''-ir''', '''-ur''' || tool, machine, engine || usu. verb stem || '''p-'''....''to go''→ '''p<u>ur</u>'''....''car''<br>'''dr-'''....''to write'' → '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''gobl-'''....''to cut'' → '''gobl<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''<br>'''yaobl-'''....''to lift up and down'' → '''yaobl<u>ur</u>'''....''elevator, lift''<br>'''yaobl<u>ir</u>'''....''lift, crane''<br>'''dop'''....''military'' → '''dop<u>ar</u>'''....''gun''<br>'''dop<u>ur</u>'''....''machine gun''<br>'''dop<u>ir</u>'''....''artillery, cannon''<br> |- | -'''s''' || thing, object, the X one || adjective || '''aa''' first → '''aa<u>s</u>'''....''first one, first thing''<br>'''otwa'''....''unknown'' → '''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery, an unknown''<br>'''tejea'''....''living'' → '''tejea<u>s</u>'''....''living thing'' |- | -'''(s)on''' || abstract thing<br> issue || various stems || '''if-'''....''to love''→'''if<u>on</u>'''....''love''<br>'''ov against'''→ '''ov<u>on</u>'''....''obstacle''<br> '''az<s>a</s>''' strong → '''az<u>on</u>'''....''force''<br>'''yik<s>a</s>'''....''difficult'' → '''yik<u>son</u>'''....''problem'' |- | -'''(s)un''' || object<br> thing<br> result of an action || various stems || '''vyu<s>a</s>'''....''dirty'' → '''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''<br>'''tamb-'''....''settle'' →'''tambi<u>un</u>'''....''settlement''<br>'''gofr-''' ''shred'' → '''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''scrap, shred''<br>'''hyo'''....''not a single''→ '''hyo<u>sun</u>'''....''not a single thing'' |- | -'''t''' || person || adjective || '''ea''' second → '''eat'''....''second one, second person''<br>'''fya-'''....''holy'' → '''fya<u>t</u>'''....''saint''<br>'''ujna'''....''last''→'''uja<u>t</u>'''....''last one, last person''<br>'''Usoma'''....''American'' →'''Usoma<u>t</u>'''....''an American'' |- | -'''tajbus''' || -ogen, producer || noun || '''om'''....''cold, cry-'' → '''omtajbus'''....''cryogen''<br>'''bok'''....''illness'' → '''tajbus'''....''pathogen'' |- | -'''tun''' || science of, -ology || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tun</u>'''....''theology''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tun</u>'''....''anthropology''<br>'''vob'''....''plant'' →'''vob<u>tun</u>'''....''botany'' |- | -'''tuyn''' || pseudo-science || noun || '''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>tuyn</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | -'''tuin''' || theory || noun || '''vyelan'''....''relativity''→ '''vyelan<u>tuin</u>'''....''theory of relativity'' |- | -'''tyen''' || skill, craft || noun || '''sur'''....''engine'' → '''sur<u>tyen</u>'''....''engineering''<br>'''koex-'''....''spying'' → '''koextyen'''....''spycraft'' |- | -'''(t)in''' || doctrine, -ism || noun || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' → '''zaypas<u>in</u>'''....''progressivism'' |- | -'''tut''', '''tuyt''' (f.) || scientist<br> -ologist<br> -ist || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tut</u>'''....''theologist''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tuyt</u>'''....''woman anthropologist''<br>'''vob'''....''plant''→ '''vob<u>tut</u>'''....''botanist'' |- | -'''uf'''<br>'''yuf'''|| hate of<br>fear of, -phobia || noun || '''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>yuf</u>'''....''hydrophobia''<br>'''totin'''....''religion'' → '''totin<u>uf</u>'''....''hatred of religion''<br> '''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>uf</u>'''....''misogyny'' |- | -'''ut''', '''uyt''' (f.)|| agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist || verb stem || '''bek-'''....''treat'' → '''bek<u>uyt</u>'''....''female nurse''<br>'''pop-'''....''travel''→'''pop<u>ut</u>'''....''traveler''<br>'''ak-'''....''win'' → '''ak<u>ut</u>'''....''winner'' |- |-'''teliut''' || eater, -phage, -vore || verb stem || '''hyas'''....''everything, omni-'' → '''hyas<u>teliut</u>'''....''omnivore''<br>'''bokogrun'''....''bacteria'' → '''bokogrunteliut'''....''bacteriophage'' |- | -'''yaf'''|| ability to, power<br> -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yaf</u>'''....''ability to see''<br>'''tex-'''....''to think'' → '''tex<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognition''<br>'''test-'''....''to understand'' → '''test<u>yaf</u>'''....''comprehension''<br>'''nos-'''....''to spend'' → '''nos<u>yaf</u>'''....''spending power''<br>'''t-'''....''to know'' → '''t<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognizance'' |- | -'''yafwan''' || possibility, -bility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yafwan</u>'''....''visibility'' |- | -'''yof''' || inability to, disability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yof</u>'''....''blindness''<br>'''teet-'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yof</u>'''....''deafness''<br>'''pas-'''....''to move''→'''pas<u>yof</u>'''....''paralysis''<br>'''tuj-'''....''to sleep'' → '''tuj<u>yof</u>'''....''insomnia'' |- | -'''yofwan''' || impossibility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yofwan</u>'''....''invisibility'' |- | -'''yag''' || big and ugly, long || noun || '''tetwid'''....''uncle''→ '''tetwid<u>yag</u>'''....''dirty old uncle''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>yag</u>'''....''hag'' |- | -'''yan''' || collection, grouping<br> -ary || noun || '''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>yan</u>'''....''mankind''<br>'''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''<br>'''fab'''....''tree'' → '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''→ '''dyes<u>yan</u>'''....''library'' |- | -'''yen''' || manner, kind || noun || '''dal'''....''talk'' →'''dal<u>yen</u>'''....''idiom''<br>'''sex-'''....''build'' →'''sex<u>yen</u>'''....''structure'' |- | -'''yef''' || duty, obligation || verb stem || '''dud-'''....''to answer'' → '''dud<u>yef</u>'''....''responsibility''<br>'''byok-'''....''to ache'' → '''byok<u>yef</u>'''....''punishment'' |- | -'''yik''' || difficulty to || verb stem || '''teet<u>er</u>'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty hearing''<br>'''tiex-'''....''to breathe'' → '''tiex<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty breathing, asthma'' |- | -'''yog''' || little and ugly || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' →'''tam<u>yog</u>'''....''shack''<br>'''anpiat'''....''duck'' → '''anpiat<u>yog</u>'''....''ugly duckling''<br>'''kod'''....''secret'' → '''kod<u>yog</u>'''....''little dirty secret'' |- | -'''yuk'''<br>'''yukwan''' || ease of || verb stem || '''pes-''' ''to wait'' → '''pes<u>yuk</u>'''....''patience''<br>'''kovyox-''' ''to fool'' → '''kovyox<u>yukwan</u>'''....''gullibility, foolhardiness'' |} {{small/end}} === Differences between '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' === : The noun suffixes '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' create nominalized forms from a verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix '''-en''' is equivalent to the English '''-ing''' and forms a gerundive. It also used to translate many English verbal nominalizations ending in ''-tion''. The suffix '''-eyn''' is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending '''-un''' forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes '''-eyn''' is used instead of '''-un''' where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples: ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' :::* '''xen'''....''doing'' :::* '''xeyn'''....''deed'' :::* '''xun'''....''fact'' ::* '''yugxer'''....''to slow up'' :::* '''yugxen'''....''decelera<u>tion</u>'' :::* '''yugxun'''....''bottleneck'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' :::* '''den'''....''saying'' :::* '''deyn'''....''utterance, a saying'' :::* '''dun'''....''word'' ::* '''ujer'''....''to end'' :::* '''ujen'''....''ending'' eg. ''I like <u>ending</u> on a happy note.'' :::* '''ujeyn'''....''an ending, finale'' eg. ''This play's <u>finale</u> was emotional.'' :::* '''ujun'''....''end, tail end'' eg. ''The road came to a sudden <u>end</u>.'' === Examples of the Suffix '''-yen''' === : This suffix is a stub of '''byen'''....''way, manner''. {{small/top}} ::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Wording Ending in -yen |- valign=top ! Base Word !! Derivation |- | '''ajtyod'''....''past people'' || '''ajtyodyen'''....''tradition'' |- | '''d-'''....''to say'' || '''dyen'''....''expression'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''tactic'' |- | '''dre(r)'''....''to write'' || '''dreyen'''....''writing system'' |- | '''amal'''....''atmosphere'' || '''amalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''an-'''....''single'' || '''anyen'''....''quirk, idio-'' |- | '''axl-'''....''to act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''character, personality'' |- | '''t(y)-'''....''to know how'' || '''tyen'''....''skill, craft'' |- | '''x-'''....''to do'' || '''xyen'''....''profession'' |- | '''ze-'''....''middle'' || '''zeyen'''....''means'' |- | '''bas-'''....''gesture'' || '''basyen'''....''body language'' |- | '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''es-'''....''to exist'' || '''esyen'''....''state'' |- | '''kya-'''....''change'' || '''kyayen'''....''version'' |- | '''p-'''....''to go'' || '''pyen'''....''pace, gait'' |- | '''yex-'''....''to work'' || '''yexyen'''....''line of work'' |- | '''tayot-'''....''to feel'' || '''tayotyen'''....''texture'' |} {{small/end}} === Noun Prefixes === : Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Prefixes |- valign=top ! Prefix !! Meaning !! Base Noun !! Derivations |- | '''aa-''' || ''first, arch-'' || '''deb'''....''leader''<br>'''dezun'''....''performance''<br>'''tat'''....''angel'' || '''aadeb'''....''premier''<br>'''aadezun'''....''premiere''<br>'''aatat'''....''archangel'' |- | '''aag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''donex'''....''economics'' || '''aagdonex'''....''macroeconomics'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''proto-'' || '''tejsan'''...''life form''<br>'''tobtun'''....''anthropology'' || '''aajtejsan'''....''protozoon'' |- | '''ab-''' || ''superior, sur-, on'' || '''donab'''....''rank''<br>'''dout'''....''gentleman''<br>'''dyun'''....''name'' || '''abdonab'''....''superior rank''<br>'''abdout'''....''aristocrat''<br>'''abdyun'''....''title, surname'' |- | '''ag-''' || ''mega-, megalo-, grandi-'' || '''amlot'''....''millionaire''<br>'''dal'''....''talk''|| '''agamlot'''....''megamillionaire''<br>'''agdal'''....''grandiloquence'' |- | '''agal-''' || ''arch-, main-'' || '''mem'''....''land''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''agalmem'''....''mainland''<br>'''agalnad'''....''mainline'' |- | '''agr(a)-''' || ''mega-, megalo-'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''akuj'''...''success'' || '''agrameg'''....''megalith''<br>'''agrakuj'''....''megahit'' |- | '''an-''' || ''one, uni-, mono-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle''<br>'''dungon'''....''syllable'' || '''anzyukpar'''....''unicycle''<br>'''andungon'''....''monosyllable'' |- | '''ao-''' || ''vertical'' || '''nab'''....''rank''<br>'''muf'''....''pole'' || '''aonab'''....''column''<br>'''aomuf'''....''column'' |- | '''aoyeb-''' || ''in-and-out'' || '''belen'''....''carrying'' || '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports'' |- | '''aov-''' || ''for-and-against'' || '''dalson'''....''subject'' || '''aovdalson'''...''controversy'' |- | '''ayb-''' || ''over-, super-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow''<br>'''mas'''....''name'' || '''aybdrun'''....''superscript''<br>'''aybilp'''....''overflow''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''ayn-''' || ''holo-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''sag'''....''number'' || '''ayndras'''....''hologram''<br>'''aynmeg'''....''hololith''<br>'''aynsag'''....''integer'' |- | '''aj-''' || ''past, pre-, fore-, ex-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''gex'''....''equity''<br>'''tayd'''....''wife'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ajgex'''....''revenge''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''anyen-''' || ''idio-, odd'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''fin'''....''quality'' || '''anyendyen'''....''idiom''<br>'''anyenfin'''....''quirk'' |- | '''av-''' || ''pro-, for'' || '''bol'''....''support''<br>'''dun'''....''word'' || '''avbol'''....''endorsement''<br>'''avdun'''....''pronoun'' |- | '''az-''' || ''strong'' || '''hihid'''....''laugh''<br>'''ojvad'''....''promise''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''azhihid'''....''guffaw''<br>'''azojvad'''....''covenant''<br>'''aztos'''....''passion'' |- | '''do-''' || ''public'' || '''del'''....''statement''<br>'''did'''....''question''<br>'''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''dodel'''....''announcement''<br>'''dodid'''....''inquiry''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law'' |- | '''eb-''' || ''inter-, dia-'' || '''dal'''....''statement''<br>'''ifek'''....''gram''<br>'''kyax'''....''change'' || '''ebdal'''....''dialog''<br>'''ebifek'''....''interlude''<br>'''ebkyax'''....''interchange'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-, di-, two-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle'' || '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle'' |- | '''eg-''' || ''normal'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''egbyen'''....''norm'' |- | '''ej-''' || ''step-, current'' || '''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''din'''....''story'' || '''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''ejdin'''....''current news item'' |- | '''ejna-''' || ''neo-'' || '''dun'''....''word'' || '''ejnadun'''....''neologism'' |- | '''ev-''' || ''a-, neutral'' || '''totin'''....''deism''<br>'''dofina'''....''moral'' || '''evtotin'''....''atheism''<br>'''evdofina'''....''amoral'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, hemi-, pen-, half-, quasi-''|| '''moyn'''....''shade''<br>'''zyum'''....''sphere''<br>'''ayma'''....''warm''<br>'''dobyena'''<br>'''daba'''....''governmental'' || '''eynmoyn'''....''penumbra''<br>'''eynzyum'''....''hemisphere''<br>'''aynayma'''....''lukewarm''<br>'''anydobyena'''....''semi-official''<br>'''aydaba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''eu-, bene-, well-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' <br>'''fon'''....''will''|| '''fidyen'''....''euphemism''<br>'''fitos'''....''euphoria''<br>'''fifon'''....''benevolence'' |- | '''fyi-''' || ''useful'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''fyidal'''....''advice'' |- | '''fu-''' || ''caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-'' || '''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''fuseux'''....''cacophony''<br>'''fufon'''....''ill-will, malevolence''<br>'''futos'''....''dysphoria'' |- | '''fyu-''' || ''harmful'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''pelt'''...''insect'' <br>'''mul'''....''stuff''|| '''fyumil'''....''waste water''<br>'''fyupelt'''....''pest''<br>'''fyumul'''....''garbage'' |- | '''fya-''' || ''holy'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''byekut'''....''healer'' || '''fyadin'''....''gospel''<br>'''fyabuun'''....''oblation, offering''<br>'''fyabyekut'''....''shaman, witchdoctor'' |- | '''fye-''' || ''fantasy, mytho-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''diyn'''....''tale''<br>'''mir'''....''world'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, fantasy''<br>'''fyediyn'''....''fairy-tale, fable''<br>'''fyemir'''....''fantasia, fantasy-world'' |- | '''fyo-''' || ''evil'' || '''tat'''....''angel''<br>'''xeyn'''....''deed'' || '''fyotat'''....''demon''<br>'''fyoxeyn'''....''sin'' |- | '''gab-''' || ''plus'' || '''nix'''....''earning'' || '''gabnix'''....''interest'' |- | '''gaw-''' || ''re-'' || '''aklen'''....''conquest''<br>'''del'''....''statement'' || '''gawaklen'''....''reconquest''<br>'''gawdel'''....''restatement'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''equi-, iso-, even-'' || '''eksag'''....''score''<br>'''kyin'''....''weight'' || '''geeksag'''....''tie''<br> '''gekyin'''....''equilibrium'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-, like-, simul-'' || '''dredun'''....''speling''<br>'''san'''....''form'' || '''geldredun'''....''homograph''<br>'''gelsan'''....''isomorph, clone'' |- | '''gla-''' || ''multi-, plur-, poly-'' || '''gon'''....''part'' || '''glagon'''....''plurality'' |- | '''glo-''' || ''few, poorly, little, hypo-, ligo-''|| '''tiibilnid'''....''blood volume'' || '''glotiibilnid'''....''hypovolemia, oligemia'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''hypo-, under-'' || '''agxen'''....''growth''<br>'''del''' || '''grogxen'''....''hypotrophy''<br>'''grodel'''....''understatement'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''too, hyper-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''grabik'''....''hypercaution'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-, super-'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''hyi-''' || ''homo-, same'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference'' || '''hyitoobif'''....''homosexualtiy'' |- | '''hyu-''' || ''hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference''<br>'''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''san'''....''shape'' || '''hyutoobif'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''hyumer'''....''alien planet''<br>'''hyusan'''....''allomorph'' |- | '''hya-''' || ''omni-, pan-, all-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism'' || '''hyadoobin'''....''pan-nationalism'' |- | '''hye-''' || ''any, whatever'' || '''saun'''....''kind'' || '''hyesaun'''....''any kind'' |- | '''hyo(s)-''' || ''nothing'' || '''ten'''....''knowledge'' || '''hyosten'''....''ignorance'' |- | '''hyuit-''' || ''mutual'' || '''fizuen'''....''respect'' || '''hyuitfizuen'''....''mutual respect'' |- | '''ig-''' || ''fast'' || '''didyan'''....''questionnaire'' || '''igdidyan'''....''pop quiz'' |- | '''ij-''' || ''initial, head'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''miap'''....''stream'' || '''ijdun'''....''prologue''<br>'''ijmiap'''....''headstream'' |- | '''ik-''' || ''full'' || '''nuxen'''....''payment'' || '''iknuxen'''....''liquidation'' |- | '''il-''' || ''liquid'' || '''ok'''....''loss'' || '''ilok'''....''leak'' |- | '''im''' || ''wet'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''immel'''....''loam, wetland'' |- | '''in-''' || ''tri-, three'' || '''goblun'''....''cut'' || '''ingoblun'''....''trisection'' |- | '''iv-''' || ''happy'' || '''din'''....''story'' || '''ivdin'''....''comedy'' |- | '''iz-''' || ''straight, orth-, rect-, direct'' || '''fin'''....''quality''<br>'''mep'''....''path'' || '''izfin'''....''rectitude''<br>'''izmep'''....''beeline, vector'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''before, pre-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''jabik'''....''precaution'' |- | '''je-''' || ''continuous'' || '''teaxer'''....''to look'' || '''jeteax'''....''watch, vigil'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''after, post-'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''jodren'''....''postscript'' |- | '''jwa-''' || ''proto-, eo-, early'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ejob'''....''modern era'' || '''jwaajdin'''....''protohistory''<br>'''jwaejob'''....''eocene'' |- | '''jwe-''' || ''prompt'' || '''puen'''....''arrival'' || '''jwepuen'''....''on-time arrival'' |- | '''jwo-''' || ''latter, late'' || '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''side, aside, lateral'' || '''bux'''....''push''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying'' || '''kubux'''....''rebuff''<br>'''kudeyn'''....''remark'' |- | '''ki-''' || ''diagonal, slant'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''texyen'''....''opinion'' || '''kinad'''....''diagonal, slant''<br>'''kitexyen'''....''bias'' |- | '''ko-''' || ''hide, covert, pseudo-'' || '''d'''....''utterance''<br>'''exut'''....''operative''<br>'''flen'''....''desire''<br>'''jadrun'''....''plan'' || '''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''koflen'''....''envy''<br>'''kojadrun'''....''plot'' |- | '''kya-'''|| ''change, para-, re-''||'''bax'''....''movement''<br>'''dyan'''....''phrase''<br>'''din'''....''story''<br>'''naz'''....''value''<br>'''napxen'''....''ordering''||'''kyabax'''....''shift''<br>'''kyadyan'''....''paraphrase''<br>'''kyadin'''....''version''<br>'''kyanaz'''....''variable''<br>'''kyanapxen'''....''reordering, shuffling'' |- | '''kye-''' || ''haphazard'' || '''den'''....''saying''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''kaxun'''....''find'' || '''kyeden'''....''guesswork''<br>'''kyefyun'''....''danger''<br>'''kyekaxun'''....''discovery'' |- | '''kyo-''' || ''fixed'' || '''byen'''....''manner''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying''<br>'''doneg'''....''social class'' || '''kyobyen'''....''habit''<br>'''kyodeyn'''....''clich&eacute;''<br>'''kyodoneg'''....''caste'' |- | '''kyi-''' || ''heavy'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''bal'''....''pressure''|| '''kyiazon'''....''gravity''<br>'''kyites'''....''importance''<br>'''kyibal'''....''strain'' |- | '''kyu-''' || ''light'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''mamil''' || '''kyuazon'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyumamil'''....''drizzle'' |- | '''lo-''' || ''dis-, de-, un-'' || '''bexun'''....''possession'' <br>'''bokulxen'''....''toxification''<br>'''box'''...''quiet''|| '''lobexun'''....''dispossession, divestment''<br>'''lobokulxen'''....''detoxification''<br>'''lobox'''....''disquiet'' |- | '''lyo-''' || ''totally not'' || '''fibyen'''....''good manner''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''lyofibyen'''....''insolence''<br>'''lyodot'''....''wilderness'' |- | '''mak-''' || ''electro-, e-'' || '''ebdras'''....''letter''<br>'''nagar'''....''meter'' || '''makebdras'''....''email''<br>'''maknagar'''....''electrometer'' |- | '''o-''' || ''not, un-'' || '''bik'''....''care''|| '''obik'''....''neglect'' |- | '''ob-''' || ''off-, vice-'' || '''goflun'''....''rip''<br>'''fub'''....''branch'' || '''obgoflun'''....''stub''<br>'''obfub'''....''offshoot'' |- | '''oge-''' || ''unequal, aniso-'' || '''izonan'''...''orientation'' || '''ogeizonan'''....''anisotropy'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-, different'' || '''toobifan'''....''sexual preference''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''ogeltoobifan'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''ogeltin'''....''heterodoxy'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''under-, sub-, infra-'' || '''mos'''....''floor''<br>'''neg'''....''level''<br>'''alza'''....''red''|| '''oybmos'''....''basement''<br>'''oybneg'''....''sublevel''<br>'''oybalza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''of-''' || ''prohibited'' || '''birun'''....''grab''<br>'''dresini'''....''drawings''<br>'''gelxun'''....''copy'' || '''ofbirun'''....''loot''<br>'''ofdresini'''....''grafitti''<br>'''ofgelxun'''....''plagiarism'' |- | '''og-''' || ''small'' || '''soni'''....''matters'' || '''ogsoni'''....''trivia'' |- | '''oog-''' || ''micro-, mini-'' || '''drenod'''....''dot''<br>'''naab'''....''file''<br>'''tyoyf'''....''skirt''|| '''oogdrenod'''....''microdot''<br>'''oognaab'''....''microfiche''<br>'''oogtyoyf'''....''miniskirt'' |- | '''oj-''' || ''future, fore-'' || '''buen'''....''giving''<br>'''deyn'''....''utterance'' || '''ojbuen'''....''lending''<br>'''ojdeyn'''....''forecast'' |- | '''ok-''' || ''loss'' || '''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''okbuun'''....''sacrifice''<br>'''oktos'''....''heartache'' |- | '''ov-''' || ''against, counter-, contra-, anti-'' || '''adabinut'''....''imperialist''<br>'''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''ovadabinut'''....''anti-imperialist''<br>'''ovapyex'''....''counterattack'' |- | '''oy-''' || ''without'' || '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''oytofa'''....''naked'' |- | '''oz-''' || ''weak'' || '''duun'''....''suggestion'' || '''ozduun'''....''hint'' |- | '''ug-''' || ''slow'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''ilok'''....''leak'' <br>'''teax'''....''look''|| '''ugdal'''....''drawl''<br>'''ugilok'''....''seepage''<br>'''ugteax'''....''gaze'' |- | '''ui-''' || '''horizontal'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' || '''uinab'''....''row'' |- | '''un-''' || ''quadri-, tetra-, four-'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' <br>'''yan'''....''collection''|| '''undrezun'''....''quatrain''<br>'''unyan'''....''tetrad'' |- |'''uj-''' || ''end'' || '''ak'''....''win''<br>'''dun'''....''word''<br>'''jud'''....''date'' || '''ujak'''....''success''<br>'''ujdun'''....''epilogue''<br>'''ujjud'''....''deadline'' |- | '''uk''' || ''empty'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''mel'''....''soil''<br>'''nod'''....''point'' || '''ukdal'''....''blather''<br>'''ukmel'''....''desert''<br>'''uknod'''....''puncture'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''self-, sui-, aut(o)-'' || '''tojben'''....''killing''<br>'''dab'''....''government'' || '''uttojben'''....''suicide''<br>'''utdab'''....''autarchy'' |- | '''uv-''' || ''sad'' || '''deuzun''''....''song''<br>'''dolen'''....''silence''<br>'''kyeuj'''....''fate'' || '''uvdeuzun'''....''dirge''<br>'''uvdolen'''....''sulking''<br>'''uvkyeuj'''....''tragedy'' |- | '''uf-''' || ''hate'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''ufdal'''....''rant''<br>'''uftos'''....''anger'' |- | '''uz-''' || ''crooked, curved, arc'' || '''aybmas'''....''roof''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge'' || '''uzaybmas'''....''vault, arch''<br>'''uzdopar'''....''bow, arch''<br>'''uzkunad'''....''rim'' |- | '''va-''' || ''yes'' || '''bien'''....''taking''<br>'''diun'''....''request''<br>'''dud'''....''answer'' || '''vabien'''....''acceptance''<br>'''vadiun'''....''claim''<br>'''vadud'''....''assent'' |- | '''vao-''' || ''yes-or-no'' || '''d'''....''utterance'' || '''vaod'''....''decision'' |- | '''ve-''' || ''maybe'' || '''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''yovdeyn'''....''inculpation'' || '''vetexen'''....''supposition''<br>'''veyovdeyn'''....''indictment'' |- | '''vo-''' || ''no'' || ''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''fon'''....''will'' || '''votexen'''....''doubting''<br>'''vofon'''....''disinclination'' |- | '''vya-''' || ''true'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''dud'''....''answer''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''vyadeyn'''....''avowal''<br>'''vyadud'''....''solution''<br>'''vyanad'''....''guideline'' |- | '''vye-''' || ''relative'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''vyedren'''....''correspondence'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''wrong, mis-'' || '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''vyobek'''....''mistreatment''<br>'''vyodat'''....''false friend'' |- | '''yag-''' || ''long'' || '''igpek'''....''race'' || '''yagigpek'''....''marathon'' |- | '''yan-''' || ''together, con-'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''yandal'''....''conversation'' |- | '''yibaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''fobtun'''....''botany'' || '''yibajfobtun'''....''paleobotany'' |- | '''yog-''' || ''short, steno-'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''job'''....''time'' || '''yogdrir'''....''stenograph''<br>'''jogjob'''....''short while'' |- | '''yok-''' || ''sudden'' || ''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''yokapyex'''....''raid'' |- | '''yon-''' || ''apart'' || '''byex'''....''strike'' || '''yonbyex'''....''breach'' |- | '''yov-''' || ''shame'' || '''bixen'''....''pulling''<br>'''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''yovbixen'''....''seduction''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''punishment''<br>'''yovif'''....''schadenfreude'' |- | '''yab-''' || ''up, super-, high-, hyper-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''yabdom'''....''uptown''<br>'''yabdot'''....''high society'' |- | '''yabnan-''' || ''hypso-, acro-, height'' || '''dren'''....''recording'' || '''yabnandren'''....''hypsography'' |- | '''yaob-''' || ''up-and-down'' || '''yuijar'''....''valve''<br>'''pusen'''....''jumping'' || '''yaobyuijar'''....''piston''<br>'''yaopusen'''....''bouncing'' |- | '''yaz-''' || ''swollen, protruding, convex'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''buk'''....''wound''<br>'''tiub'''....''belly''<br>'''mem'''....''land'' || '''yazdal'''....''bombast''<br>'''yazbuk'''....''boil, blister''<br>'''yaztiub'''....''potbelly''<br>'''memyaz'''....''mountain'' |- | '''yez-''' || ''flush, along, para-'' || '''baktut'''....''medic''<br>'''mel'''....''terrain'' || '''yezbaktut'''....''paramedic''<br>'''yezmel'''....''meadow'' |- | '''yiz-''' || ''beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''yizdoobin'''....''ultra-nationalism''<br>'''yizdreniv'''....''hypertext'' |- | '''yoz-''' || ''sunken, concave'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''yoznad'''....''groove, gutter'' |- | '''yaoz-''' || ''saw-toothed, convex-concave'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''goblar'''....''knife'' || '''yaoznad'''....''tilde''<br>'''yaozgoblar'''....''saw'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''around, circ-, circum-, peri-'' || '''pipen'''....''navigation''<br>'''teaxar'''....''scope''<br>'''tyop'''....''walk'' || '''yuzpipen'''....''circumnavigation''<br>'''yuzteaxar'''....''periscope''<br>'''yuztyop'''....''stroll'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''in-, intro-, inner-'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''deym'''....''yard, court'' || '''yebdungab'''....''infix''<br>'''yebdeym'''...''courtyard'' |- | '''oyeb-''' || ''out-, extro-, outer-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dovyaban'''....''legality'' || '''oyebdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''oyebdovyaban'''....''extralegality'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''teaxar'''....''viewer, scope'' || '''yibdrir'''....''teletype''<br>'''yibteaxar'''....''telescope'' |- | '''yibaj''' || ''ancient, archaeo-, paleo-'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''tun'''....''science'' || '''yibajdeyn'''....''archaism''<br>'''yibajtun'''....''archaeology'' |- | '''yub-''' || ''near, para-, juxta-'' || '''gexen'''....''equaling''<br>'''kex'''....''search''<br>'''dop'''....''military''<br>'''tayov'''....''membrane''|| '''yubgexen'''....''approximation''<br>'''yubkex'''....''examination''<br>'''yubdop'''....''paramilitary''<br>'''juxtamembrane''' |- | '''yubaj-''' || ''recent, ceno-'' || || |- | '''yob-''' || ''down, sub-, de-'' || '''doneg'''....''class''<br>'''byex'''....''beat'' || '''yobdoneg'''....''low class''<br>'''yobbyex'''....''downbeat'' |- | '''za-''' || ''front, fore-, pre-, north'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''mer'''....''planet'' || '''zadungab'''....''prefix''<br>'''zadyun'''....''forename''<br>'''zamer'''....''north'' |- | '''ze-''' || ''middle, mid-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''zejub'''....''midday'' |- | '''zo-''' || ''behind, back'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull'' || '''zobex'''....''delay''<br>'''zobix'''....''drag'' |- | '''zay-''' || ''forward, pro-'' || '''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''bux'''....''push'' || '''zaybix'''....''protraction''<br>'''zaybux'''....''propulsion'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''across, trans-, meta-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow'' || '''zeydras'''....''transcript''<br>'''zeyilp'''....''crosscurrent'' |- | '''zoy-''' || ''re-, retro-, back'' || '''axlen'''....''action''<br>'''kix'''....''bend''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mav'''....''flash'' || '''zoyaxlen'''....''reaction''<br>'''zoykix'''....''reflection''<br>'''zoymag'''....''retrofire''<br>'''zoymav'''....''flashback'' |- | '''zya-''' || ''wide'' || '''dodal'''....''speech''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout'' || '''zyadodal'''....''propaganda''<br>'''zyadrurun'''....''poster'' |- | '''zye-''' || ''through, per-, trans-, dia-'' || '''belun'''....''cargo''<br>'''muf'''....''rod''<br>'''bwas'''....''something put'' || '''zyebelun'''....''shipment''<br>'''zyebuxmuf'''....''ramrod (through-push-rod)''<br>'''zyebwas'''....''metaphor'' |- | '''zyi-''' || ''flat, plat-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''mos'''....''floor'' || '''zyidyen'''....''platitude''<br>'''zyimemyaz'''....''plateau''<br>'''zyimos'''....''platform'' |- | '''zyo-''' || ''narrow'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''gun'''....''angle'' || '''zyobex'''....''clasp, grip''<br>'''zyobix'''....''tension''<br>'''zyogun'''....''acute angle'' |- | '''zyu-''' || ''round, roto-, cyclo-'' || '''abaun'''....''cover''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout''<br>'''tom'''....''building'' || '''zyuabaun'''....''dome''<br>'''zyudrurun'''....''rotograph''<br>'''zyutom'''....''tower'' |} {{small/end}} == Gender == [[File:Gender Neutral (13777) - The Noun Project.svg|thumb|]] : Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with the letter '''w'''. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with '''y'''. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix '''-ut''', that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending '''-ut''' is changed to '''-uyt''' for the female form, but the male form ending stays the same or becomes '''-twob'''. The reason for this is that the addition of a '''w''' to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker '''w''' (see the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs]]. The chart below shows how this works: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Making Nouns Gender-specific |- ! Neutral !! Masculine !! Feminine |- | '''tob'''....''human being, person'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''child'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ejtad'''....''step spouse'' || '''ejtwad'''....''step-husband'' || '''ejtayd'''....''step-wife'' |- | '''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse'' || '''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband'' || '''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''datif'''....''sweetheart'' || '''dwatif'''....''boyfriend'' || '''daytif'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''supet'''....''pig''|| '''supwet'''....''boar'' || '''supeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''gafapat'''....''fowl'' || '''gafapwat'''....''rooster'' || '''gafapayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''tiuv'''....''underwear'' || '''twiuv'''....''briefs'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''anbopet'''....''antelope'' || '''anbopwet'''....''deer'' || '''anbopeyt'''....''doe'' |- | '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzut / deuztwob'''....''male singer'' || '''deuzuyt''' ....''songstress'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |- | '''dezut'''....''actor'' || '''dezut''' or '''deztwob'''....''male actor'' || '''dezuyt'''....''actress'' |} : For gender specification in pronouns, see [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns]], below). <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Parts of Speech|Adjectives}}</noinclude> pe8xiqkw68589wcj4bgcfz1oi7wpsdh 4673907 4673906 2026-10-03T17:47:12Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Gender */ 4673907 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Noun Types == : Nouns in Mirad can be distinguished in the following ways: ::# '''''common''''' vs. '''''proper''''' ::# '''''concrete''''' vs. '''''abstract''''' ::# '''''countable''''' vs. '''''mass''''' ::# '''''gender-neutral''''' vs. '''''masculine/feminine''''' ::# '''''singular''''' vs. '''''plural''''' ::# '''''animate''''' vs. '''''inanimate''''' ::# '''''full form''''' vs. '''''acronym/abbreviation/stub''''' :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Common vs. Proper Nouns |- ! Common !! Proper |- | '''tam'''....''house'' || '''Emer'''....''Venus'' |- | '''yagsim'''....''bench'' || '''Ferom'''....''France'' |- | '''dyes'''....''book'' || '''Notre Dame'''...''Notre Dame'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''Tot'''....''God'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Concrete vs. Abstract Nouns |- ! Concrete !! Abstract |- | '''tab'''....''body'' || '''ifon'''....''love'' |- | '''mil'''....''water'' || '''oyman'''....''coolness'' |- | '''deuz'''....''song'' || '''deuzen'''....''singing'' |} : Abstract nouns include '''''gerunds''''', i.e. nouns which are nominalized derivations of verbs like '''deuzen'''....''singing'' < '''deuzer'''....''to sing'' or '''osexen'''....''destruction'' < '''osexer'''....''to destroy''. Infinitives like ''deuzer''....'''to sing''' are also considered abstract nouns. :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Countable vs. Mass Nouns |- ! Countable !! Mass |- | '''pat'''....''bird'' || '''pattel'''....''bird food'' |- | '''patayebi'''....''feathers'' || '''patayebyan'''....''plumage'' |- | '''megi'''....''rocks'' || '''mil'''....''water'' |} : In native Mirad, all '''''common''''' nouns in their '''''singular''''' dictionary lookup form end in a consonant. Proper nouns sometimes end in a vowel, such as '''Roma'''....''Rome''. Plural common countable nouns end in the vowel ''i'' ('''pat'''....''bird'' ⇒ '''pat<u>i</u>'''....''birds''). :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Gender-neutral vs. Gendered |- ! Gender-neutral !! Feminine !! Masculine |- | '''tob'''....''human being'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''twob'''....''man'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' || '''twed'''....''father'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Singular vs. Plural Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''dom'''....''city'' || '''domi'''....''cities'' |- | '''gon'''....''part'' || '''goni'''....''parts'' |- | '''jub'''....''day'' || '''jubi'''....''days'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inanimate vs. Animate Nouns |- ! Inanimate !! Animate |- | '''mam'''....''sky'' || '''pot'''....''animal'' |- | '''tom'''....''building'' || '''aot'''....''person'' |- | '''job'''....''time'' || '''tobet'''....''child'' |} :::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Full form vs. Abbreviated Form ! Full Form !! Acronym/Abbreviation/Stub |- | '''Anxwa Doobi'''....''United Nations'' || '''AD'''....''UN'' |- | '''Mir Nunuien Xob'''....''World Trade Organization'' || '''MNX'''....''WTO'' |- | '''iza makilp'''....''direct current'' || '''i.m'''....''d.c.'' |- | '''tiaybil'''....''breast milk'' || '''bil'''....''milk'' (stub) |- | '''tum'''....''cell'' || '''-um'''....''cell, closet, compartment'' (stub) |} : The above noun type distinctions are relevant in various parts of Mirad's grammar. == Pluralization of Common Nouns == : A '''''singular countable common noun''''' always ends in a consonant and is made plural by suffixing the pluralizing marker '''-i'''. So, the plural of '''pur'''....''car'' is '''pur<u>i</u>'''....''cars''. In noun phrases, for example, where a noun is modified by an article and adjective, only the noun is pluralized, that is, there is no agreement across word boundaries as in many European languages ('''la belle fleur''' <big>→</big>'''les belles fleurs'''). The plural suffix '''-i''' is the only way nouns in Mirad are inflected. All other changes to nouns are derivational in nature, eg. genderization, augmentation, diminution, capitalization, etc. : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Pluralization of Nouns |- ! Singular !! Plural |- | '''tam'''....''house''|| '''tam<u>i</u>'''....''houses'' |- | '''toyb'''....''woman'' || '''toyb<u>i</u>'''....''women'' |- | '''tej'''....''life'' || '''tej<u>i</u>'''....''lives'' |- | '''ha via dom'''....''the beautiful city'' || '''ha via dom<u>i</u>'''....''the beautiful cities'' |} == Modifying Nouns with the Definite Article == : In Mirad, there is only a single noun-modifying article, the invariable definite article '''ha''' (''the''). There is no '''''indefinite article''''' like English ''a / an''. A noun is considered indefinite or general unless modified by the definite article '''ha''' (which in reality is a '''''definite deictic determiner''''', discussed with other deictic determiners in the later section on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Deictic Determiners]]). The definite article '''ha''' is positioned, as in English, before the noun and before any other adjectives or modifiers of that noun. It is invariable, in that it does not vary for gender, number, or case as in German or Spanish. The definite article acts like its counterpart in English, as shown in the following chart: : {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Use of the Definite Article |- ! Mirad !! English !! Specificity |- | '''tam''' || ''a house'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tam''' || ''<u>the</u> house'' || definite |- | '''<u>ha</u> tami''' || ''<u>the</u> houses'' || definite, plural |- | '''tej''' || ''life'' || general, no article |- | '''fitejawa <u>tej</u>''' || ''<u>a life</u> well-lived'' || indefinite, no article |- | '''<u>ha</u> tej (...ho at bayse)''' || ''<u>the</u> life (... that I have)'' || specific |- | '''Ferad''' || ''French'' || language name, already specific, no article |- | '''Ivan''' || ''Ivan'' || person's name, no article |- | '''Ifliu <u>yivan</u>!''' || ''Cherish <u>freedom</u>'' || abstraction, no article |- | '''<u>Ha</u> yivani ho yat ifie.''' || ''<u>The</u> freedoms that we enjoy.'' || abstraction specified |- | '''Yata <u>yivani</u>...''' || ''Our <u>freedoms</u>...'' || abstraction specified with possessive pronoun, no article |} : Speakers of French and other European languages should take note that general concepts like ''love'', ''life'', ''freedom'' do not employ the definite article unless they refer to a specific instance, such as in the phrases ''the love that dare not speak its name'' or ''the life well-lived'' or ''the freedoms we possess''. The names of languages and countries are also considered already specific, and so as in English, they do not take a definite article as they might in some European languages. Names of persons do not take the definite article as they do in modern Greek, unless in a phrase like "the Ivan I once knew." == Proper Nouns == : Proper nouns, such as names of people, places, languages, etc., are capitalized as in English. The formation of country names and languages is discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar#Countries_of_the_World|Countries of the World]] and [[Mirad_Grammar#Languages of the World|Languages of the World]]. It can be said here, though, that country names end in '''-m'''; the inhabitants of those places end in '''-t''' or pl. '''-ti'''; and the languages they speak end in '''-d'''. Language names are capitalized, eg. '''At tixe Ferad.''' (''I study French.''). In fact, this is the case for all parts of speech derived from a proper name, eg. '''Usama tel Feramxweye.''' ''American food is being Frenchified.''. French speakers beware; this is not like in French. And German speakers beware, too! Not all nouns are capitalized; only ones that are proper, such as names of people, companies, languages, countries, etc. : Names of people, cities, etc. are spelled in Mirad to best reflect the foreign pronunciation, but also to remain recognizable. For example: ::* '''Xikago'''....''Chicago'' ::* '''Paris'''....''Paris'' ::* '''Munxen'''....''Munich/M&uuml;nchen'' ::* '''Beijing'''....''Beijing'' ::* '''Nu York'''....''New York'' ::* '''Nu Orlinz'''....''New Orleans'' ::* '''Xampanya'''....''Champagne'' ::* '''Mehiko Dom'''....''Mexico City'' ::* '''Waxington'''....''Washington'' ::* '''Seol'''....''Seoul'' ::* '''Xeykspir'''....''Shakespeare'' : An inhabitant of a city is formed by adding '''-t''' or '''-at''' to the name, depending on whether it ends in a vowel or consonant, respectively, eg. '''Parisat'''....''a Parisian'' or '''Waxingtonati'''....''Washingtonians''. ''Chicago's main newspaper'' is expressed in Mirad as '''ha agala jubdindref bi Xikago'''. The English preposition ''in'' used before cities, states, and countries is translated by '''be''' in Mirad, eg. '''At tambese <u>be</u> Paris.'''....''I live <u>in</u> Paris.'' or '''Iyt yexe be Deum.'''....''She works in Germany.'' == Noun Modifiers: Placement and Agreement == : Nouns can be modified by various qualitative, quantitative, and deictic adjectives, which all precede the noun. These modifiers come in the same order as in English. There is no gender or number agreement between the modifiers and the noun, except that numeric adjectives, such as '''ewa'''....''two'' naturally are followed by a noun in the plural number. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Modifiers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''ha <u>ewa</u> aga tami''' || ''the <u>two</u> big houses'' |- | '''<u>gla</u> ifxea taxi''' || ''<u>many</u> pleasant memories'' |- | '''hya <u>fia</u> tob''' || ''every <u>good</u> man'' |- | '''ha yaga <u>via</u> mepi''' || ''the long, <u>beautiful</u> roads'' |- | '''gra <u>vua</u> sexen''' || ''too much <u>ugly</u> construction'' |- | '''ata <u>aja</u> teji''' || ''my <u>past</u> lives'' |} == Noun Linkage == : Nouns can be ::# '''''linked''''' with a preposition or conjunction, where the prepositional/conjunctional phrase follows the head noun, or ::# '''''juxtaposed''''', where the modifier noun is separated by a space and comes before the head noun, or ::# '''''compounded''''', where the modifier noun is prefixed to a headword, or ::# '''''hyphenated''''', where two equal elements are joined by a hyphen. : Examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Noun Linkage |- ! Linkage Example !! Construction |- | '''Ivan <u>ay Maria</u>'''....''Ivan <u>and Maria</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ay''' (''and'') |- | '''ha tam <u>ey ha par</u>'''....''the house <u>or the car</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''ey''' (''or'') |- | '''hyati <u>oy ha toybi</u>'''....''all <u>but the women</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the conjunction '''or''' (''but'') |- | '''nyandras <u>boy eta dyun</u>'''....''a list <u>without your name</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''boy''' (''without'') |- |'''tej <u>bi nasuk</u>'''....''a life <u>of poverty</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''ha tam <u>bi Maria</u>''' ....''Mary&apos;s house (the house <u>of Mary</u>''|| nouns linked possessively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''job <u>bi aga ivan</u>'''....''a time <u>of great joy</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''bi''' (''of'') |- | '''dyes <u>ayv ha Ea Mira Dropek</u>'''....''a book <u>about the Second World War</u>'' || nouns linked associatively by the preposition '''ayv''' (''about'') |- | '''dropek <u>jwabeni</u>'''....''war <u>preparations</u>'' || modifier noun '''dropek''' (''war'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''jwabeni'''</u> (''preparations'') |- | '''dom <u>yuzpur</u>'''....''a city <u>bus</u>'' || modifier noun '''dom''' (''city'') juxtaposed with the head noun <u>'''yuzpur'''</u> (''bus'') |- | '''toj<u>ojfon</u>'''....''a death <u>wish</u>'' || modifier noun '''toj''' (''death'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>ojfon</u>''' (''wish'') |- | '''jogat<u>anyaf</u>'''....''youth <u>league</u>'' || modifier noun '''jogat''' (''youth'') compounded with the head noun '''<u>anyaf</u>''' (''league'') |- | '''maj-moj'''....''a day-and-night'' || two or more equal, opposed nouns hyphenated |} : The '''X bi Y''' prepositional construction must always be used for possession by a '''''named''''' person, eg. '''ha tam <u>bi</u> Sam''' (Sam's house = the house <u>of</u> Sam). The methods of noun linkage otherwise follow the English pattern in most all cases. Pronominal possession such as ''his car'' is discussed in the section on personal pronouns. The preposition '''bi'''....''of'' is used in partitive expressions like '''tilzyeb <u>bi</u> vifil'''....''a glass <u>of</u> wine'' (but: '''vifil tilzeb'''....''wine glass'', where ''wine'' modifies ''the glass'' associatively). More about this and other prepositions or conjunctions can be found in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions]] or [[Mirad Grammar/Conjunctions]]. : Details on how noun vocabulary is derived appears in the section on [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation]]. == Noun Derivational Affixes == : Nouns can be divided into: ::* '''''simple nouns''''' such as '''pur'''....''vehicle'' ::* '''''compound nouns''''' such as '''bixpur'''....''train'' < '''bix'''....''pull'' + '''pur'''....''vehicle'' (This is one of the most widespread ways for forming new concepts in Mirad.) ::* '''''hybrid nouns''''' such as '''vaod'''....''decision'' < '''va'''....''yes'' + '''vo'''....''no'' (hybridized to '''vao''') + '''d'''....''utterance'' ::* '''''derived nouns''''' such as '''fabyan'''....''forest'' < '''fab'''....''tree'' + '''-yan'''....''collection'' : Other derived nouns can be formed by attaching nominal suffixes or prefixes to words or roots. A list of nominal suffixes to form derived nouns is shown in the following table. More can be read about noun derivation in the section on vocabulary-building. === Noun Suffixes === {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Derivational Suffixes |- valign=top ! Suffix !! Meaning !! Base Onto Which<br>Suffix Is Added !! Examples |- | '''-ag''' || big || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ag</u>'''....''mansion''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>ag</u>'''....''banquet''<br>'''tilar'''....''spoon'' → '''tilar<u>ag</u>'''....''ladle'' |- | -'''an''' || abstact quality<br> -ness<br> -hood, -ity || adjective stem ||'''vi<s>a</s>'''....''beautiful'' → '''vi<u>an</u>'''....''beauty''<br>'''yev<s>a</s>'''....''fair'' → '''yev<u>an</u>'''....''fairness, equity''<br>'''tob<s>a</s>'''....''human'' → '''tob<u>an</u>'''....''humanity, humanness, manhood'' |- | -'''ayg''' || big and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>ayg</u>'''....''cozy mansion''<br>'''kapet'''....''dog'' → '''kapet<u>ayg</u>'''....''wolfie'' |- | -'''ambok''' || -itis, inflammation || noun || '''buixtaib'''....''tendon'' → '''buixtaib<u>ambok</u>'''....''tendonitis'' |- | -'''d''' || language<br>speech<br>utterance || adjective and other stems|| '''Enigem'''....''English'' → '''Enige<u>d</u>'''....''English (language)''<br>'''Mira'''....''of the world'' → '''Mirad'''....''Mirad (world speech)''<br>'''ekpe<s>t</s>'''....''horse'' →'''ekpe<u>d</u>'''....''neigh, whinny'' |- | -'''drun''' || -gram || noun stems || '''tiib'''....''heart'' → '''tiib<u>drun</u>'''....''cardiogram'' |- | -'''dra/i/ur''' || -graph || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>drar</u>'''....''thermograph'' |- | -'''dren''' || -graphy || mostly noun stems || '''yib'''....''far'' → '''yib<u>dren</u>'''....''telegraphy'' |- | -'''ef''' || need of || various stems || '''tel'''....''food''→'''tel<u>ef</u>'''....''hunger''<br>'''ig<s>a</s>'''....''fast''→'''ig<u>ef</u>'''....''emergency''<br>'''til'''....''drink''→ '''til<u>ef</u>'''....''thirst'' |- | -'''en''' || present gerund<br> -ing<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''ifi-'''....''enjoy'' →'''ifi<u>en</u>'''....''enjoyment''<br>'''deuz-'''....''sing''→'''deuz<u>en</u>'''....''singing''<br>'''axl-'''....'''act''' → '''axl<u>en</u>'''....''acting'' |- | -'''eyn''' || present gerund of single instance<br> -tion<br> -ment || verb stem ||'''x-'''....''do'' →'''x<u>eyn</u>'''....''deed''<br>'''s-'''....''to be''→'''s<u>eyn</u>'''....''essence''<br>'''jaup-'''....''precede'' → '''jaup<u>eyn</u>'''....''precedent'' |- | -'''es''' || smaller counterpart thing || noun || '''tef'''....''hat''→ '''tef<u>es</u>''' cap<br>'''saun'''....''kind''→ '''saun<u>es</u>'''....''sample''<br>'''dreuz'''....''poem'' → '''deuz<u>es</u>'''....''stanza''<br>'''mek'''....''dust, powder''→'''mek<u>es</u>'''....''speck, grain'' |- | -'''et''' || smaller counterpart person || noun || '''twob'''....''man'' → '''twob<u>et</u>'''....''boy''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman''→ '''toyb<u>et</u>'''....''girl'' |- | -'''if''' || love of<br> -philia || noun || '''tel'''....''food'' → '''tel<u>if</u>'''....''gourmandise''<br>'''doab'''....''homeland'' → '''doab<u>if</u>'''....''patriotism''<br>'''dyes'''....''book'' → '''dyes<u>if</u>'''....''bibliophilia, love of books'' |- | -'''ig''' || quick || noun and verb stem || '''man'''....''light'' → '''man<u>ig</u>'''....''flash''<br>'''pyex'''....''stroke''→'''pyexig'''....''swat''<br>'''yopap-'''....''dive, fly down'' → '''yopap<u>ig</u>'''....''swoop'' |- | -'''im''' || room, chamber || various stems || '''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' →'''faydil<u>im</u>'''....''chapel''<br>'''magel-'''....''to cook'' → '''magel<u>im</u>'''....''kitchen''<br>'''tof-'''....''to dress'' → '''tof<u>im</u>'''....''dressing room'' |- | -'''in''' || doctrine, dogma, -ism || various stems || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''totin'''....''religion, theism''<br>'''otof<s>a</s>'''....''nude''→'''otof<u>in</u>'''....''nudism''<br>'''yufr-'''....'''terror''' → '''yufr<u>in</u>'''....''terrorism'' |- | -'''kyaoxar''' || -stat || noun stems || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>kyaoxar</u>'''....''thermostat'' |- | -'''n''' || abstract noun || various stems || '''ze'''....''in the middle of'' → '''zen'''....''center''<br>'''za'''....''in front of'' →'''za<u>n</u>'''....''face''<br>'''byi'''....''since, starting with'' → '''byi<u>n</u>'''....''source''<br>'''go'''....''less''→ '''go<u>n</u>'''....''part'' |- |-'''kunid''' || -hedron, sided volume || number prefixes || '''alen'''....''dodeca (twelve)'' → '''alenkunid'''....''dodecahedron'' |- | -'''am''' || house<br> building || various stems || '''nun-'''....''merchandise'' → '''nun<u>am</u>'''....''store''<br>'''til''' drink → '''til<u>am</u>'''....''bar, tavern''<br>'''fyadil-'''....''to pray'' → '''fyadil<u>am</u>'''....''church'' |- | -'''(e)m''' || place || various stems || '''duho-?''' what-?→ '''duho<u>m</u>?'''....''where''?<br>'''yex'''....''work'' → '''yex<u>em</u>'''....''worksite''<br>'''ab'''....''on, above'' → '''ab<u>em</u>'''....''top, surface''<br>'''ku<s>a</s>'''....''lateral''→'''ku<u>m</u>'''....''side'' |- | -'''um''' || compartment<br> booth || various stems || '''teuzibar'''....''telephone'' → '''teuzibar<u>um</u>'''....''telephone booth'' |- | -'''yem''' || enclosure, box || various stems || '''ekpet'''....''horse'' →'''ekpet<u>yem</u>'''....''corral''<br>'''b-'''....''put'' → '''b<u>yem</u>'''....''position'' |- | -'''ud''' || offspring, baby of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>ud</u>'''....''foal'' |- | -'''wud''' || son of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>wud</u>'''....''colt'' |- | -'''uyd''' || daughter of || noun || '''ekpet'''....''horse''→'''ekpet<u>uyd</u>'''....''filly'' |- | -'''og''' || little || noun || '''tab''' body→ '''tab<u>og</u>'''....''corpuscle''<br>'''ekpet'''....''horse'' → '''ekpet<u>og</u>'''....''pony''<br>'''tyal'''....''meal'' → '''tyal<u>og</u>'''....''snack''<br>'''golbun'''....''cut'' → '''golbun<u>og</u>'''....''cutlet'' |- | -'''oyg''' || little and cute || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' → '''tam<u>oyg</u>'''....''cottage''<br>'''gafapayt'''....''chicken'' →'''gafapayt<u>oyg</u>'''....''chickadee''<br>'''mimpar'''....''boat'' → '''mirpar<u>oyg</u>'''....''dingy'' |- | -'''nagar''' || ''-ometer'' || noun || '''am'''....''heat'' → '''am<u>nagar</u>'''....''thermometer'' |- | -'''ar''', '''-ir''', '''-ur''' || tool, machine, engine || usu. verb stem || '''p-'''....''to go''→ '''p<u>ur</u>'''....''car''<br>'''dr-'''....''to write'' → '''drar'''....''pencil''<br>'''gobl-'''....''to cut'' → '''gobl<u>ar</u>'''....''knife''<br>'''yaobl-'''....''to lift up and down'' → '''yaobl<u>ur</u>'''....''elevator, lift''<br>'''yaobl<u>ir</u>'''....''lift, crane''<br>'''dop'''....''military'' → '''dop<u>ar</u>'''....''gun''<br>'''dop<u>ur</u>'''....''machine gun''<br>'''dop<u>ir</u>'''....''artillery, cannon''<br> |- | -'''s''' || thing, object, the X one || adjective || '''aa''' first → '''aa<u>s</u>'''....''first one, first thing''<br>'''otwa'''....''unknown'' → '''otwa<u>s</u>'''....''mystery, an unknown''<br>'''tejea'''....''living'' → '''tejea<u>s</u>'''....''living thing'' |- | -'''(s)on''' || abstract thing<br> issue || various stems || '''if-'''....''to love''→'''if<u>on</u>'''....''love''<br>'''ov against'''→ '''ov<u>on</u>'''....''obstacle''<br> '''az<s>a</s>''' strong → '''az<u>on</u>'''....''force''<br>'''yik<s>a</s>'''....''difficult'' → '''yik<u>son</u>'''....''problem'' |- | -'''(s)un''' || object<br> thing<br> result of an action || various stems || '''vyu<s>a</s>'''....''dirty'' → '''vyu<u>n</u>'''....''spot''<br>'''tamb-'''....''settle'' →'''tambi<u>un</u>'''....''settlement''<br>'''gofr-''' ''shred'' → '''gofr<u>un</u>'''....''scrap, shred''<br>'''hyo'''....''not a single''→ '''hyo<u>sun</u>'''....''not a single thing'' |- | -'''t''' || person || adjective || '''ea''' second → '''eat'''....''second one, second person''<br>'''fya-'''....''holy'' → '''fya<u>t</u>'''....''saint''<br>'''ujna'''....''last''→'''uja<u>t</u>'''....''last one, last person''<br>'''Usoma'''....''American'' →'''Usoma<u>t</u>'''....''an American'' |- | -'''tajbus''' || -ogen, producer || noun || '''om'''....''cold, cry-'' → '''omtajbus'''....''cryogen''<br>'''bok'''....''illness'' → '''tajbus'''....''pathogen'' |- | -'''tun''' || science of, -ology || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tun</u>'''....''theology''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tun</u>'''....''anthropology''<br>'''vob'''....''plant'' →'''vob<u>tun</u>'''....''botany'' |- | -'''tuyn''' || pseudo-science || noun || '''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>tuyn</u>'''....''astrology'' |- | -'''tuin''' || theory || noun || '''vyelan'''....''relativity''→ '''vyelan<u>tuin</u>'''....''theory of relativity'' |- | -'''tyen''' || skill, craft || noun || '''sur'''....''engine'' → '''sur<u>tyen</u>'''....''engineering''<br>'''koex-'''....''spying'' → '''koextyen'''....''spycraft'' |- | -'''(t)in''' || doctrine, -ism || noun || '''zaypas-'''....''progress'' → '''zaypas<u>in</u>'''....''progressivism'' |- | -'''tut''', '''tuyt''' (f.) || scientist<br> -ologist<br> -ist || noun || '''tot'''....''god'' → '''tot<u>tut</u>'''....''theologist''<br>'''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>tuyt</u>'''....''woman anthropologist''<br>'''vob'''....''plant''→ '''vob<u>tut</u>'''....''botanist'' |- | -'''uf'''<br>'''yuf'''|| hate of<br>fear of, -phobia || noun || '''mil'''....''water'' → '''mil<u>yuf</u>'''....''hydrophobia''<br>'''totin'''....''religion'' → '''totin<u>uf</u>'''....''hatred of religion''<br> '''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>uf</u>'''....''misogyny'' |- | -'''ut''', '''uyt''' (f.)|| agent, one who Xes, -er, -ant, -ist || verb stem || '''bek-'''....''treat'' → '''bek<u>uyt</u>'''....''female nurse''<br>'''pop-'''....''travel''→'''pop<u>ut</u>'''....''traveler''<br>'''ak-'''....''win'' → '''ak<u>ut</u>'''....''winner'' |- |-'''teliut''' || eater, -phage, -vore || verb stem || '''hyas'''....''everything, omni-'' → '''hyas<u>teliut</u>'''....''omnivore''<br>'''bokogrun'''....''bacteria'' → '''bokogrunteliut'''....''bacteriophage'' |- | -'''yaf'''|| ability to, power<br> -ability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yaf</u>'''....''ability to see''<br>'''tex-'''....''to think'' → '''tex<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognition''<br>'''test-'''....''to understand'' → '''test<u>yaf</u>'''....''comprehension''<br>'''nos-'''....''to spend'' → '''nos<u>yaf</u>'''....''spending power''<br>'''t-'''....''to know'' → '''t<u>yaf</u>'''....''cognizance'' |- | -'''yafwan''' || possibility, -bility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yafwan</u>'''....''visibility'' |- | -'''yof''' || inability to, disability || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yof</u>'''....''blindness''<br>'''teet-'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yof</u>'''....''deafness''<br>'''pas-'''....''to move''→'''pas<u>yof</u>'''....''paralysis''<br>'''tuj-'''....''to sleep'' → '''tuj<u>yof</u>'''....''insomnia'' |- | -'''yofwan''' || impossibility || verb stem || '''teat-'''....''to see'' → '''teat<u>yofwan</u>'''....''invisibility'' |- | -'''yag''' || big and ugly, long || noun || '''tetwid'''....''uncle''→ '''tetwid<u>yag</u>'''....''dirty old uncle''<br>'''toyb'''....''woman'' → '''toyb<u>yag</u>'''....''hag'' |- | -'''yan''' || collection, grouping<br> -ary || noun || '''tob'''....''man'' → '''tob<u>yan</u>'''....''mankind''<br>'''mar'''....''star'' → '''mar<u>yan</u>'''....''constellation''<br>'''fab'''....''tree'' → '''fab<u>yan</u>'''....''forest''<br>'''dyes'''....''book''→ '''dyes<u>yan</u>'''....''library'' |- | -'''yen''' || manner, kind || noun || '''dal'''....''talk'' →'''dal<u>yen</u>'''....''idiom''<br>'''sex-'''....''build'' →'''sex<u>yen</u>'''....''structure'' |- | -'''yef''' || duty, obligation || verb stem || '''dud-'''....''to answer'' → '''dud<u>yef</u>'''....''responsibility''<br>'''byok-'''....''to ache'' → '''byok<u>yef</u>'''....''punishment'' |- | -'''yik''' || difficulty to || verb stem || '''teet<u>er</u>'''....''to hear'' → '''teet<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty hearing''<br>'''tiex-'''....''to breathe'' → '''tiex<u>yik</u>'''....''difficulty breathing, asthma'' |- | -'''yog''' || little and ugly || noun || '''tam'''....''house'' →'''tam<u>yog</u>'''....''shack''<br>'''anpiat'''....''duck'' → '''anpiat<u>yog</u>'''....''ugly duckling''<br>'''kod'''....''secret'' → '''kod<u>yog</u>'''....''little dirty secret'' |- | -'''yuk'''<br>'''yukwan''' || ease of || verb stem || '''pes-''' ''to wait'' → '''pes<u>yuk</u>'''....''patience''<br>'''kovyox-''' ''to fool'' → '''kovyox<u>yukwan</u>'''....''gullibility, foolhardiness'' |} {{small/end}} === Differences between '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' === : The noun suffixes '''-en''', '''-eyn''', and '''-un''' create nominalized forms from a verb stem, but are a bit confusing. The suffix '''-en''' is equivalent to the English '''-ing''' and forms a gerundive. It also used to translate many English verbal nominalizations ending in ''-tion''. The suffix '''-eyn''' is a slight variation and refers to a single action or state. The ending '''-un''' forms a word meaning the result of an action and is often a thing. Sometimes '''-eyn''' is used instead of '''-un''' where the latter has a special meaning. Here are some examples: ::* '''xer'''....''to do'' :::* '''xen'''....''doing'' :::* '''xeyn'''....''deed'' :::* '''xun'''....''fact'' ::* '''yugxer'''....''to slow up'' :::* '''yugxen'''....''decelera<u>tion</u>'' :::* '''yugxun'''....''bottleneck'' ::* '''der'''....''to say'' :::* '''den'''....''saying'' :::* '''deyn'''....''utterance, a saying'' :::* '''dun'''....''word'' ::* '''ujer'''....''to end'' :::* '''ujen'''....''ending'' eg. ''I like <u>ending</u> on a happy note.'' :::* '''ujeyn'''....''an ending, finale'' eg. ''This play's <u>finale</u> was emotional.'' :::* '''ujun'''....''end, tail end'' eg. ''The road came to a sudden <u>end</u>.'' === Examples of the Suffix '''-yen''' === : This suffix is a stub of '''byen'''....''way, manner''. {{small/top}} ::{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Wording Ending in -yen |- valign=top ! Base Word !! Derivation |- | '''ajtyod'''....''past people'' || '''ajtyodyen'''....''tradition'' |- | '''d-'''....''to say'' || '''dyen'''....''expression'' |- | '''akpas'''....''winning move'' || '''akpasyen'''....''tactic'' |- | '''dre(r)'''....''to write'' || '''dreyen'''....''writing system'' |- | '''amal'''....''atmosphere'' || '''amalyen'''....''weather'' |- | '''an-'''....''single'' || '''anyen'''....''quirk, idio-'' |- | '''axl-'''....''to act'' || '''axlyen'''....''behavior'' |- | '''aot'''....''person'' || '''aotyen'''....''character, personality'' |- | '''t(y)-'''....''to know how'' || '''tyen'''....''skill, craft'' |- | '''x-'''....''to do'' || '''xyen'''....''profession'' |- | '''ze-'''....''middle'' || '''zeyen'''....''means'' |- | '''bas-'''....''gesture'' || '''basyen'''....''body language'' |- | '''tex'''....''thought'' || '''texyen'''....''opinion'' |- | '''es-'''....''to exist'' || '''esyen'''....''state'' |- | '''kya-'''....''change'' || '''kyayen'''....''version'' |- | '''p-'''....''to go'' || '''pyen'''....''pace, gait'' |- | '''yex-'''....''to work'' || '''yexyen'''....''line of work'' |- | '''tayot-'''....''to feel'' || '''tayotyen'''....''texture'' |} {{small/end}} === Noun Prefixes === : Prefixes can also be attached to nouns to create derivatives. Here are some common productive ones: {{small/top}} :{| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Noun Prefixes |- valign=top ! Prefix !! Meaning !! Base Noun !! Derivations |- | '''aa-''' || ''first, arch-'' || '''deb'''....''leader''<br>'''dezun'''....''performance''<br>'''tat'''....''angel'' || '''aadeb'''....''premier''<br>'''aadezun'''....''premiere''<br>'''aatat'''....''archangel'' |- | '''aag-''' || ''macro-'' || '''donex'''....''economics'' || '''aagdonex'''....''macroeconomics'' |- | '''aaj-''' || ''proto-'' || '''tejsan'''...''life form''<br>'''tobtun'''....''anthropology'' || '''aajtejsan'''....''protozoon'' |- | '''ab-''' || ''superior, sur-, on'' || '''donab'''....''rank''<br>'''dout'''....''gentleman''<br>'''dyun'''....''name'' || '''abdonab'''....''superior rank''<br>'''abdout'''....''aristocrat''<br>'''abdyun'''....''title, surname'' |- | '''ag-''' || ''mega-, megalo-, grandi-'' || '''amlot'''....''millionaire''<br>'''dal'''....''talk''|| '''agamlot'''....''megamillionaire''<br>'''agdal'''....''grandiloquence'' |- | '''agal-''' || ''arch-, main-'' || '''mem'''....''land''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''agalmem'''....''mainland''<br>'''agalnad'''....''mainline'' |- | '''agr(a)-''' || ''mega-, megalo-'' || '''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''akuj'''...''success'' || '''agrameg'''....''megalith''<br>'''agrakuj'''....''megahit'' |- | '''an-''' || ''one, uni-, mono-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle''<br>'''dungon'''....''syllable'' || '''anzyukpar'''....''unicycle''<br>'''andungon'''....''monosyllable'' |- | '''ao-''' || ''vertical'' || '''nab'''....''rank''<br>'''muf'''....''pole'' || '''aonab'''....''column''<br>'''aomuf'''....''column'' |- | '''aoyeb-''' || ''in-and-out'' || '''belen'''....''carrying'' || '''aoyebelen'''....''import-exports'' |- | '''aov-''' || ''for-and-against'' || '''dalson'''....''subject'' || '''aovdalson'''...''controversy'' |- | '''ayb-''' || ''over-, super-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow''<br>'''mas'''....''name'' || '''aybdrun'''....''superscript''<br>'''aybilp'''....''overflow''<br>'''aybmas'''....''ceiling'' |- | '''ayn-''' || ''holo-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''meg'''....''stone''<br>'''sag'''....''number'' || '''ayndras'''....''hologram''<br>'''aynmeg'''....''hololith''<br>'''aynsag'''....''integer'' |- | '''aj-''' || ''past, pre-, fore-, ex-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''gex'''....''equity''<br>'''tayd'''....''wife'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ajgex'''....''revenge''<br>'''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''anyen-''' || ''idio-, odd'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''fin'''....''quality'' || '''anyendyen'''....''idiom''<br>'''anyenfin'''....''quirk'' |- | '''av-''' || ''pro-, for'' || '''bol'''....''support''<br>'''dun'''....''word'' || '''avbol'''....''endorsement''<br>'''avdun'''....''pronoun'' |- | '''az-''' || ''strong'' || '''hihid'''....''laugh''<br>'''ojvad'''....''promise''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''azhihid'''....''guffaw''<br>'''azojvad'''....''covenant''<br>'''aztos'''....''passion'' |- | '''do-''' || ''public'' || '''del'''....''statement''<br>'''did'''....''question''<br>'''vyab'''....''rule'' || '''dodel'''....''announcement''<br>'''dodid'''....''inquiry''<br>'''dovyab'''....''law'' |- | '''eb-''' || ''inter-, dia-'' || '''dal'''....''statement''<br>'''ifek'''....''gram''<br>'''kyax'''....''change'' || '''ebdal'''....''dialog''<br>'''ebifek'''....''interlude''<br>'''ebkyax'''....''interchange'' |- | '''en-''' || ''bi-, di-, two-'' || '''zyukpar'''....''wheeled vehicle'' || '''enzyukpar'''....''bicycle'' |- | '''eg-''' || ''normal'' || '''byen'''....''manner'' || '''egbyen'''....''norm'' |- | '''ej-''' || ''step-, current'' || '''twid'''....''brother''<br>'''din'''....''story'' || '''ejtwid'''....''step-brother''<br>'''ejdin'''....''current news item'' |- | '''ejna-''' || ''neo-'' || '''dun'''....''word'' || '''ejnadun'''....''neologism'' |- | '''ev-''' || ''a-, neutral'' || '''totin'''....''deism''<br>'''dofina'''....''moral'' || '''evtotin'''....''atheism''<br>'''evdofina'''....''amoral'' |- | '''eyn-''' || ''semi-, hemi-, pen-, half-, quasi-''|| '''moyn'''....''shade''<br>'''zyum'''....''sphere''<br>'''ayma'''....''warm''<br>'''dobyena'''<br>'''daba'''....''governmental'' || '''eynmoyn'''....''penumbra''<br>'''eynzyum'''....''hemisphere''<br>'''aynayma'''....''lukewarm''<br>'''anydobyena'''....''semi-official''<br>'''aydaba'''....''quasi-governmental'' |- | '''fi-''' || ''eu-, bene-, well-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' <br>'''fon'''....''will''|| '''fidyen'''....''euphemism''<br>'''fitos'''....''euphoria''<br>'''fifon'''....''benevolence'' |- | '''fyi-''' || ''useful'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''fyidal'''....''advice'' |- | '''fu-''' || ''caco-, mal-, ill-, dys-'' || '''seux'''....''sound''<br>'''fon'''....''will''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''fuseux'''....''cacophony''<br>'''fufon'''....''ill-will, malevolence''<br>'''futos'''....''dysphoria'' |- | '''fyu-''' || ''harmful'' || '''mil'''....''water''<br>'''pelt'''...''insect'' <br>'''mul'''....''stuff''|| '''fyumil'''....''waste water''<br>'''fyupelt'''....''pest''<br>'''fyumul'''....''garbage'' |- | '''fya-''' || ''holy'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''byekut'''....''healer'' || '''fyadin'''....''gospel''<br>'''fyabuun'''....''oblation, offering''<br>'''fyabyekut'''....''shaman, witchdoctor'' |- | '''fye-''' || ''fantasy, mytho-'' || '''din'''....''story''<br>'''diyn'''....''tale''<br>'''mir'''....''world'' || '''fyedin'''....''myth, fantasy''<br>'''fyediyn'''....''fairy-tale, fable''<br>'''fyemir'''....''fantasia, fantasy-world'' |- | '''fyo-''' || ''evil'' || '''tat'''....''angel''<br>'''xeyn'''....''deed'' || '''fyotat'''....''demon''<br>'''fyoxeyn'''....''sin'' |- | '''gab-''' || ''plus'' || '''nix'''....''earning'' || '''gabnix'''....''interest'' |- | '''gaw-''' || ''re-'' || '''aklen'''....''conquest''<br>'''del'''....''statement'' || '''gawaklen'''....''reconquest''<br>'''gawdel'''....''restatement'' |- | '''ge-''' || ''equi-, iso-, even-'' || '''eksag'''....''score''<br>'''kyin'''....''weight'' || '''geeksag'''....''tie''<br> '''gekyin'''....''equilibrium'' |- | '''gel-''' || ''homo-, like-, simul-'' || '''dredun'''....''speling''<br>'''san'''....''form'' || '''geldredun'''....''homograph''<br>'''gelsan'''....''isomorph, clone'' |- | '''gla-''' || ''multi-, plur-, poly-'' || '''gon'''....''part'' || '''glagon'''....''plurality'' |- | '''glo-''' || ''few, poorly, little, hypo-, ligo-''|| '''tiibilnid'''....''blood volume'' || '''glotiibilnid'''....''hypovolemia, oligemia'' |- | '''gro-''' || ''hypo-, under-'' || '''agxen'''....''growth''<br>'''del''' || '''grogxen'''....''hypotrophy''<br>'''grodel'''....''understatement'' |- | '''gra-''' || ''too, hyper-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''grabik'''....''hypercaution'' |- | '''gwa-''' || ''macro-, super-'' || '''mor'''....''universe'' || '''gwamor'''....''macrocosm'' |- | '''hyi-''' || ''homo-, same'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference'' || '''hyitoobif'''....''homosexualtiy'' |- | '''hyu-''' || ''hetero-, different, other-, allo-, xeno-'' || '''toobif'''....''gender preference''<br>'''mer'''....''planet''<br>'''san'''....''shape'' || '''hyutoobif'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''hyumer'''....''alien planet''<br>'''hyusan'''....''allomorph'' |- | '''hya-''' || ''omni-, pan-, all-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism'' || '''hyadoobin'''....''pan-nationalism'' |- | '''hye-''' || ''any, whatever'' || '''saun'''....''kind'' || '''hyesaun'''....''any kind'' |- | '''hyo(s)-''' || ''nothing'' || '''ten'''....''knowledge'' || '''hyosten'''....''ignorance'' |- | '''hyuit-''' || ''mutual'' || '''fizuen'''....''respect'' || '''hyuitfizuen'''....''mutual respect'' |- | '''ig-''' || ''fast'' || '''didyan'''....''questionnaire'' || '''igdidyan'''....''pop quiz'' |- | '''ij-''' || ''initial, head'' || '''dun'''....''word''<br>'''miap'''....''stream'' || '''ijdun'''....''prologue''<br>'''ijmiap'''....''headstream'' |- | '''ik-''' || ''full'' || '''nuxen'''....''payment'' || '''iknuxen'''....''liquidation'' |- | '''il-''' || ''liquid'' || '''ok'''....''loss'' || '''ilok'''....''leak'' |- | '''im''' || ''wet'' || '''mel'''....''soil'' || '''immel'''....''loam, wetland'' |- | '''in-''' || ''tri-, three'' || '''goblun'''....''cut'' || '''ingoblun'''....''trisection'' |- | '''iv-''' || ''happy'' || '''din'''....''story'' || '''ivdin'''....''comedy'' |- | '''iz-''' || ''straight, orth-, rect-, direct'' || '''fin'''....''quality''<br>'''mep'''....''path'' || '''izfin'''....''rectitude''<br>'''izmep'''....''beeline, vector'' |- | '''ja-''' || ''before, pre-'' || '''bik'''....''caution'' || '''jabik'''....''precaution'' |- | '''je-''' || ''continuous'' || '''teaxer'''....''to look'' || '''jeteax'''....''watch, vigil'' |- | '''jo-''' || ''after, post-'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''jodren'''....''postscript'' |- | '''jwa-''' || ''proto-, eo-, early'' || '''ajdin'''....''history''<br>'''ejob'''....''modern era'' || '''jwaajdin'''....''protohistory''<br>'''jwaejob'''....''eocene'' |- | '''jwe-''' || ''prompt'' || '''puen'''....''arrival'' || '''jwepuen'''....''on-time arrival'' |- | '''jwo-''' || ''latter, late'' || '''moj'''....''night'' || '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |- | '''ku-''' || ''side, aside, lateral'' || '''bux'''....''push''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying'' || '''kubux'''....''rebuff''<br>'''kudeyn'''....''remark'' |- | '''ki-''' || ''diagonal, slant'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''texyen'''....''opinion'' || '''kinad'''....''diagonal, slant''<br>'''kitexyen'''....''bias'' |- | '''ko-''' || ''hide, covert, pseudo-'' || '''d'''....''utterance''<br>'''exut'''....''operative''<br>'''flen'''....''desire''<br>'''jadrun'''....''plan'' || '''kod'''....''secret''<br>'''koexut'''....''spy''<br>'''koflen'''....''envy''<br>'''kojadrun'''....''plot'' |- | '''kya-'''|| ''change, para-, re-''||'''bax'''....''movement''<br>'''dyan'''....''phrase''<br>'''din'''....''story''<br>'''naz'''....''value''<br>'''napxen'''....''ordering''||'''kyabax'''....''shift''<br>'''kyadyan'''....''paraphrase''<br>'''kyadin'''....''version''<br>'''kyanaz'''....''variable''<br>'''kyanapxen'''....''reordering, shuffling'' |- | '''kye-''' || ''haphazard'' || '''den'''....''saying''<br>'''fyun'''....''harm''<br>'''kaxun'''....''find'' || '''kyeden'''....''guesswork''<br>'''kyefyun'''....''danger''<br>'''kyekaxun'''....''discovery'' |- | '''kyo-''' || ''fixed'' || '''byen'''....''manner''<br>'''deyn'''....''saying''<br>'''doneg'''....''social class'' || '''kyobyen'''....''habit''<br>'''kyodeyn'''....''clich&eacute;''<br>'''kyodoneg'''....''caste'' |- | '''kyi-''' || ''heavy'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''tes'''....''meaning''<br>'''bal'''....''pressure''|| '''kyiazon'''....''gravity''<br>'''kyites'''....''importance''<br>'''kyibal'''....''strain'' |- | '''kyu-''' || ''light'' || '''azon'''....''force''<br>'''mamil''' || '''kyuazon'''....''ballast''<br>'''kyumamil'''....''drizzle'' |- | '''lo-''' || ''dis-, de-, un-'' || '''bexun'''....''possession'' <br>'''bokulxen'''....''toxification''<br>'''box'''...''quiet''|| '''lobexun'''....''dispossession, divestment''<br>'''lobokulxen'''....''detoxification''<br>'''lobox'''....''disquiet'' |- | '''lyo-''' || ''totally not'' || '''fibyen'''....''good manner''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''lyofibyen'''....''insolence''<br>'''lyodot'''....''wilderness'' |- | '''mak-''' || ''electro-, e-'' || '''ebdras'''....''letter''<br>'''nagar'''....''meter'' || '''makebdras'''....''email''<br>'''maknagar'''....''electrometer'' |- | '''o-''' || ''not, un-'' || '''bik'''....''care''|| '''obik'''....''neglect'' |- | '''ob-''' || ''off-, vice-'' || '''goflun'''....''rip''<br>'''fub'''....''branch'' || '''obgoflun'''....''stub''<br>'''obfub'''....''offshoot'' |- | '''oge-''' || ''unequal, aniso-'' || '''izonan'''...''orientation'' || '''ogeizonan'''....''anisotropy'' |- | '''ogel-''' || ''hetero-, different'' || '''toobifan'''....''sexual preference''<br>'''tin'''....''doctrine'' || '''ogeltoobifan'''....''heterosexuality''<br>'''ogeltin'''....''heterodoxy'' |- | '''oyb-''' || ''under-, sub-, infra-'' || '''mos'''....''floor''<br>'''neg'''....''level''<br>'''alza'''....''red''|| '''oybmos'''....''basement''<br>'''oybneg'''....''sublevel''<br>'''oybalza'''....''infrared'' |- | '''of-''' || ''prohibited'' || '''birun'''....''grab''<br>'''dresini'''....''drawings''<br>'''gelxun'''....''copy'' || '''ofbirun'''....''loot''<br>'''ofdresini'''....''grafitti''<br>'''ofgelxun'''....''plagiarism'' |- | '''og-''' || ''small'' || '''soni'''....''matters'' || '''ogsoni'''....''trivia'' |- | '''oog-''' || ''micro-, mini-'' || '''drenod'''....''dot''<br>'''naab'''....''file''<br>'''tyoyf'''....''skirt''|| '''oogdrenod'''....''microdot''<br>'''oognaab'''....''microfiche''<br>'''oogtyoyf'''....''miniskirt'' |- | '''oj-''' || ''future, fore-'' || '''buen'''....''giving''<br>'''deyn'''....''utterance'' || '''ojbuen'''....''lending''<br>'''ojdeyn'''....''forecast'' |- | '''ok-''' || ''loss'' || '''buun'''....''gift''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''okbuun'''....''sacrifice''<br>'''oktos'''....''heartache'' |- | '''ov-''' || ''against, counter-, contra-, anti-'' || '''adabinut'''....''imperialist''<br>'''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''ovadabinut'''....''anti-imperialist''<br>'''ovapyex'''....''counterattack'' |- | '''oy-''' || ''without'' || '''tof'''....''clothes'' || '''oytofa'''....''naked'' |- | '''oz-''' || ''weak'' || '''duun'''....''suggestion'' || '''ozduun'''....''hint'' |- | '''ug-''' || ''slow'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''ilok'''....''leak'' <br>'''teax'''....''look''|| '''ugdal'''....''drawl''<br>'''ugilok'''....''seepage''<br>'''ugteax'''....''gaze'' |- | '''ui-''' || '''horizontal'' || '''nab'''....''rank'' || '''uinab'''....''row'' |- | '''un-''' || ''quadri-, tetra-, four-'' || '''drezun'''....''poem'' <br>'''yan'''....''collection''|| '''undrezun'''....''quatrain''<br>'''unyan'''....''tetrad'' |- |'''uj-''' || ''end'' || '''ak'''....''win''<br>'''dun'''....''word''<br>'''jud'''....''date'' || '''ujak'''....''success''<br>'''ujdun'''....''epilogue''<br>'''ujjud'''....''deadline'' |- | '''uk''' || ''empty'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''mel'''....''soil''<br>'''nod'''....''point'' || '''ukdal'''....''blather''<br>'''ukmel'''....''desert''<br>'''uknod'''....''puncture'' |- | '''ut-''' || ''self-, sui-, aut(o)-'' || '''tojben'''....''killing''<br>'''dab'''....''government'' || '''uttojben'''....''suicide''<br>'''utdab'''....''autarchy'' |- | '''uv-''' || ''sad'' || '''deuzun''''....''song''<br>'''dolen'''....''silence''<br>'''kyeuj'''....''fate'' || '''uvdeuzun'''....''dirge''<br>'''uvdolen'''....''sulking''<br>'''uvkyeuj'''....''tragedy'' |- | '''uf-''' || ''hate'' || '''dal'''....''speech''<br>'''tos'''....''feeling'' || '''ufdal'''....''rant''<br>'''uftos'''....''anger'' |- | '''uz-''' || ''crooked, curved, arc'' || '''aybmas'''....''roof''<br>'''dopar'''....''weapon''<br>'''kunad'''....''edge'' || '''uzaybmas'''....''vault, arch''<br>'''uzdopar'''....''bow, arch''<br>'''uzkunad'''....''rim'' |- | '''va-''' || ''yes'' || '''bien'''....''taking''<br>'''diun'''....''request''<br>'''dud'''....''answer'' || '''vabien'''....''acceptance''<br>'''vadiun'''....''claim''<br>'''vadud'''....''assent'' |- | '''vao-''' || ''yes-or-no'' || '''d'''....''utterance'' || '''vaod'''....''decision'' |- | '''ve-''' || ''maybe'' || '''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''yovdeyn'''....''inculpation'' || '''vetexen'''....''supposition''<br>'''veyovdeyn'''....''indictment'' |- | '''vo-''' || ''no'' || ''texen'''....''thinking''<br>'''fon'''....''will'' || '''votexen'''....''doubting''<br>'''vofon'''....''disinclination'' |- | '''vya-''' || ''true'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''dud'''....''answer''<br>'''nad'''....''line'' || '''vyadeyn'''....''avowal''<br>'''vyadud'''....''solution''<br>'''vyanad'''....''guideline'' |- | '''vye-''' || ''relative'' || '''dren'''....''writing'' || '''vyedren'''....''correspondence'' |- | '''vyo-''' || ''wrong, mis-'' || '''bek'''....''treatment''<br>'''dat'''....''friend'' || '''vyobek'''....''mistreatment''<br>'''vyodat'''....''false friend'' |- | '''yag-''' || ''long'' || '''igpek'''....''race'' || '''yagigpek'''....''marathon'' |- | '''yan-''' || ''together, con-'' || '''dal'''....''talk'' || '''yandal'''....''conversation'' |- | '''yibaj-''' || ''paleo-'' || '''fobtun'''....''botany'' || '''yibajfobtun'''....''paleobotany'' |- | '''yog-''' || ''short, steno-'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''job'''....''time'' || '''yogdrir'''....''stenograph''<br>'''jogjob'''....''short while'' |- | '''yok-''' || ''sudden'' || ''apyex'''....''attack'' || '''yokapyex'''....''raid'' |- | '''yon-''' || ''apart'' || '''byex'''....''strike'' || '''yonbyex'''....''breach'' |- | '''yov-''' || ''shame'' || '''bixen'''....''pulling''<br>'''byok'''....''pain''<br>'''if'''....''pleasure'' || '''yovbixen'''....''seduction''<br>'''yovbyok'''....''punishment''<br>'''yovif'''....''schadenfreude'' |- | '''yab-''' || ''up, super-, high-, hyper-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dot'''....''society'' || '''yabdom'''....''uptown''<br>'''yabdot'''....''high society'' |- | '''yabnan-''' || ''hypso-, acro-, height'' || '''dren'''....''recording'' || '''yabnandren'''....''hypsography'' |- | '''yaob-''' || ''up-and-down'' || '''yuijar'''....''valve''<br>'''pusen'''....''jumping'' || '''yaobyuijar'''....''piston''<br>'''yaopusen'''....''bouncing'' |- | '''yaz-''' || ''swollen, protruding, convex'' || '''dal'''....''talk''<br>'''buk'''....''wound''<br>'''tiub'''....''belly''<br>'''mem'''....''land'' || '''yazdal'''....''bombast''<br>'''yazbuk'''....''boil, blister''<br>'''yaztiub'''....''potbelly''<br>'''memyaz'''....''mountain'' |- | '''yez-''' || ''flush, along, para-'' || '''baktut'''....''medic''<br>'''mel'''....''terrain'' || '''yezbaktut'''....''paramedic''<br>'''yezmel'''....''meadow'' |- | '''yiz-''' || ''beyond, meta-, ultra-, hyper-'' || '''doobin'''....''nationalism''<br>'''dreniv'''....''text'' || '''yizdoobin'''....''ultra-nationalism''<br>'''yizdreniv'''....''hypertext'' |- | '''yoz-''' || ''sunken, concave'' || '''nad'''....''line'' || '''yoznad'''....''groove, gutter'' |- | '''yaoz-''' || ''saw-toothed, convex-concave'' || '''nad'''....''line''<br>'''goblar'''....''knife'' || '''yaoznad'''....''tilde''<br>'''yaozgoblar'''....''saw'' |- | '''yuz-''' || ''around, circ-, circum-, peri-'' || '''pipen'''....''navigation''<br>'''teaxar'''....''scope''<br>'''tyop'''....''walk'' || '''yuzpipen'''....''circumnavigation''<br>'''yuzteaxar'''....''periscope''<br>'''yuztyop'''....''stroll'' |- | '''yeb-''' || ''in-, intro-, inner-'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''deym'''....''yard, court'' || '''yebdungab'''....''infix''<br>'''yebdeym'''...''courtyard'' |- | '''oyeb-''' || ''out-, extro-, outer-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''dovyaban'''....''legality'' || '''oyebdom'''....''outskirts''<br>'''oyebdovyaban'''....''extralegality'' |- | '''yib-''' || ''tele-, far'' || '''drir'''....''typewriter''<br>'''teaxar'''....''viewer, scope'' || '''yibdrir'''....''teletype''<br>'''yibteaxar'''....''telescope'' |- | '''yibaj''' || ''ancient, archaeo-, paleo-'' || '''deyn'''....''utterance''<br>'''tun'''....''science'' || '''yibajdeyn'''....''archaism''<br>'''yibajtun'''....''archaeology'' |- | '''yub-''' || ''near, para-, juxta-'' || '''gexen'''....''equaling''<br>'''kex'''....''search''<br>'''dop'''....''military''<br>'''tayov'''....''membrane''|| '''yubgexen'''....''approximation''<br>'''yubkex'''....''examination''<br>'''yubdop'''....''paramilitary''<br>'''juxtamembrane''' |- | '''yubaj-''' || ''recent, ceno-'' || || |- | '''yob-''' || ''down, sub-, de-'' || '''doneg'''....''class''<br>'''byex'''....''beat'' || '''yobdoneg'''....''low class''<br>'''yobbyex'''....''downbeat'' |- | '''za-''' || ''front, fore-, pre-, north'' || '''dungab'''....''affix''<br>'''dyun'''....''name''<br>'''mer'''....''planet'' || '''zadungab'''....''prefix''<br>'''zadyun'''....''forename''<br>'''zamer'''....''north'' |- | '''ze-''' || ''middle, mid-'' || '''dom'''....''city''<br>'''jub'''....''day'' || '''zedom'''....''downtown''<br>'''zejub'''....''midday'' |- | '''zo-''' || ''behind, back'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull'' || '''zobex'''....''delay''<br>'''zobix'''....''drag'' |- | '''zay-''' || ''forward, pro-'' || '''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''bux'''....''push'' || '''zaybix'''....''protraction''<br>'''zaybux'''....''propulsion'' |- | '''zey-''' || ''across, trans-, meta-'' || '''dras'''....''script''<br>'''ilp'''....''flow'' || '''zeydras'''....''transcript''<br>'''zeyilp'''....''crosscurrent'' |- | '''zoy-''' || ''re-, retro-, back'' || '''axlen'''....''action''<br>'''kix'''....''bend''<br>'''mag'''....''fire''<br>'''mav'''....''flash'' || '''zoyaxlen'''....''reaction''<br>'''zoykix'''....''reflection''<br>'''zoymag'''....''retrofire''<br>'''zoymav'''....''flashback'' |- | '''zya-''' || ''wide'' || '''dodal'''....''speech''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout'' || '''zyadodal'''....''propaganda''<br>'''zyadrurun'''....''poster'' |- | '''zye-''' || ''through, per-, trans-, dia-'' || '''belun'''....''cargo''<br>'''muf'''....''rod''<br>'''bwas'''....''something put'' || '''zyebelun'''....''shipment''<br>'''zyebuxmuf'''....''ramrod (through-push-rod)''<br>'''zyebwas'''....''metaphor'' |- | '''zyi-''' || ''flat, plat-'' || '''dyen'''....''expression''<br>'''mos'''....''floor'' || '''zyidyen'''....''platitude''<br>'''zyimemyaz'''....''plateau''<br>'''zyimos'''....''platform'' |- | '''zyo-''' || ''narrow'' || '''bex'''....''hold''<br>'''bix'''....''pull''<br>'''gun'''....''angle'' || '''zyobex'''....''clasp, grip''<br>'''zyobix'''....''tension''<br>'''zyogun'''....''acute angle'' |- | '''zyu-''' || ''round, roto-, cyclo-'' || '''abaun'''....''cover''<br>'''drurun'''....''printout''<br>'''tom'''....''building'' || '''zyuabaun'''....''dome''<br>'''zyudrurun'''....''rotograph''<br>'''zyutom'''....''tower'' |} {{small/end}} == Gender == : Nouns in Mirad are gender-neutral, unless those relating to people, animals, and sometimes clothing are altered to be specifically male/male-oriented or female/female-oriented. To create the male or male-oriented form of an otherwise gender-neutral noun, prefix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with the letter '''w'''. To create the female or female-oriented form, suffix the vowel of the semantically significant syllable with '''y'''. If the noun is an agent noun with the suffix '''-ut''', that is, a noun that means "one who does something as an occupation or behavior", the ending '''-ut''' is changed to '''-uyt''' for the female form, but the male form ending stays the same or becomes '''-twob'''. The reason for this is that the addition of a '''w''' to the agentive ending could be confused with the verbal passive marker '''w''' (see the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Verbs]]. The chart below shows how this works: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Making Nouns Gender-specific |- ! Neutral !! Masculine !! Feminine |- | '''tob'''....''human being, person'' || '''twob'''....''man'' || '''toyb'''....''woman'' |- | '''tobet'''....''child'' || '''twobet'''....''boy'' || '''toybet'''....''girl'' |- | '''tad'''....''spouse'' || '''twad'''....''husband'' || '''tayd'''....''wife'' |- | '''ejtad'''....''step spouse'' || '''ejtwad'''....''step-husband'' || '''ejtayd'''....''step-wife'' |- | '''ajtad'''....''ex-spouse'' || '''ajtwad'''....''ex-husband'' || '''ajtayd'''....''ex-wife'' |- | '''ted'''....''parent'' || '''twed'''....''father'' || '''teyd'''....''mother'' |- | '''datif'''....''sweetheart'' || '''dwatif'''....''boyfriend'' || '''daytif'''....''girlfriend'' |- | '''supet'''....''pig''|| '''supwet'''....''boar'' || '''supeyt'''....''sow'' |- | '''edeb'''....''monarch'' || '''edweb'''....''king'' || '''edeyb'''....''queen'' |- | '''gafapat'''....''fowl'' || '''gafapwat'''....''rooster'' || '''gafapayt'''....''hen'' |- | '''tiuv'''....''underwear'' || '''twiuv'''....''briefs'' || '''tiuyv'''....''panties'' |- | '''anbopet'''....''antelope'' || '''anbopwet'''....''deer'' || '''anbopeyt'''....''doe'' |- | '''deuzut'''....''singer'' || '''deuzut / deuztwob'''....''male singer'' || '''deuzuyt''' ....''songstress'' |- | '''tud'''....''child'' || '''twud'''....''son'' || '''tuyd'''....''daughter'' |- | '''dezut'''....''actor'' || '''dezut''' or '''deztwob'''....''male actor'' || '''dezuyt'''....''actress'' |} : For gender specification in pronouns, see [[Mirad Grammar/Pronouns]], below). <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Parts of Speech|Adjectives}}</noinclude> b1athzyeh52zpb1nx3212lqsdkhz3r5 0 417646 4673908 4662029 2026-10-03T17:55:00Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Derived Adverbs */ 4673908 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adverb Types == : Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. There are two types of adverbs in Mirad, namely: ::* derived adverbs ::* inherent adverbs. === Derived Adverbs === : Adverbs can be derived from descriptive adjectives by suffixing the adverbial marker '''y''', eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Derived Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>y</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''yev<u>a</u>'''....''fair'' || '''yeva<u>y</u>'''....''fairly'' |- | '''uj<u>a</u>'''....''final'' || '''uja<u>y</u>'''....''finally'' |- | '''ejn<u>a</u>'''....''new'' || '''ejna<u>y</u>'''....''newly'' |- | '''teyd<u>a</u>'''....''maternal'' || '''teyda<u>y</u>'''....''maternally'' |} : At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the '''ay''' ending: ::* '''Iyt deuze <u>fi</u>.'''....''She sings <u>well</u>.'' ::* '''At upo <u>ig</u>.'''....''I'll come <u>quickly</u>.'' : Otherwise, the full adverb form is used, eg.: ::* '''Yet yefe <u>ugay</u> fiaser.'''....''You people must <u>slowly</u> improve.'' ::* '''At tojo <u>ivay</u>, tea van at aysaye fia tej.'''....''I will die <u>happily</u> knowing that I've had a good life.'' === Inherent Adverbs === : There are some words in the language that are inherently invariable adverbs and do not take the '''ay''' ending, because they are not formed from adjectives, or because they already end in '''ay'''. Here are the most common examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; valign:top; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Adverbs |- valign=top | | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaob'''....''up and down'' || '''(a)yeb¹'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''aoyeb'''....''in and out'' || '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yuib'''....''near and far''|| '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''oyib'''....''not far'' |- valign=top | | '''<u>ab</u>'''....''on''<br>'''<u>ayb</u>'''....''above''<br>'''aob'''....''of and on''|| '''<u>eb</u>'''....''between''<br>'''<u>eyb</u>'''....''among'' || '''<u>ob</u>'''....''off''<br>'''<u>oyb</u>'''....''under'' || '''<u>ub</u>'''....''toward'' || '''<u>ib</u>'''....''away'' |- valign=top | | '''<u>bay</u>'''....''with/along''|| '''<u>bey</u>'''....''by/via'' || '''<u>boy</u>'''....''without'' || '''<u>byu</u>'''....''as far (as)'' || '''<u>byi</u>'''....''since'' |- valigh=top | | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''perhaps'' || '''voy'''....''not''|| || |- valign=top | | '''<u>za</u>'''....''in front (of)''<br>'''zay'''....''ahead''<br>'''zya'''....''throughout'' <br>'''zao'''....''back and forth''|| '''<u>ze</u>'''....''to/at the middle (of)''<br>'''zey'''....''across''<br>'''zye'''....''through'' || '''<u>zo</u>'''....''in back (of)''<br>'''zoy'''....''back'' || '''<u>zu</u>'''....''on the left (of)''<br>'''zui'''....''right and left'' || '''<u>zi</u>'''....''on the right (of)'' |- | || || || '''uz'''....''on a curve'' <br>'''uiz'''....''zigzig''|| '''iz'''....''straight, directly'' |- | ||'''yez'''....''along'' || || '''yuz'''....''around'' || '''yiz'''....''beyond''<br>'''oyiz'''....''not beyond'' |- | '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''ge'''...''equally'' ||'''go'''....''less''|| || |- | '''gay'''....''also'' || '''gey'''....''even'' || '''goy'''....''no more/except'' || || |- | '''gaj'''....''still'' || || '''goj'''....''no longer'' || || |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || || '''yon'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''<u>ja</u>'''....''before''<br>'''<u>jao</u>'''....''before and after''<br>'''jay'''....''already'' || '''je'''....''meanwhile''<br>'''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''<u>jo</u>'''....''after''<br>'''joy'''...''next''|| '''<u>ju</u>'''....''until'' || '''<u>ji</u>'''....''since'' |} : Note 1: '''Ayeb''' is almost always shortened to '''yeb'''. : The words in the above chart that are underlined can also serve as prepositions (See [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions|Prepositions]]). : The words underlined below are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example: ::* '''At teaxa <u>yab</u>.'''....''I looked <u>up</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''At yabteaxa.''') ::* '''Duven et hyej upo <u>zoy</u>?'''.....''Will you ever come <u>back</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...zoyupo?''') ::* '''Et po <u>yib</u> be tej.'''.....''You will go <u>far</u> in life.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''Et yipo...''') ::* '''At <u>voy</u> se eta twed.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your father.'' ::* '''Pu <u>zu</u>, jogat!'''....''Go <u>left</u>, young man!'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''Zupu...''') ::* '''Yat <u>vay</u> sa hum.'''....''We were <u>indeed</u> there.'' ::* '''It pa <u>oyeb</u>.'''....''He went <u>outside</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''It oyepa.''') ::* '''Iyt <u>gay</u> deuze.'''....''She <u>also</u> sings.'' ::* '''Yit yexe <u>gey</u> be moji.'''....''They work <u>even</u> nights.'' ::* '''Ha tobud <u>gaj</u> tujeye.'''....''The baby is <u>still</u> sleeping.'' ::* '''Yat yefe yexer <u>yan</u>.'''....''We must work <u>together</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...yanyexer.''') ::* '''His vey upo <u>yon</u>.'''....''This may come <u>apart</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...yonupo.''') ::* '''Hit se <u>jay</u> toja.'''....''This one is <u>already</u> dead.'' ::* '''Hut se <u>voy</u> toja.'''....''That one is <u>not</u> dead.'' ::* '''At popeyo <u>zya</u>.'''....''I will be traveling <u>all around</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''zyapopeyo.''') ::* '''Et byase <u>yon</u>.'''....''You stand <u>apart</u>.'' ::* '''Van yet besu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Stay <u>together</u>, guys.'' : Many of the above adverbs can be prefixed to verbs, nouns, and even adjectives to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the '''b''' or '''p''' can be assimilated to the first letter of '''per''' (''go'') or '''ber''' (''put'') unless the assimilation causes ambiguity. For example: ::* '''yeb''' (''in'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yeper''' (''to enter'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yebper'''] ::* '''yeb''' (''in'') <big>+</big> '''bexer''' (''hold'') <big>=</big> '''yebbexer''' (''to contain'') ['''yebexer''' < '''yeb''' + '''exer''' = ''to operate on''] ::* '''oyeb''' (''out'') <big>+</big> '''bier''' (''take'') <big>=</big> '''oyebier''' (''to take out'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''oyebbier'''] ::* '''yab''' (''up'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yaper''' (''to rise'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yabper'''] ::* '''yob''' (''up'') <big>+</big> '''kima''' (''sloped'') <big>=</big> '''yobkima''' (''downward-sloping'') ::* '''yub''' (''near'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yuper''' (''to approach'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yubper'''] ::* '''yib''' (''far'') <big>+</big> '''daler''' (''talk'') <big>=</big> '''yibdaler''' (''to telephone'') ::* '''yiz''' (''beyond'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yizper''' (''to surpass'') ::* '''yez''' (''along'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yezper''' (''to go along'') ::* '''yuz''' (''around'') <big>+</big> '''pipen''' (''sailing'') <big>=</big> '''yuzpipen''' (''circumnavigation'') ::* '''zay''' (''ahead'') <big>+</big> '''paser''' (''move'') <big>=</big> '''zaypaser''' (''to advance'') ::* '''zao''' (''back and forth'') <big>+</big> '''baser''' (''move'') <big>=</big> '''zaobaser''' (''to rock'') ::* '''ze''' (''to the middle'') <big>+</big> '''jaga''' (''aged'') <big>=</big> '''zejaga''' (''middle-aged'') ::* '''zye''' (''through'') <big>+</big> '''teatyafwa''' (''visible'') <big>=</big> '''zyeteatyafa''' (''transparent'') ::* '''zey''' (''across'') <big>+</big> '''mep''' (''road'') <big>=</big> '''zeymep''' (''bridge'') ::* '''zoy''' (''back'') <big>+</big> '''nogea''' (''gradual'') <big>=</big> '''zoynogea''' (''retrogressive'') ::* '''iz''' (''straight'') <big>+</big> '''nad''' (''line'') <big>=</big> '''iznad''' (''vector'') ::* '''zi''' (''to the right'') <big>+</big> '''kum''' (''side'') <big>=</big> '''zikum''' (''right side'') ::* '''zu''' (''far'') <big>+</big> '''tuyab''' (''hand'') <big>=</big> '''zutuyaba''' (''left-handed'') ::* '''uz''' (''on a curve'') <big>+</big> '''nad''' (''line'') <big>=</big> '''uznad''' (''curve'') ::* '''yan''' (''together'') <big>+</big> '''up''' (''come'') <big>=</big> '''yanup''' (''a meeting'') ::* '''yon''' (''apart'') <big>+</big> '''ber''' (''put'') <big>=</big> '''yonber''' (''to separate'') == Word Order of Adverbs == : The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.: ::* '''It deuze <u>vi</u>.'''....''He sings <u>beautifully</u>.'' ::* '''Et yefe xer <u>gwa ig</u>.'''....''You must do it <u>as quickly as possible</u>.'' ::* '''Et <u>hyoj</u> ako fika ivan.'''....''You will <u>never</u> gain perfect happiness.'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te'''. (OR) '''At te <u>voy</u>'''. ....''I do <u>not</u> know.'' == Comparison of Adverbs by Degree == : Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. The words ''than'', ''compared to'', and ''as'' are translated by the relative conjunction '''vyel''' (''than, compared to, with respect to'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Comparison of Adverbs by Degree |- ! Positive !! +/=/- Comparative !! +/- Superlative |- valign=top | <br>'''yikay'''....''easily'' || '''<u>ga</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>more</u> easily than''<br>'''<u>ge</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>as</u> easily as''<br>'''<u>go</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>less</u> easily than''|| '''(ha) <u>gwa</u> yikay'''....''(the) <u>most</u> easily''<br><br>'''(ha) <u>gwo</u> yikay'''....''(the) <u>least</u> easily'' |} : Examples: ::* '''At milpe <u>ga fi vyel</u> et.'''....''I swim <u>better than</u> you.'' ::* '''Yat tra hua twob <u>go fi vyel</u> yet.'''....''We knew that man <u>less well than</u> you guys.'' ::* '''Eta tayd deuza <u>ha gwa vi</u> be ha ebyek.'''....''Your wife sang <u>the most beautifully</u> in the competition.'' ::* '''Et xa is <u>ha gwa fu vyel</u> hyet.'''....''You did it <u>the worst of</u> anyone.'' ::* '''Dalu <u>ge azay vyel</u> et yafe.'''....''Speak <u>as loudly as</u> you can.'' <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Adjectives|Determiners}}</noinclude> : Adverbs can be modified by other determiners of degree in noncomparative phrases: ::* '''Hia mampur pape <u>gla ig.</u>'''....''This plane flies <u>very fast</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Huugla vi</u> et deuze!'''....''<u>How beautifully</u> you sing.'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla fi</u> et yafe eker?'''....''<u>How well</u> can you play?'' ::* '''Iyt tyope <u>glay ug</u> hia jubi.'''....''She walks <u>quite slowly</u> these days.'' t2ciqvf6jz6zq78fam64skqm02awkl2 4673910 4673908 2026-10-03T18:06:51Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Adverb Types */ 4673910 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Adverb Types == : Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. There are two types of adverbs in Mirad, namely: ::* derived adverbs ::* inherent adverbs === Derived Adverbs === : Adverbs can be derived from descriptive adjectives by suffixing the adverbial marker '''y''', eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Derived Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''fi<u>a</u>'''....''good'' || '''fia<u>y</u>'''....''well'' |- | '''yev<u>a</u>'''....''fair'' || '''yeva<u>y</u>'''....''fairly'' |- | '''uj<u>a</u>'''....''final'' || '''uja<u>y</u>'''....''finally'' |- | '''ejn<u>a</u>'''....''new'' || '''ejna<u>y</u>'''....''newly'' |- | '''teyd<u>a</u>'''....''maternal'' || '''teyda<u>y</u>'''....''maternally'' |} : At the end of sentences or clauses, common one-syllable-stem adverbs can be shortened by removing the '''ay''' ending: ::* '''Iyt deuze <u>fi</u>.'''....''She sings <u>well</u>.'' ::* '''At upo <u>ig</u>.'''....''I'll come <u>quickly</u>.'' : Otherwise, the full adverb form is used, eg.: ::* '''Yet yefe <u>ugay</u> fiaser.'''....''You people must <u>slowly</u> improve.'' ::* '''At tojo <u>ivay</u>, tea van at aysaye fia tej.'''....''I will die <u>happily</u> knowing that I've had a good life.'' === Inherent Adverbs === : There are some words in the language that are inherently invariable adverbs and do not take the '''ay''' ending, because they are not formed from adjectives, or because they already end in '''ay'''. Here are the most common examples: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; valign:top; font-size:smaller;" |+ Inherent Adverbs |- valign=top | | '''yab'''....''up''<br>'''yaob'''....''up and down'' || '''(a)yeb¹'''....''in''<br>'''oyeb'''....''out''<br>'''aoyeb'''....''in and out'' || '''yob'''....''down'' || '''yub'''....''near''<br>'''yuib'''....''near and far''|| '''yib'''....''far''<br>'''oyib'''....''not far'' |- valign=top | | '''<u>ab</u>'''....''on''<br>'''<u>ayb</u>'''....''above''<br>'''aob'''....''of and on''|| '''<u>eb</u>'''....''between''<br>'''<u>eyb</u>'''....''among'' || '''<u>ob</u>'''....''off''<br>'''<u>oyb</u>'''....''under'' || '''<u>ub</u>'''....''toward'' || '''<u>ib</u>'''....''away'' |- valign=top | | '''<u>bay</u>'''....''with/along''|| '''<u>bey</u>'''....''by/via'' || '''<u>boy</u>'''....''without'' || '''<u>byu</u>'''....''as far (as)'' || '''<u>byi</u>'''....''since'' |- valigh=top | | '''vay'''....''indeed'' || '''vey'''....''perhaps'' || '''voy'''....''not''|| || |- valign=top | | '''<u>za</u>'''....''in front (of)''<br>'''zay'''....''ahead''<br>'''zya'''....''throughout'' <br>'''zao'''....''back and forth''|| '''<u>ze</u>'''....''to/at the middle (of)''<br>'''zey'''....''across''<br>'''zye'''....''through'' || '''<u>zo</u>'''....''in back (of)''<br>'''zoy'''....''back'' || '''<u>zu</u>'''....''on the left (of)''<br>'''zui'''....''right and left'' || '''<u>zi</u>'''....''on the right (of)'' |- | || || || '''uz'''....''on a curve'' <br>'''uiz'''....''zigzig''|| '''iz'''....''straight, directly'' |- | ||<u>'''yez'''</u>....''along'' || || <u>'''yuz'''</u>....''around'' || <u>'''yiz'''</u>....''beyond''<br><u>'''oyiz'''</u>....''not beyond'' |- | '''ga'''....''more''<br>'''gao'''....''more or less'' || '''ge'''...''equally'' ||'''go'''....''less''|| || |- | '''gay'''....''also'' || '''gey'''....''even'' || '''goy'''....''no more/except'' || || |- | '''gaj'''....''still'' || || '''goj'''....''no longer'' || || |- | '''yan'''....''together'' || || '''yon'''....''apart'' || || |- | '''<u>ja</u>'''....''before''<br>'''<u>jao</u>'''....''before and after''<br>'''jay'''....''already'' || <u>'''je'''</u>....''during''<br>'''jey'''....''meanwhile'' || '''<u>jo</u>'''....''after''<br>'''joy'''...''next''|| '''<u>ju</u>'''....''until'' || '''<u>ji</u>'''....''since'' |- | '''yib'''....''far''² || || <u>'''yub'''</iu>....''near''² |} : Note 1: '''Ayeb''' is almost always shortened to '''yeb'''. : Note 2: '''Yibay''' means '''distantly''; '''yubay''' means ''approxiately, nearly'' : The words in the above chart that are underlined can also serve as prepositions (See [[Mirad Grammar/Prepositions|Prepositions]]). : The words underlined below are considered adverbial because they can modify verbs. For example: ::* '''At teaxa <u>yab</u>.'''....''I looked <u>up</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''At yabteaxa.''') ::* '''Duven et hyej upo <u>zoy</u>?'''.....''Will you ever come <u>back</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...zoyupo?''') ::* '''Et po <u>yib</u> be tej.'''.....''You will go <u>far</u> in life.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''Et yipo...''') ::* '''At <u>voy</u> se eta twed.'''....''I am <u>not</u> your father.'' ::* '''Pu <u>zu</u>, jogat!'''....''Go <u>left</u>, young man!'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''Zupu...''') ::* '''Yat <u>vay</u> sa hum.'''....''We were <u>indeed</u> there.'' ::* '''It pa <u>oyeb</u>.'''....''He went <u>outside</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''It oyepa.''') ::* '''Iyt <u>gay</u> deuze.'''....''She <u>also</u> sings.'' ::* '''Yit yexe <u>gey</u> be moji.'''....''They work <u>even</u> nights.'' ::* '''Ha tobud <u>gaj</u> tujeye.'''....''The baby is <u>still</u> sleeping.'' ::* '''Yat yefe yexer <u>yan</u>.'''....''We must work <u>together</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...yanyexer.''') ::* '''His vey upo <u>yon</u>.'''....''This may come <u>apart</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''...yonupo.''') ::* '''Hit se <u>jay</u> toja.'''....''This one is <u>already</u> dead.'' ::* '''Hut se <u>voy</u> toja.'''....''That one is <u>not</u> dead.'' ::* '''At popeyo <u>zya</u>.'''....''I will be traveling <u>all around</u>.'' &nbsp;&nbsp;(= '''zyapopeyo.''') ::* '''Et byase <u>yon</u>.'''....''You stand <u>apart</u>.'' ::* '''Van yet besu <u>yan</u>.'''....''Stay <u>together</u>, guys.'' : Many of the above adverbs can be prefixed to verbs, nouns, and even adjectives to indicate motion in various directions. (Keep in mind that the '''b''' or '''p''' can be assimilated to the first letter of '''per''' (''go'') or '''ber''' (''put'') unless the assimilation causes ambiguity. For example: ::* '''yeb''' (''in'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yeper''' (''to enter'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yebper'''] ::* '''yeb''' (''in'') <big>+</big> '''bexer''' (''hold'') <big>=</big> '''yebbexer''' (''to contain'') ['''yebexer''' < '''yeb''' + '''exer''' = ''to operate on''] ::* '''oyeb''' (''out'') <big>+</big> '''bier''' (''take'') <big>=</big> '''oyebier''' (''to take out'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''oyebbier'''] ::* '''yab''' (''up'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yaper''' (''to rise'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yabper'''] ::* '''yob''' (''up'') <big>+</big> '''kima''' (''sloped'') <big>=</big> '''yobkima''' (''downward-sloping'') ::* '''yub''' (''near'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yuper''' (''to approach'')&nbsp;&nbsp;[NOT: '''yubper'''] ::* '''yib''' (''far'') <big>+</big> '''daler''' (''talk'') <big>=</big> '''yibdaler''' (''to telephone'') ::* '''yiz''' (''beyond'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yizper''' (''to surpass'') ::* '''yez''' (''along'') <big>+</big> '''per''' (''go'') <big>=</big> '''yezper''' (''to go along'') ::* '''yuz''' (''around'') <big>+</big> '''pipen''' (''sailing'') <big>=</big> '''yuzpipen''' (''circumnavigation'') ::* '''zay''' (''ahead'') <big>+</big> '''paser''' (''move'') <big>=</big> '''zaypaser''' (''to advance'') ::* '''zao''' (''back and forth'') <big>+</big> '''baser''' (''move'') <big>=</big> '''zaobaser''' (''to rock'') ::* '''ze''' (''to the middle'') <big>+</big> '''jaga''' (''aged'') <big>=</big> '''zejaga''' (''middle-aged'') ::* '''zye''' (''through'') <big>+</big> '''teatyafwa''' (''visible'') <big>=</big> '''zyeteatyafa''' (''transparent'') ::* '''zey''' (''across'') <big>+</big> '''mep''' (''road'') <big>=</big> '''zeymep''' (''bridge'') ::* '''zoy''' (''back'') <big>+</big> '''nogea''' (''gradual'') <big>=</big> '''zoynogea''' (''retrogressive'') ::* '''iz''' (''straight'') <big>+</big> '''nad''' (''line'') <big>=</big> '''iznad''' (''vector'') ::* '''zi''' (''to the right'') <big>+</big> '''kum''' (''side'') <big>=</big> '''zikum''' (''right side'') ::* '''zu''' (''far'') <big>+</big> '''tuyab''' (''hand'') <big>=</big> '''zutuyaba''' (''left-handed'') ::* '''uz''' (''on a curve'') <big>+</big> '''nad''' (''line'') <big>=</big> '''uznad''' (''curve'') ::* '''yan''' (''together'') <big>+</big> '''up''' (''come'') <big>=</big> '''yanup''' (''a meeting'') ::* '''yon''' (''apart'') <big>+</big> '''ber''' (''put'') <big>=</big> '''yonber''' (''to separate'') == Word Order of Adverbs == : The word order of adverbs is fairly free, as in English. But, to avoid ambiguity, the adverb should be placed immediately before or after the sentence element it modifies, eg.: ::* '''It deuze <u>vi</u>.'''....''He sings <u>beautifully</u>.'' ::* '''Et yefe xer <u>gwa ig</u>.'''....''You must do it <u>as quickly as possible</u>.'' ::* '''Et <u>hyoj</u> ako fika ivan.'''....''You will <u>never</u> gain perfect happiness.'' ::* '''At <u>voy</u> te'''. (OR) '''At te <u>voy</u>'''. ....''I do <u>not</u> know.'' == Comparison of Adverbs by Degree == : Adverbs can be compared just as adjectives with the use of [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Quantitative Determiners|Quantitative Determiners]]. The words ''than'', ''compared to'', and ''as'' are translated by the relative conjunction '''vyel''' (''than, compared to, with respect to'') :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Comparison of Adverbs by Degree |- ! Positive !! +/=/- Comparative !! +/- Superlative |- valign=top | <br>'''yikay'''....''easily'' || '''<u>ga</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>more</u> easily than''<br>'''<u>ge</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>as</u> easily as''<br>'''<u>go</u> yikay vyel'''....''<u>less</u> easily than''|| '''(ha) <u>gwa</u> yikay'''....''(the) <u>most</u> easily''<br><br>'''(ha) <u>gwo</u> yikay'''....''(the) <u>least</u> easily'' |} : Examples: ::* '''At milpe <u>ga fi vyel</u> et.'''....''I swim <u>better than</u> you.'' ::* '''Yat tra hua twob <u>go fi vyel</u> yet.'''....''We knew that man <u>less well than</u> you guys.'' ::* '''Eta tayd deuza <u>ha gwa vi</u> be ha ebyek.'''....''Your wife sang <u>the most beautifully</u> in the competition.'' ::* '''Et xa is <u>ha gwa fu vyel</u> hyet.'''....''You did it <u>the worst of</u> anyone.'' ::* '''Dalu <u>ge azay vyel</u> et yafe.'''....''Speak <u>as loudly as</u> you can.'' <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Adjectives|Determiners}}</noinclude> : Adverbs can be modified by other determiners of degree in noncomparative phrases: ::* '''Hia mampur pape <u>gla ig.</u>'''....''This plane flies <u>very fast</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Huugla vi</u> et deuze!'''....''<u>How beautifully</u> you sing.'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla fi</u> et yafe eker?'''....''<u>How well</u> can you play?'' ::* '''Iyt tyope <u>glay ug</u> hia jubi.'''....''She walks <u>quite slowly</u> these days.'' fr8g0t8zzgkpa7m0idbmcd2z1xu4fbi 0 417648 4673929 4672842 2026-10-03T20:04:23Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Gender */ 4673929 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu is bu <u>at</u>.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can also be expressed in Mirad as '''Du din bu at.''' (''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''Hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''Hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : This reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} mj3keq773xgnazjhzkgzaf1tjcjhylo 4673932 4673929 2026-10-03T20:10:22Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Case */ 4673932 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu <u>at</u> is.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can also be expressed in Mirad as '''Du at din.''' or '''Du din bu at.'''(''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the direct object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''Hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''Hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : This reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 7r243cb8lvf6zrstsrku65625383mmu 4673935 4673932 2026-10-03T20:12:08Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Case */ 4673935 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu <u>at</u> is.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can be expressed in Mirad as '''Du at din.''' or '''Du din bu at.'''(''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the indirect object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''Hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''Hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : This reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} ov2coz1saz3r6yn1kwp3edx3rkfrlbl 4673938 4673935 2026-10-03T20:17:57Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements */ 4673938 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu <u>at</u> is.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can be expressed in Mirad as '''Du at din.''' or '''Du din bu at.'''(''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the indirect object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' ::* '''Duhoglati bi yet?'''....''How many of you?'' ::* '''Gwasi bi yis'''....''Most of them'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : This reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 5g61d30k4zbo27htv065jfvtfk77uuo 4673941 4673938 2026-10-03T20:22:01Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Reciprocal Personal Pronouns */ 4673941 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu <u>at</u> is.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can be expressed in Mirad as '''Du at din.''' or '''Du din bu at.'''(''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the indirect object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' ::* '''Duhoglati bi yet?'''....''How many of you?'' ::* '''Gwasi bi yis'''....''Most of them'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 077df3wf63tab5ybho2o6sod9r97v16 4673942 4673941 2026-10-03T20:23:34Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns */ 4673942 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu <u>at</u> is.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can be expressed in Mirad as '''Du at din.''' or '''Du din bu at.'''(''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the indirect object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' ::* '''Duhoglati bi yet?'''....''How many of you?'' ::* '''Gwasi bi yis'''....''Most of them'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} psqvzpqhs4xge11ecz5i7y30l8vjw8e 4673943 4673942 2026-10-03T20:24:51Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Translating various uses of it in English */ 4673943 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Pronoun Categories == : Pronouns are words that substitute for explicit nouns. For example, the pronoun ''I'' stands for ''the person standing at this place''. The pronoun ''this'' stands for ''the thing or person nearest''. The pronoun ''big one'' stands for a person or thing of some stature. : In this grammar, pronouns are divided into three categories: ::* '''''personal pronouns''''' ::* '''''deictic determiners''''' ::* '''''deadjectival pronouns''''' : Deictic determiners like ''who?, this, that, such a, all, anything'' are discussed in a later chapter called [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : Deadjectival pronouns are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Adjectives|Adjectives]], because they are basically pronouns built from an adjective or adjective stem, such as: ::* '''fia'''....''good'' ::* '''fiat'''....''a good guy'' ::* '''fias'''....''a good thing'' ::* '''ha gwa fiasi'''....''the best ones'' : This chapter discusses '''''personal pronouns'''''. == Personal Pronouns == : In Mirad, '''''personal pronouns''''' can be classified by the following features: ::* '''''person''''' :::* 1st :::* 2nd :::* 1st & 2nd hybrid :::* 3rd ::* '''''specificity''''' :::* person-specific :::* generic :::* reciprocal :::* reflexive ::* '''''gender''''' :::* gender-neutral :::* masculine :::* feminine ::* '''''case''''' :::* subject :::* direct object :::* indirect object ::* '''''animacy''''' :::* animate :::* inanimate ::* '''''other''''' :::* emphatic :::* possessive [[File:EGGI.svg|thumb]] : The chart below shows the principal '''''personal pronouns''''', but does not include hybrid, reciprocal, emphatic, and possessive forms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Personal Pronouns |- ! Person ! Type ! Animacy ! Gender ! Singular ! Plural |- ! 1st ! rowspan=6|Specific ! rowspan=5|Animate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''at'''....''I, me'' | '''yat'''....''we, us'' |- ! 2nd | '''et'''....''you'' | '''yet'''....''you, you all'' |- ! rowspan=6|3rd | '''it'''....''he, she, him, her'' | '''yit'''....''they, them'' |- ! Masculine | '''wit'''....''he, him'' | |- ! Feminine | '''iyt'''....''she, her'' | |- ! Inanimate ! rowspan=3|Neutral | '''is'''....''it'' | '''yis'''....''they, them'' |- ! Generic ! rowspan=2|Animate | '''ot'''....''one, they'' | '''yot'''....''people'' |- ! Reflexive | '''ut'''....''self'' | '''yut'''....''selves'' |} === Animacy === : If a Mirad pronoun ends in '''-t''', the pronoun is animate. If the pronoun ends in '''-s''', the pronoun is inanimate. : The Mirad 3rd person specific animate pronouns '''it''' (he/she), '''iyt''' (she), '''wit''' (he), and '''yit''' can refer to any animate or pseudo-animate creatures such as animals, babies, dolls, angels, gods, or monsters. However, Mirad '''it''' cannot refer to non-animate things such as tables, ideas, abstractions, plants, etc. Instead, the 3rd person inanimate pronoun '''is''' (singular) or '''yis''' (plural) is used. A deictic determiner (''this/that, these/those'') can also be used in such cases, as discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], eg.: ::* '''Eta dom se via. At iyfe <u>is</u>.'''....''You house is beautiful. I like <u>it</u>.'' ::* '''Ata dyun se Pierre. <u>Is</u> se Feroda.'''....''My name is Pierre. <u>It</u>'s French.'' ::* '''Tej se vira, oy <u>is</u> uje gra ig.'''....''Life is wonderful, but <u>it</u> ends too soon.'' ::* '''Teaxu hua amaryop. <u>Has</u> se via.'''....''Look at that sunset. <u>It</u> (=''the thing'') is beautiful.'' In this case, '''is''' and the determiner '''has''' are synonymous. : If the English word '''they''' or '''them''' refers to inanimate objects, concepts, or abstractions, then the Mirad 3rd person inanimate plural pronoun '''isi''' is used, eg.: ::* '''At ujba dyeer ha dyesi. <u>Isi</u> sa gla fia.'''....''I finished reading the books. <u>They</u> were very good.'' : Note that the endings '''-t''' and '''-s''' alternate regularly in the language for things and persons. === Gender === : Personal pronouns are gender-neutral, except that the 3rd singular animate pronoun '''it''' (''he/she'') can be made to express gender by prefixing '''w''' for masculine or inserting '''y''' before the final '''t''' for feminine. This is optional and only used where needed to differentiate referents. ::* '''it'''....''he/she/him/her'' ::* '''iyt'''....''she/her'' ::* '''wit'''....''he/him'' ::* '''ita'''....''his/her'' ::* '''iyta'''....''her'' ::* '''wita'''....''his'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' ::* '''iuyt'''....''herself'' ::* '''wiut'''....''himself'' ::* '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''iuyta'''....''her own'' ::* '''wiuta'''....''his own'' : In rare cases, distinguishing other personal pronouns for gender is useful and possible: ::* '''wat'''....''I/me, as a male'' ::* '''ayt'''....''I/me, as a female'' ::* '''eyt'''....''you, a female'' ::* '''yayt'''....''we females'' (or: '''yatoybi''') ::* '''yatwobi'''....''we guys'' === Number === : All '''''plural''''' personal pronouns begin with '''y''': ::* '''yat'''....''we, us'' ::* '''yet'''....''you (all)'' ::* '''yit'''....''they, them (m. or f.)'' ::* '''yot'''....''people'' ::* '''yut'''....''themselves'' ::* '''yis'''....''they, them (things)'' === Case === : Personal pronouns in Mirad do not express case with inflected forms such as ''he'' vs. ''him'' or ''she'' vs. ''her'', or ''they'' vs. ''them'' in English. Rather, the position in the sentence or prepositions do the job. ::* '''Et teate at.'''....''<u>You</u> see me.'' (subject) ::* '''At teate <u>et</u>.'''....''I see you.'' (direct object) ::* '''<u>Yat</u> teate yit.'''....''We see them.'' (subject) ::* '''Yit teaate <u>yat</u>.'''....''They see us.'' (direct object) ::* '''Du <u>at</u> din.'''....''Tell <u>me</u> a story.'' (indirect object) ::* '''Buu <u>at</u> is.'''....''Give it to <u>me</u>.'' (indirect object) : ''Tell me a story.'' can be expressed in Mirad as '''Du at din.''' or '''Du din bu at.'''(''Tell a story to me.''). Some verbs in Mirad like '''der''' (''to tell''), '''buer''' (''to give''), and '''uper''' (''to come'') have a built-in dative notion and do not require the preposition '''bu''' (''to'') if the indirect object pronoun immediately follows the verb. === Expressing Pronouns with Quantitative Elements === : Here are some possible personal pronouns with quantitative elements: ::* '''awat bi yat'''....''one of us'' ::* '''ewat bi yet'''....''two of you'' ::* '''hyaewat bi yit'''....''both of them'' ::* '''hya yat'''....''we/us all'' ::* '''anay wet'''....''only you (m.)'' ::* '''duhot bi yet?'''....''who of you?'' ::* '''hyawas se fia.'''....''Each one is good.'' ::* '''Duhoglati bi yet?'''....''How many of you?'' ::* '''Gwasi bi yis'''....''Most of them'' : The above terms involve deictic determiners, which are discussed in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]], as well as numbers, discussed in [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers|Numbers]]. === Generic Pronouns === : The third person '''''generic''''' pronouns '''ot''' and '''yot''' are used as in English ''one'' and ''they, people'' (meaning unspecifed persons), as in the following examples: ::* '''<u>Ot</u> yefe xer ha yakwas.'''....''<u>One</u> must do what is expected.'' ::* '''<u>Yot</u> de van et vyode hyoj.'''....''<u>They/People</u> say you never lie.'' === Hybrid Pronouns === : Mirad offers two special hybrid 1st & 2nd person pronouns, '''aet''' and '''ayet''', which mean, respectively, ''I and you'' (dual) and ''I and you (plural)''. These are used only where the situation calls for it, eg.: ::* '''<u>Aet</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>You and I</u> should get married.'' ::* '''<u>Ayet</u> efe yanbeser.'''....''<u>You people and I</u> need to stick together.'' === Reflexive Personal Pronouns === : Reflexive personal pronouns like English ''myself, yourself, etc.'' are formed by postfixing a '''u''' just before the final '''t'''. Reflexive personal pronouns are invariable for gender. Translating '''iut''' as ''herself'' depends on the context. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Reflexive Pronouns |- ! Person !! Singular !! Plural |- !row=1| 1st specific animate | '''aut'''....''myself'' || '''yaut'''....''ourselves'' |- !row=1| 2nd specific animate | '''eut'''....''yourself'' || '''yeut'''....''yourselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific animate | '''iut'''....''himself/herself'' || '''yiut'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d specific inanimate | '''ius'''....''itself'' || '''yius'''....''themselves'' |- !row=1| 3d generic animate | '''out'''....''oneself'' || '''yout'''....''people themselves'' |} : Reflexive pronouns do not have gendered forms, because they hearken back to personal pronouns which can be gendered. : The above reflexive pronouns can be adjectivized, as in the following: ::* '''<u>auta</u> tam'''....''<u>my own</u> house'' ::* '''<u>yiuta</u> byen'''....''<u>their own</u> way'' ::* '''<u>iusa</u> volz'''....''<u>its own</u> color'' : These in turn can be pronominalized, as in the following: ::* '''At bese yub bi <u>autati</u>.'''....''I stay nearby <u>my own (people)</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Eutas</u> se ga fia.'''....''<u>Your own</u> is better.'' ::* '''Iyt bexe <u>iutasi</u>.'''....''She has <u>her own things</u>.'' : Examples of personal pronoun usage: ::* '''At yafe teater <u>aut</u> yeb ha sinzyef.'''....''I can see <u>myself</u> in the mirror.'' ::* '''Iyt yubteaxa <u>iut</u>.'''....''She examined <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Tru <u>eut</u>!'''....''Know <u>thyself</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> yeyfe tadser.'''....''<u>We</u> should get married.'' ::* '''Iyt vey tojbo<u> iut</u>.'''....''She may kill <u>herself</u>.'' ::* '''Ot yefe ifer <u>out</u>.'''....''One must love <u>oneself</u>.'' ::* '''Yot glaxag voy ife <u>yout</u>.'''....''People often don't love <u>themselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet ufe <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You (people) hate <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''Yet yeyfe yovser <u>yeut</u>.'''....''You people should be ashamed of <u>yourselves</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yat</u> ufe yet.'''....''<u>We </u> hate you (people).'' ::* '''Upu eker bay <u>yat</u>.'''....''Come play with <u>us</u>.'' ::* '''At aut voy movie.'''....''<u>I myself</u> do not smoke.'' : The reflexive pronoun '''ut'''....''self'' can sometimes be prefixed (with no variation in gender or number) to a verb to form a reflexive version of that verb, or it can be prefixed to other parts of speech to mean ''auto-'', or ''self-'', eg.: ::* '''tojber'''....''kill'' <big>→</big> '''uttojber'''....''commit suicide'' ::* '''vyixer'''....''clean'' <big>→</big> '''utvyixer'''....''wash up, clean oneself, self-clean'' ::* '''exer'''....''function'' <big>→</big> '''utexer'''....''function automatically, self-run'' ::* '''izber'''....''pilot'' <big>→</big> '''utizber'''....''auto-pilot, self-drive'' ::* '''exut'''....''operator'' <big>→</big> '''utexut'''....''automaton'' ::* '''deber'''....''rule'' <big>→</big> '''utdebea'''....''autocratic, self-ruling'' ::* '''tejdin'''....''biography'' <big>→</big> '''uttejdin'''....''autobiography'' ::* '''fider'''....''praise'' <big>→</big> '''utfider'''....''boast''&nbsp;&nbsp; (= ''self-praise'') === Emphatic Personal Pronouns === : '''''Emphatic personal pronouns''''' can be formed by following the personal pronoun with the reflexive correspondent, eg.: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Emphatic Personal Pronouns |- ! Person !! Gender !! Singular !! Plural |- ! 1st !! rowspan=3| neutral | '''at aut'''....''I myself, me myself'' || '''yat yaut'''....''we ourselves, us ourselves'' |- ! 2nd | '''et eut'''....''you yourself'' || '''yet yeut'''....''you yourselves'' |- !rowspan=3| 3rd | '''it iut'''....''the person him or herself''|| '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! masculine |'''wit iut'''....''he himself''|| '''wit wiut'''....''they themselves'' |- ! feminine |'''iyt iut'''....''she herself'' || '''yit yiut'''....''they themselves'' |} Note: Gender is not expressed in personal reflexive pronouns. Only the personal specific pronouns express gender, and then only optionally. : Examples: ::* '''<u>At aut</u> voy vatexe Tot.'''....''<u>I myself</u> don't believe in God.'' ::* '''At jateate <u>yet yeut</u> be hua dezyem.'''....''I foresee <u>you yourselves</u> on that stage.'' ::* '''<u>Iyt iut</u> voy sa hum.'''....''<u>She herself</u> was not there.'' === Reciprocal Personal Pronouns === : There are two reciprocal personal pronouns in Mirad, one animate and the other inanimate. Both are hybrids of proximal and distal deictic pronouns: ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another'' (persons) < '''hyut'''....''the other person'' + ''hyit''....''the same person'' ::* '''hyuis'''....''one another'' (things) < '''hyus'''....''the other thing'' + '''hyis'''....''the same thing'' : These are invariable pronouns and do not express gender or number. ::* '''Yat yefe ifer <u>hyuit</u>.'''....''We must love <u>one another</u>.'' ::* '''Ha mari yanpyexa <u>hyuis</u>.'''....''The stars collided into <u>one another</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can be converted to pronominal determiners by suffixing '''a''', as in '''hyuita'''....''one another's, mutual, reciprocal'': ::* '''Yat tobweti yefe fiyzaxer <u>hyuita</u> fwasi.'''....''We guys must respect <u>one another's</u> wishes.'' ::* '''Yata hyaydi se <u>hyuisa</u>.'''....''Our thanks are <u>mutual</u>.'' : These reciprocal pronouns can sometimes be used as a prefix, eg.: ::* '''Yat yefe <u>hyuitifer</u>.'''....''We must <u>love one another</u>.'' ::* '''Hyuitfiyz'''....''mutual respect'' ::* '''Hyuisloyexen'''....''mutual destruction.'' === Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns === : '''''Possessive adjectives''''' are derived from pronouns by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the end of the pronoun, as follows: ::* '''at'''....''I, me''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''ata'''....''my'' ::* '''aut'''....''myself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''auta'''....''my own'' ::* '''yat'''....''we, us''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yata'''....''our'' ::* '''yaut'''....''ourselves''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''yauta'''....''our own'' ::* '''iut'''....''himself/herself''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''iuta'''....''his/her own'' ::* '''hyuit'''....''one another''&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <big>→</big> '''hyuita'''....''one another's'' : In turn, these possessive adjectives can be pronominalized with singular and plural forms referring to things. The following chart shows these forms: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Possessive Adjectives and Pronouns |- ! rowspan=2|Adjective ! colspan=4|Pronoun |- ! Singular (thing) ! Plural (things) |- |'''ata'''....''my'' |'''atas'''....''mine'' |'''atasi'''....''mine'' |- |'''auta'''....''my own'' |'''autas'''....''your own'' |'''autasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''aeuta'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutas'''....''your and my own, our own'' |'''aeutasi'''....''your and mine, our own'' |- |'''eta'''....''your'' |'''etas'''....''yours'' |'''etasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''euta'''....''your own'' |'''eutas'''....''your own'' |'''eutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''ita'''....''his/her'' |'''itas'''....''his/hers'' |'''itasi'''....''his/hers'' |- |'''iuta'''....''his/her own'' |'''iutas'''....''his/hers own'' |'''iutasi'''....''his/hers own'' |- |'''wita'''....''his'' |'''witas'''....''his'' |'''witasi'''....''his'' |- |'''wiuta'''....''his own'' |'''wiutas'''....''his own'' |'''wiutasi'''....''his own'' |- |'''iyta'''....''her'' |'''iytas'''....''hers'' |'''iytasi'''....''hers'' |- |'''iuyta'''....''her own'' |'''iuytas'''....''her own'' |'''iuytasi'''....''her own'' |- |'''hyuita'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitas'''....''one another's'' |'''hyuitasi'''....''one another's'' |- |'''isa'''....''its'' |'''isas'''....''its'' |'''isasi'''....''its'' |- |'''iusa'''....''its own'' |'''iusas'''....''its own'' |'''iusasi'''....''its own'' |- |'''ota'''....''one's'' |'''otas'''....''one's'' |'''otasi'''....''one's'' |- |'''outa'''....''one's own'' |'''outas'''....''one's own'' |'''outasi'''....''one's own'' |- |'''yata'''....''our'' |'''yatas'''....''ours'' |'''yatasi'''....''ours'' |- |'''yauta'''....''our own'' |'''yautas'''....''our own'' |'''yautasi'''....''our own'' |- |'''yaeta'''....''your and ours'' |'''yaetas'''....''yours and ours'' |'''yaetasi'''....''yours and ours'' |- |'''yaeuta'''....''your and our own'' |'''yaeutas'''....''yours and our own'' |'''yaeutasi'''....''yours and our own'' |- |'''yeta'''....''your'' |'''yetas'''....''yours'' |'''yetasi'''....''yours'' |- |'''yeuta'''....''your own'' |'''yeutas'''....''your own'' |'''yeutasi'''....''your own'' |- |'''yita'''....''their'' |'''yitas'''....''theirs'' |'''yitasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiuta'''....''their own'' |'''yiutas'''....''their own'' |'''yiutasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yisa'''....''their'' |'''yisas'''....''theirs'' |'''yisasi'''....''theirs'' |- |'''yiusa'''....''their own'' |'''yiusas'''....''their own'' |'''yiusasi'''....''their own'' |- |'''yota'''....''people's'' |'''yotas'''....''people's'' |'''yotasi'''....''people's'' |- |'''youta'''....''people's own'' |'''youtas'''....''people's own'' |'''youtasi'''....''people's own'' |} : Examples of possessive adjectives and pronouns in use. ::* '''<u>Ata</u> tej se fia.'''....''<u>My</u> life is good.'' ::* '''<u>Yata</u> twed...'''....''<u>Our</u> father...'' ::* '''<u>Ota</u> fyadili yeyfe ser dola.'''....''<u>One&apos;s</u> prayers should be silent.'' ::* '''At voy teata <u>ita</u> dyes.'''....''I did not see <u>his/her</u> book.'' ::* '''At tre <u>wita</u> twed.'''....''I know <u>his</u> father.'' ::* '''Yat yefe ovmasber <u>yatasi</u>.'''....''We must protect <u>our own [pl. things]</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Etasi</u> naze ga vyel <u>atasi</u>.'''....''<u>Yours</u> are worth more than <u>mine</u>.'' ::* '''Biku <u>yeutasi</u>.'''....''You guys, mind <u>your own</u> business (= things).'' ::* '''Yat toybeti fe ayser <u>yauta</u> nig.'''....''We gals want to have <u>our own</u> space.'' ::* '''Hia vafil bayse <u>iusa</u> toleuz.'''....''This wine has <u>its own</u> taste.'' : In rare cases, inanimate possessive pronouns like, say, '''yatasi''' (''our own [things]'') can be animated by changing the '''s''' to a '''t''', yielding '''yata<u>t</u>i''' (''our own [people]''), as in '''Ha Feromati ife vafil. <u>Yatati</u> gey.'''....''The French people love wine. <u>Ours</u> do too.'' === Translating various uses of ''it'' in English === : When translating English ''it'' referring to animate creatures such as babies, animals, dolls, angels, ghosts, and monsters, the Mirad third person animate personal pronouns '''it''' ''he/she/it'', '''iyt''' ''she'', or '''wit''' ''he'' is used, eg: ::* '''At eke bay ha epet hosav at iyfe <u>it / iyt / wit</u>.'''....''I play with the dog because I like <u>it / her / him</u>.'' : When translating English ''it'' referring to an inanimate object or abstraction, the inanimate personal pronoun '''is''' can be used. ::* '''At teasa ha dyezun ay at iyfa <u>is</u> gla.'''....''I saw the movie and I liked <u>it</u> a lot.'' ::* '''Ha mes sa yija oy at voy ta <u>is</u>.'''....''The door was open but I didn't know <u>it</u>.'' : Deictic determiners like ''this'' and ''that'' can also be used. Read more about that in the chapter on [[Mirad_Grammar/Determiners|Determiners]]. : If ''it'' introduces a non-previously-mentioned abstraction in English or has no antecedent, then the ''it'' is left unexpressed in the Mirad equivalent sentence. For example: ::* '''Mamilo.'''....''<u>It</u> will rain.'' ( = ''Will rain.'') ::* '''Se fia van et upa.'''....''<u>It</u> is good that you came.'' ( = ''Is good that you came.'') ::* '''Sa via jub bay et.'''....''<u>It</u> was a beautiful day with you.'' ( = ''Was a beautiful day...'') ::* '''Voy se yuka yaprer hia memyaz.'''....''<u>It</u> is not easy to climb this mountain.'' ( = ''Is not easy...'') <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Numbers|Verbs}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 6ghqvfydmivlq9h6ybwqvjsvvzyj18k 0 417864 4673887 4671989 2026-10-03T15:48:18Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Vocabulary Built on Native Roots */ 4673887 wikitext text/x-wiki == Vocabulary Built on Native Roots == <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : In English, we have many words like ''ichthyology'', which baffle younger speakers of the language, because they are borrowed from a foreign language, in this case, classical Greek. This word, which could just as easily and more rationally be the Anglicized ''fishlore'', means the science of fish. If a word in English relates to fish, why is ''fish'' not a part of the word? Even for modern day Greeks to understand the word '''ιχθυολογία (ichthyologia)''', they have to know the ancient root '''ιχθύς (ichthys)''' for ''fish'', which has long been supplanted by the current word everyone uses, '''ψάρι (psari)'''. What I'm saying is that the vocabulary of English, as is the case in many other natural languages, is a hodgepodge of borrowings, irregular spellings, and words cobbled from obscure roots that have little recognizability for the average speaker. : While English is a melting pot of words, there are some languages that do less borrowing and less non-discriminate formation of words that do not associate with one another through some root or pattern. Icelandic, for example, does not borrow very much from other languages and its words are formed using roots familiar to speakers of that language. The Icelandic word for ''library'' is '''bokasafn''', which literally, is ''book collection ( = saving)''. Any child in that language knows what the word means immediately, because it is composed of root words that are obvious. The simple English word ''library'' has nothing to do with the English word ''book'', just as ''cerebral'' has nothing to do with the word ''brain''. : Arabic, by contrast, is a language that has a system of word-building based on a rational association of consonants and vowel patterns, such that most words relating to books and writing contain the three consonants '''k-t-b'''. Over the centuries, the system has been polluted with irregularities, but at least the consciousness of associations of words based on a root pattern is there and is still used today to coin new words. : In Turkish, the bulk of words having to do with ''knowledge'' contain the native root '''bil-''' (''know''). Because of this, most of these words will be grouped on the same pages in a dictionary. For example: '''bildik''' ''known'', '''bildirim''' ''announcement'', '''bilecen''' ''know-it-all'', '''bilgi''' ''knowledge'', '''bilgili''' ''knowledgeable'', '''bilgin''' ''scholar'', etc. A word such as ''unknowability'' inevitably contains the root '''bil''' and can be learned fairly easily by a young student of the language. : Mirad has a vocabulary-building system with approximately 500 morphemes (word atoms or vocabulary building blocks) that are used to form derived words in the same sense family in accordance with a set of word-building rules. Words that are related semantically will share the same bulk of letters. (This type of language is called [[wikt:oligosynthetic|oligosynthetic]]. For example, '''iva''' (''happy''), '''ivla''' (''glad''), and '''ivra''' (''delighted'') share the root morpheme '''iv-''' and differ only in one letter. The opposite of happy is derived by switching the vowel in the root morpheme from '''i''' to the negative counterpart '''u''', such that '''uva''' means ''sad''. Similarly, '''uvla''' (''woeful'') and '''uvra''' (''tragic'') are opposite counterparts to the extended '''iv-''' words. : In Mirad, every letter of a word has some semantic or grammatical function. All words are part of a system. If you know the word for ''to lengthen'', then you automatically know the word for ''to shorten''. The rules for deriving new words from existing words are consistent across the language. In Mirad, there is no such thing as irregular conjugation of verbs as in English ''write, wrote, written''. Nouns are pluralized in one way only across the board, unlike the multiple, unpredictable ways German and Arabic words are pluralized. Prepositions have one meaning, as contrasted with the multiple, inscrutable meanings of Russian or Latin prepositions. : Words in Mirad are pronounced as they are written, with no exceptions. Only Roman letters are used in the alphabet, and there are no pesky diacritics (accents). Word stress is regular. : What if we took this root association to the maximum degree and ensured that all words in a language were constructed on logical, associational, and regular principles with roots that are obvious to the learner? That would be the way Mirad does it. == Deriving Opposites by Vowel-switching == : A very simple principle in Mirad is that a good portion of the vocabulary can be guessed by the learner without looking up words in the dictionary. All descriptive adjectives can be changed to their opposite with a simple change of vowel. For example, if you know '''fia''' (''good''), then you automatically know '''fua''' (''bad''). This is possible by knowing the rule of contrastive vowels: '''i''' is a positive vowel and contrasts with '''u''', a negative vowel. Similarly, '''a''' contrasts with '''o''', so that the opposite of '''aza''' (''strong'') is--you guessed it--'''oza''' (''weak''). In fact, if you know that '''e''' is an intermediate vowel, then you understand that '''eza''' means ''moderate''. These simple principles of word-building mean that students of the language can cut down on their learning time by at least 50%. == Using Consonants and Vowels to Vary Domains == : Another principle is that the beginning and/or closing consonants of a word in Mirad give you clues as to the meaning. All sentient creatures have the final stem consonant '''t''', such that '''dat''' (''friend''), '''tot''' (''god''), '''at''' (''I''), '''tuzut''' (''artist''), and '''pit''' (''fish'') all refer to sentient creatures. The root stems of all words having to do with communication, begin with the letter '''d''', eg. '''der''' (''to say''), '''dud''' (''answer''), '''dyes''' (''book''), '''dal''' (''speech''), etc. The internal vowels of root stems very often indicate concepts such as ''sky'', ''land'', ''sea'' or ''up'' vs. ''down'', or ''zeroth'', ''first'', ''second'', or ''toward the speaker'' vs. ''away from the speaker'', and on and on. == Scalarization == : In English, as in many other languages, there was probably some attempt to associate words in this way. Take for example, the series ''sing'', ''sang'', ''sung'', ''song'', ''singer'', ''songstress'' or ''drip'', ''drop'', ''droop'', ''dribble''. More often than not, there is very little association among English words that are obviously distinguished by the one feature, '''''size''''', eg. ''mountain'', ''hill'', ''knob'', ''bump'', ''pimple''. In Mirad, these are all distinguished regularly by a scalarizing enumerative vowel. The Mirad days of the week are not a series of Roman- or Teutonic-related concepts, '''Moon-day''', '''Tiw&apos;s-day''', '''Woden&apos;s-day''', '''Thor&apos;s-day''', '''Freya&apos;s-day''', '''Saturn-day''', and '''Sun-day''', all of which are a matter of memorization by the child or student of the language. Mirad days of the week consist rather of a series of words numerically arranged "day-one, day-two, day-three, etc." This is actually the approach taken by quite a few natural languages like Portuguese. : The months, too, ought to be learned in 10 seconds, by knowing that an internal vowel of the root expresses the numerical order of the months. Again, there are some natural languages that do this. By knowing that '''jiab''' means ''month one, January'', then by knowing how to count in the language, the word for September can be readily deduced as '''ji<u>yu</u>b''' (''month <u>nine</u>'', '''yu''' being the number for ''9''). == Mnemonics == Words in the language can be mnemonically associated to body terms by changing the initial domain consonant accordingly, so, while '''teb''' means ''head'', '''xeb''' in the '''x''' or ''work/action domain'' is ''boss'', '''deb''' in the social/political domain is ''leader'', etc. : The following chart shows in this mnemonic echoing in action, where the letters before '''-ub''' suggest the domain: <div style="font-size:smaller;"> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Mnemonic Echoing |- ! DOMAIN !! WORD |- | human (body) || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | work/action || '''xub'''....''subsidiary, branch'' |- | plants || '''fub'''....''limb, branch, bough(of a tree)'' |- | fish || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | birds || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | animal || '''potub'''....''paw'' |- | land-sea animal || '''peitub'''....''flipper'' |- | shoe || '''tyoyafub'''....''(scuba-diving) flipper'' |- | vegetation || '''vub'''....''shoot, sprig, twig'' |- | society/politics || '''dub'''....''minister, department head'' |- | building || '''tomub'''....''wing (of a building)'' |- | land || '''mub'''....''promontory'' |- | river || '''mifub'''....''oar'' |- | things || '''sub'''....''ramification, offshoot'' |- | table || '''semub'''....''flap (of a table)'' |- | rotating things || '''zyufub'''....''rudder'' |- | flat || '''zyifub'''....''paddle'' |- | round || '''zyub'''....''lobe'' |} </div> == Conclusion == Mirad uses many different techniques to short-cut the difficulty of learning new words or recognizing terms. The vowels, consonants, mnemonics, scalarization, taxonomy and many other methods are used to make the vocabulary as rational and intuitive as possible. Unlike in most natural languages, words like ''snow'', ''sleet'', and ''ice'' are going to have sounds in common in Mirad. <noinclude> {{Chapter navigation with TOC|Introduction|Alphabet}}</noinclude> s9wm31mjdolr8r348vt5zx7rjqvo5zx 4673889 4673887 2026-10-03T15:51:32Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Mnemonics */ 4673889 wikitext text/x-wiki == Vocabulary Built on Native Roots == <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : In English, we have many words like ''ichthyology'', which baffle younger speakers of the language, because they are borrowed from a foreign language, in this case, classical Greek. This word, which could just as easily and more rationally be the Anglicized ''fishlore'', means the science of fish. If a word in English relates to fish, why is ''fish'' not a part of the word? Even for modern day Greeks to understand the word '''ιχθυολογία (ichthyologia)''', they have to know the ancient root '''ιχθύς (ichthys)''' for ''fish'', which has long been supplanted by the current word everyone uses, '''ψάρι (psari)'''. What I'm saying is that the vocabulary of English, as is the case in many other natural languages, is a hodgepodge of borrowings, irregular spellings, and words cobbled from obscure roots that have little recognizability for the average speaker. : While English is a melting pot of words, there are some languages that do less borrowing and less non-discriminate formation of words that do not associate with one another through some root or pattern. Icelandic, for example, does not borrow very much from other languages and its words are formed using roots familiar to speakers of that language. The Icelandic word for ''library'' is '''bokasafn''', which literally, is ''book collection ( = saving)''. Any child in that language knows what the word means immediately, because it is composed of root words that are obvious. The simple English word ''library'' has nothing to do with the English word ''book'', just as ''cerebral'' has nothing to do with the word ''brain''. : Arabic, by contrast, is a language that has a system of word-building based on a rational association of consonants and vowel patterns, such that most words relating to books and writing contain the three consonants '''k-t-b'''. Over the centuries, the system has been polluted with irregularities, but at least the consciousness of associations of words based on a root pattern is there and is still used today to coin new words. : In Turkish, the bulk of words having to do with ''knowledge'' contain the native root '''bil-''' (''know''). Because of this, most of these words will be grouped on the same pages in a dictionary. For example: '''bildik''' ''known'', '''bildirim''' ''announcement'', '''bilecen''' ''know-it-all'', '''bilgi''' ''knowledge'', '''bilgili''' ''knowledgeable'', '''bilgin''' ''scholar'', etc. A word such as ''unknowability'' inevitably contains the root '''bil''' and can be learned fairly easily by a young student of the language. : Mirad has a vocabulary-building system with approximately 500 morphemes (word atoms or vocabulary building blocks) that are used to form derived words in the same sense family in accordance with a set of word-building rules. Words that are related semantically will share the same bulk of letters. (This type of language is called [[wikt:oligosynthetic|oligosynthetic]]. For example, '''iva''' (''happy''), '''ivla''' (''glad''), and '''ivra''' (''delighted'') share the root morpheme '''iv-''' and differ only in one letter. The opposite of happy is derived by switching the vowel in the root morpheme from '''i''' to the negative counterpart '''u''', such that '''uva''' means ''sad''. Similarly, '''uvla''' (''woeful'') and '''uvra''' (''tragic'') are opposite counterparts to the extended '''iv-''' words. : In Mirad, every letter of a word has some semantic or grammatical function. All words are part of a system. If you know the word for ''to lengthen'', then you automatically know the word for ''to shorten''. The rules for deriving new words from existing words are consistent across the language. In Mirad, there is no such thing as irregular conjugation of verbs as in English ''write, wrote, written''. Nouns are pluralized in one way only across the board, unlike the multiple, unpredictable ways German and Arabic words are pluralized. Prepositions have one meaning, as contrasted with the multiple, inscrutable meanings of Russian or Latin prepositions. : Words in Mirad are pronounced as they are written, with no exceptions. Only Roman letters are used in the alphabet, and there are no pesky diacritics (accents). Word stress is regular. : What if we took this root association to the maximum degree and ensured that all words in a language were constructed on logical, associational, and regular principles with roots that are obvious to the learner? That would be the way Mirad does it. == Deriving Opposites by Vowel-switching == : A very simple principle in Mirad is that a good portion of the vocabulary can be guessed by the learner without looking up words in the dictionary. All descriptive adjectives can be changed to their opposite with a simple change of vowel. For example, if you know '''fia''' (''good''), then you automatically know '''fua''' (''bad''). This is possible by knowing the rule of contrastive vowels: '''i''' is a positive vowel and contrasts with '''u''', a negative vowel. Similarly, '''a''' contrasts with '''o''', so that the opposite of '''aza''' (''strong'') is--you guessed it--'''oza''' (''weak''). In fact, if you know that '''e''' is an intermediate vowel, then you understand that '''eza''' means ''moderate''. These simple principles of word-building mean that students of the language can cut down on their learning time by at least 50%. == Using Consonants and Vowels to Vary Domains == : Another principle is that the beginning and/or closing consonants of a word in Mirad give you clues as to the meaning. All sentient creatures have the final stem consonant '''t''', such that '''dat''' (''friend''), '''tot''' (''god''), '''at''' (''I''), '''tuzut''' (''artist''), and '''pit''' (''fish'') all refer to sentient creatures. The root stems of all words having to do with communication, begin with the letter '''d''', eg. '''der''' (''to say''), '''dud''' (''answer''), '''dyes''' (''book''), '''dal''' (''speech''), etc. The internal vowels of root stems very often indicate concepts such as ''sky'', ''land'', ''sea'' or ''up'' vs. ''down'', or ''zeroth'', ''first'', ''second'', or ''toward the speaker'' vs. ''away from the speaker'', and on and on. == Scalarization == : In English, as in many other languages, there was probably some attempt to associate words in this way. Take for example, the series ''sing'', ''sang'', ''sung'', ''song'', ''singer'', ''songstress'' or ''drip'', ''drop'', ''droop'', ''dribble''. More often than not, there is very little association among English words that are obviously distinguished by the one feature, '''''size''''', eg. ''mountain'', ''hill'', ''knob'', ''bump'', ''pimple''. In Mirad, these are all distinguished regularly by a scalarizing enumerative vowel. The Mirad days of the week are not a series of Roman- or Teutonic-related concepts, '''Moon-day''', '''Tiw&apos;s-day''', '''Woden&apos;s-day''', '''Thor&apos;s-day''', '''Freya&apos;s-day''', '''Saturn-day''', and '''Sun-day''', all of which are a matter of memorization by the child or student of the language. Mirad days of the week consist rather of a series of words numerically arranged "day-one, day-two, day-three, etc." This is actually the approach taken by quite a few natural languages like Portuguese. : The months, too, ought to be learned in 10 seconds, by knowing that an internal vowel of the root expresses the numerical order of the months. Again, there are some natural languages that do this. By knowing that '''jiab''' means ''month one, January'', then by knowing how to count in the language, the word for September can be readily deduced as '''ji<u>yu</u>b''' (''month <u>nine</u>'', '''yu''' being the number for ''9''). == Mnemonics == Words in the language can be mnemonically associated to body terms by changing the initial domain consonant accordingly, so, while '''teb''' means ''head'', '''xeb''' in the '''x''' or ''work/action domain'' is ''boss'', '''deb''' in the social/political domain is ''leader'', etc. : The following chart shows in this mnemonic echoing in action, where the letters before '''-ub''' suggest the domain: <div style="font-size:smaller;"> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Mnemonic Echoing |- ! DOMAIN !! WORD |- | human (body) || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | work/action || '''xub'''....''subsidiary, branch'' |- | plants || '''fub'''....''limb, branch, bough (of a tree), stick'' |- | fish || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | birds || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | animal || '''potub'''....''paw'' |- | land-sea animal || '''peitub'''....''flipper'' |- | shoe || '''tyoyafub'''....''(scuba-diving) flipper'' |- | vegetation || '''vub'''....''shoot, sprig, twig'' |- | society/politics || '''dub'''....''minister, department head'' |- | building || '''tomub'''....''wing (of a building)'' |- | land || '''mub'''....''promontory'' |- | river || '''mifub'''....''oar'' |- | things || '''sub'''....''ramification, offshoot'' |- | table || '''semub'''....''flap (of a table)'' |- | rotating things || '''zyufub'''....''rudder'' |- | flat || '''zyifub'''....''paddle'' |- | round || '''zyub'''....''lobe'' |} </div> == Conclusion == Mirad uses many different techniques to short-cut the difficulty of learning new words or recognizing terms. The vowels, consonants, mnemonics, scalarization, taxonomy and many other methods are used to make the vocabulary as rational and intuitive as possible. Unlike in most natural languages, words like ''snow'', ''sleet'', and ''ice'' are going to have sounds in common in Mirad. <noinclude> {{Chapter navigation with TOC|Introduction|Alphabet}}</noinclude> io7dtrbr2ef5hi3vgk7pr47al93wuuu 4673896 4673889 2026-10-03T16:57:12Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Mnemonics */ 4673896 wikitext text/x-wiki == Vocabulary Built on Native Roots == <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : In English, we have many words like ''ichthyology'', which baffle younger speakers of the language, because they are borrowed from a foreign language, in this case, classical Greek. This word, which could just as easily and more rationally be the Anglicized ''fishlore'', means the science of fish. If a word in English relates to fish, why is ''fish'' not a part of the word? Even for modern day Greeks to understand the word '''ιχθυολογία (ichthyologia)''', they have to know the ancient root '''ιχθύς (ichthys)''' for ''fish'', which has long been supplanted by the current word everyone uses, '''ψάρι (psari)'''. What I'm saying is that the vocabulary of English, as is the case in many other natural languages, is a hodgepodge of borrowings, irregular spellings, and words cobbled from obscure roots that have little recognizability for the average speaker. : While English is a melting pot of words, there are some languages that do less borrowing and less non-discriminate formation of words that do not associate with one another through some root or pattern. Icelandic, for example, does not borrow very much from other languages and its words are formed using roots familiar to speakers of that language. The Icelandic word for ''library'' is '''bokasafn''', which literally, is ''book collection ( = saving)''. Any child in that language knows what the word means immediately, because it is composed of root words that are obvious. The simple English word ''library'' has nothing to do with the English word ''book'', just as ''cerebral'' has nothing to do with the word ''brain''. : Arabic, by contrast, is a language that has a system of word-building based on a rational association of consonants and vowel patterns, such that most words relating to books and writing contain the three consonants '''k-t-b'''. Over the centuries, the system has been polluted with irregularities, but at least the consciousness of associations of words based on a root pattern is there and is still used today to coin new words. : In Turkish, the bulk of words having to do with ''knowledge'' contain the native root '''bil-''' (''know''). Because of this, most of these words will be grouped on the same pages in a dictionary. For example: '''bildik''' ''known'', '''bildirim''' ''announcement'', '''bilecen''' ''know-it-all'', '''bilgi''' ''knowledge'', '''bilgili''' ''knowledgeable'', '''bilgin''' ''scholar'', etc. A word such as ''unknowability'' inevitably contains the root '''bil''' and can be learned fairly easily by a young student of the language. : Mirad has a vocabulary-building system with approximately 500 morphemes (word atoms or vocabulary building blocks) that are used to form derived words in the same sense family in accordance with a set of word-building rules. Words that are related semantically will share the same bulk of letters. (This type of language is called [[wikt:oligosynthetic|oligosynthetic]]. For example, '''iva''' (''happy''), '''ivla''' (''glad''), and '''ivra''' (''delighted'') share the root morpheme '''iv-''' and differ only in one letter. The opposite of happy is derived by switching the vowel in the root morpheme from '''i''' to the negative counterpart '''u''', such that '''uva''' means ''sad''. Similarly, '''uvla''' (''woeful'') and '''uvra''' (''tragic'') are opposite counterparts to the extended '''iv-''' words. : In Mirad, every letter of a word has some semantic or grammatical function. All words are part of a system. If you know the word for ''to lengthen'', then you automatically know the word for ''to shorten''. The rules for deriving new words from existing words are consistent across the language. In Mirad, there is no such thing as irregular conjugation of verbs as in English ''write, wrote, written''. Nouns are pluralized in one way only across the board, unlike the multiple, unpredictable ways German and Arabic words are pluralized. Prepositions have one meaning, as contrasted with the multiple, inscrutable meanings of Russian or Latin prepositions. : Words in Mirad are pronounced as they are written, with no exceptions. Only Roman letters are used in the alphabet, and there are no pesky diacritics (accents). Word stress is regular. : What if we took this root association to the maximum degree and ensured that all words in a language were constructed on logical, associational, and regular principles with roots that are obvious to the learner? That would be the way Mirad does it. == Deriving Opposites by Vowel-switching == : A very simple principle in Mirad is that a good portion of the vocabulary can be guessed by the learner without looking up words in the dictionary. All descriptive adjectives can be changed to their opposite with a simple change of vowel. For example, if you know '''fia''' (''good''), then you automatically know '''fua''' (''bad''). This is possible by knowing the rule of contrastive vowels: '''i''' is a positive vowel and contrasts with '''u''', a negative vowel. Similarly, '''a''' contrasts with '''o''', so that the opposite of '''aza''' (''strong'') is--you guessed it--'''oza''' (''weak''). In fact, if you know that '''e''' is an intermediate vowel, then you understand that '''eza''' means ''moderate''. These simple principles of word-building mean that students of the language can cut down on their learning time by at least 50%. == Using Consonants and Vowels to Vary Domains == : Another principle is that the beginning and/or closing consonants of a word in Mirad give you clues as to the meaning. All sentient creatures have the final stem consonant '''t''', such that '''dat''' (''friend''), '''tot''' (''god''), '''at''' (''I''), '''tuzut''' (''artist''), and '''pit''' (''fish'') all refer to sentient creatures. The root stems of all words having to do with communication, begin with the letter '''d''', eg. '''der''' (''to say''), '''dud''' (''answer''), '''dyes''' (''book''), '''dal''' (''speech''), etc. The internal vowels of root stems very often indicate concepts such as ''sky'', ''land'', ''sea'' or ''up'' vs. ''down'', or ''zeroth'', ''first'', ''second'', or ''toward the speaker'' vs. ''away from the speaker'', and on and on. == Scalarization == : In English, as in many other languages, there was probably some attempt to associate words in this way. Take for example, the series ''sing'', ''sang'', ''sung'', ''song'', ''singer'', ''songstress'' or ''drip'', ''drop'', ''droop'', ''dribble''. More often than not, there is very little association among English words that are obviously distinguished by the one feature, '''''size''''', eg. ''mountain'', ''hill'', ''knob'', ''bump'', ''pimple''. In Mirad, these are all distinguished regularly by a scalarizing enumerative vowel. The Mirad days of the week are not a series of Roman- or Teutonic-related concepts, '''Moon-day''', '''Tiw&apos;s-day''', '''Woden&apos;s-day''', '''Thor&apos;s-day''', '''Freya&apos;s-day''', '''Saturn-day''', and '''Sun-day''', all of which are a matter of memorization by the child or student of the language. Mirad days of the week consist rather of a series of words numerically arranged "day-one, day-two, day-three, etc." This is actually the approach taken by quite a few natural languages like Portuguese. : The months, too, ought to be learned in 10 seconds, by knowing that an internal vowel of the root expresses the numerical order of the months. Again, there are some natural languages that do this. By knowing that '''jiab''' means ''month one, January'', then by knowing how to count in the language, the word for September can be readily deduced as '''ji<u>yu</u>b''' (''month <u>nine</u>'', '''yu''' being the number for ''9''). == Mnemonics == Words in the language can be mnemonically associated to body terms by changing the initial domain consonant accordingly, so, while '''teb''' means ''head'', '''xeb''' in the '''x''' or ''work/action domain'' is ''boss'', '''deb''' in the social/political domain is ''leader'', etc. : The following chart shows in this mnemonic echoing in action, where the letters before '''-ub''' suggest the domain: <div style="font-size:smaller;"> ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};" |+ Mnemonic Echoing |- ! DOMAIN !! WORD |- | human (body) || '''tub'''....''arm'' |- | work/action || '''xub'''....''subsidiary, branch'' |- | plants || '''fub'''....''limb, branch, bough (of a tree), stick'' |- | fish || '''pitub'''....''fin'' |- | birds || '''patub'''....''wing'' |- | animal || '''potub'''....''paw'' |- | land-sea animal || '''peitub'''....''flipper'' |- | shoe || '''tyoyafub'''....''(scuba-diving) flipper'' |- | vegetation || '''vub'''....''shoot, sprig, twig'' |- | society/politics || '''dub'''....''minister, department head'' |- | building || '''tomub'''....''wing (of a building)'' |- | land || '''mub'''....''promontory'' |- | river || '''mifub'''....''oar'' |- | sea || '''mimub'''....''estuary, delta'' |- | things || '''sub'''....''ramification, offshoot'' |- | table || '''semub'''....''flap (of a table)'' |- | rotating things || '''zyufub'''....''rudder'' |- | flat || '''zyifub'''....''paddle'' |- | round || '''zyub'''....''lobe'' |- | turning || '''uzbentub'''....''crank'' |} </div> == Conclusion == Mirad uses many different techniques to short-cut the difficulty of learning new words or recognizing terms. The vowels, consonants, mnemonics, scalarization, taxonomy and many other methods are used to make the vocabulary as rational and intuitive as possible. Unlike in most natural languages, words like ''snow'', ''sleet'', and ''ice'' are going to have sounds in common in Mirad. <noinclude> {{Chapter navigation with TOC|Introduction|Alphabet}}</noinclude> l7xk83sbhldivcmc18iebg3ku2quvv6 110 419705 4673976 4671720 2026-10-04T07:09:56Z ~2026-51118-27 3626547 4673976 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''D''' is for '''D'''uckPG13 暴力画面 [[File:Coin-img_2219.jpg|500px|center|A duck]] {{Template:Wikijunior:Bird Alphabet}} {{BookCat}} gqsnf14d55ncfrk9n641ged3d8h2c7f 4673982 4673976 2026-10-04T07:27:19Z EggRoll97 3178669 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|talk]]) to last version by Saroj 3996939 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''D''' is for '''D'''uck</div> [[File:Coin-img_2219.jpg|500px|center|A duck]] {{Template:Wikijunior:Bird Alphabet}} {{BookCat}} 2vwsqiyz2ao6du71qgcdiwfdlk5ta9e 0 427007 4673972 4664981 2026-10-04T06:03:32Z ILYA125467 3627024 I feel like "Enclosed Alphanumeric Extended-A" is something fake. Anyway, made it italic to make it distinct. 4673972 wikitext text/x-wiki {{:Unicode/Character reference}} {|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;" |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | '''Seal Script (ctd.)''' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !style="width:4%"|U+!!style="width:6%"|0!!style="width:6%"|1!!style="width:6%"|2!!style="width:6%"|3!!style="width:6%"|4!!style="width:6%"|5!!style="width:6%"|6!!style="width:6%"|7!!style="width:6%"|8!!style="width:6%"|9!!style="width:6%"|A!!style="width:6%"|B!!style="width:6%"|C!!style="width:6%"|D!!style="width:6%"|E!!style="width:6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F00x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F01x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F02x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F03x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F04x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F05x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F06x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F07x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F08x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F09x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F0Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F0Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F0Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F0Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F0Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F0Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F10x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F11x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F12x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F13x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F14x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F15x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F16x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F17x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F18x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F19x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F1Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F1Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F1Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F1Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F1Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F1Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F20x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F21x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F22x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F23x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F24x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F25x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F26x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F27x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F28x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F29x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F2Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F2Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F2Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F2Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F2Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F2Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F30x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F31x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F32x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F33x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F34x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F35x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F36x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F37x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F38x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F39x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F3Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F3Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F3Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F3Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F3Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F3Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F40x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F41x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F42x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F43x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F44x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F45x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F46x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F47x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F48x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F49x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F4Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F4Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F4Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F4Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F4Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F4Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F50x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F51x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F52x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F53x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F54x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F55x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F56x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F57x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F58x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F59x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F5Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F5Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F5Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F5Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F5Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F5Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F60x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F61x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F62x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F63x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F64x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F65x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F66x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F67x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F68x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F69x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F6Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F6Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F6Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F6Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F6Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F6Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F70x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F71x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F72x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F73x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F74x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F75x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F76x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F77x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F78x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F79x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F7Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F7Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F7Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F7Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F7Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F7Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F80x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F81x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F82x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F83x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F84x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F85x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F86x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F87x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F88x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F89x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F8Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F8Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F8Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F8Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F8Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F8Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F90x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F91x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F92x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F93x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F94x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F95x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F96x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F97x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F98x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F99x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F9Ax |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F9Bx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F9Cx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F9Dx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F9Ex |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3F9Fx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FA9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FAAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FABx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FACx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FADx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FAEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FAFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FB9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FBAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FBBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FBCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FBDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FBEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FBFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |- | colspan="17" style="background:#f8f8f8;{{text default color}};text-align:center" | ''Enclosed Alphanumeric Extended-A'' |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !style="width:4%"|U+!!style="width:6%"|0!!style="width:6%"|1!!style="width:6%"|2!!style="width:6%"|3!!style="width:6%"|4!!style="width:6%"|5!!style="width:6%"|6!!style="width:6%"|7!!style="width:6%"|8!!style="width:6%"|9!!style="width:6%"|A!!style="width:6%"|B!!style="width:6%"|C!!style="width:6%"|D!!style="width:6%"|E!!style="width:6%"|F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#457da5;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC4x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY ONE|&#x3fc40;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY TWO|&#x3fc41;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY THREE|&#x3fc42;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY FOUR|&#x3fc43;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY FIVE|&#x3fc44;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY SIX|&#x3fc45;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY SEVEN|&#x3fc46;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY EIGHT|&#x3fc47;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTY NINE|&#x3fc48;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY|&#x3fc49;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY ONE|&#x3fc4a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY TWO|&#x3fc4b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY THREE|&#x3fc4c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY FOUR|&#x3fc4d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY FIVE|&#x3fc4e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A|&#x3fc4f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#457da5;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC5x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B|&#x3fc50;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER C|&#x3fc51;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER D|&#x3fc52;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E|&#x3fc53;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER F|&#x3fc54;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER G|&#x3fc55;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER H|&#x3fc56;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I|&#x3fc57;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER J|&#x3fc58;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K|&#x3f559;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER L|&#x3fc5a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M|&#x3fc5b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER N|&#x3fc5c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER O|&#x3fc5d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER P|&#x3fc5e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Q|&#x3fc5f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#457da5;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC6x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER R|&#x3fc60;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER T|&#x3fc61;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER U|&#x3fc62;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER V|&#x3fc63;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER W|&#x3fc64;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER X|&#x3fc65;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Y|&#x3fc66;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN CAPITAL LETTER Z|&#x3fc67;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIGN|&#x3fc68;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED DOLLAR SIGN|&#x3f569;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED PERCENT SIGN|&#x3fc6a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED AMPERSAND|&#x3fc6b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED PERMILE SIGN|&#x3fc6c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED INTERROBANG|&#x3fc6d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED EXCLAMATION MARK|&#x3fc6e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED QUESTION MARK|&#x3fc6f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#457da5;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC7x |{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY SIX|&#x3fc70;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY SEVEN|&#x3fc71;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY EIGHT|&#x3fc72;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTY NINE|&#x3fc73;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY|&#x3fc74;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY ONE|&#x3fc75;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY TWO|&#x3fc76;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY THREE|&#x3fc77;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY FOUR|&#x3fc78;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY FIVE|&#x3f579;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY SIX|&#x3fc7a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY SEVEN|&#x3fc7b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTY EIGHT|&#x3fc7c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENT NINE|&#x3fc7d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED NUMBER EIGHTY|&#x3fc7e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|CIRCLED TIRONIAN SIGN ET|&#x3fc7f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#457da5;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC8x |{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIZED DIGIT ZERO|&#x3fc80;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT ZERO|&#x3fc81;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT ONE|&#x3fc82;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT TWO|&#x3fc83;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT THREE|&#x3fc84;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT FOUR|&#x3fc85;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT FIVE|&#x3fc86;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT SIX|&#x3fc87;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT SEVEN|&#x3fc88;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT EIGHT|&#x3f589;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT NINE|&#x3fc8a;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED DIGIT TEN|&#x3fc8b;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN SMALL LETTER A|&#x3fc8c;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN SMALL LETTER B|&#x3fc8d;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN SMALL LETTER C|&#x3fc8e;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN SMALL LETTER D|&#x3fc8f;}} |----- style="text-align:center;background:#457da5;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FC9x |{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN SMALL LETTER E|&#x3fc90;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE SHELL BRACKETED LATIN SMALL LETTER F|&#x3fc91;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TORTOISE 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!style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FCEx |style="background:#457da5;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIS DU|&#x3fce0;}}||style="background:#457da5;{{text default color}};"|{{H:title|dotted=no|PARENTHESIS DY|&#x3fce1;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER ELEVEN|&#x3fce2;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER TWELVE|&#x3fce3;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER THIRTEEN|&#x3fce4;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER FOURTEEN|&#x3fce5;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER FIFTEEN|&#x3fce6;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER SIXTEEN|&#x3fce7;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER SEVENTEEN|&#x3fce8;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER EIGHTEEN|&#x3fce9;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER NINETEEN|&#x3fcea;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|DOUBLE CIRCLED NUMBER TWENTY|&#x3fceb;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIPLE CIRCLED DIGIT ONE|&#x3fcec;}}||{{H:title|dotted=no|TRIPLE CIRCLED DIGIT 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!style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FD2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FD3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FD4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FD5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- 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|&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FDAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FDBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FDCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FDDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FDEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FDFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FE9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FEAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FEBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FECx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FEDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FEEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FEFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF0x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF1x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF2x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF3x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF4x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF5x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF6x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF7x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF8x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FF9x |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FFAx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FFBx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FFCx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FFDx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FFEx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp; |----- style="text-align:center;background:#777777;{{text default color}};" !style="background:#ffffff;{{text default color}};"|3FFFx |&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white;"|&nbsp;||style="background:#000000;color:white;"|&nbsp; |----- style="background:#ccccff;{{text default color}};" !U+||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F |} {{:Unicode/Character/footer}} 2rk0lhvax6z392c5ebrpuuwlz429jg1 110 438047 4673977 3996954 2026-10-04T07:11:02Z ~2026-51118-27 3626547 /* */ 4673977 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''S''' is for '''S'''wanPG13 暴力画面 [[File:Cygnus olor 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|500px|center|Two Swans]] {{Template:Wikijunior:Bird Alphabet}} {{BookCat}} rop0zj5sg87quu5gncwfwfjetfj0uy9 4673983 4673977 2026-10-04T07:27:23Z EggRoll97 3178669 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|talk]]) to last version by Mbrickn 3996954 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''S''' is for '''S'''wan</div> [[File:Cygnus olor 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|500px|center|Two Swans]] {{Template:Wikijunior:Bird Alphabet}} {{BookCat}} a78rgm5dbzw6lybmunf4l8nqfvxftxr 0 448081 4673897 4661401 2026-10-03T17:05:59Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Glided Vowels */ 4673897 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> = Consonants = {{IPA notice}} : Consonants are sounds that restrict air flow in the mouth. The sounds of the consonants in an abstract sense are '''''phonemes''''', while the symbols used to represent these sounds in writing are '''''graphemes'''''. == Consonant graphemes and phonemes == : The following chart shows the correspondence of the consonant graphemes and their phonemic values represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): {| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller" |+ Correspondence of Consonant Graphemes and Phonemes |- !row=1| Grapheme | '''b''' || '''c''' || '''d''' || '''f''' || '''g''' || '''h''' || '''j''' || '''k''' || '''l''' || '''m''' || '''n''' || '''p''' || '''q''' || '''r''' || '''s''' || '''t''' || '''v''' || '''x''' || '''z''' |- !row=1| Phoneme | /b/ || /t͡ʃ/ || /d/ || /f/ || /g/ || /h/ || /ʒ/ || /k/ || /l/ || /m/ || /n/ || /p/ || /k/ || /ɽ/ || /s/ || /t/ || /v/ || /ʃ/ || /z/ |} == Pronunciation of Consonants == : The following chart shows the Mirad consonants with their phonemic values in the IPA: {| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center;background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller" |+ Consonants |- ! !! !! '''Labial''' !! '''Alveolar''' !! '''Palatal''' !! '''Velar''' !! '''Glottal''' |- ! rowspan="1" | '''Nasal''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | '''/m/''' || '''/n/''' || || || |- ! rowspan="2" | '''Plosive''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | '''/b/''' || '''/d/''' || || '''/g/''' || |- ! <small>'''unvoiced'''</small> | '''/p/''' || '''/t/''' || || '''/k/''' || |- ! rowspan="2" | '''Affricate''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | || || || || |- ! <small>'''unvoiced'''</small> | || || '''/t͡ʃ/''' || || |- ! rowspan="2" | '''Fricative''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | '''/v/''' || '''/z/''' || '''/ʒ/''' || || |- ! <small>'''unvoiced'''</small> | '''/f/''' || '''/s/''' || '''/ʃ/''' || || '''/h/''' |- ! rowspan="1" | '''Approximant''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | || '''/l/''' || || || |- ! rowspan="1" | '''Flap''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | || '''/ɽ/''' || || || |} : The phonemes /'''r'''/ and /'''l'''/ are '''''consonant liquids''''' and behave in a special way in forming words in Mirad. : In Mirad, every consonant has a one-to-one correspondence with a single phoneme (ideal sound). Mirad does not use digraphs like ''sh'' or ''ph'' to represent consonant sounds. There are no double consonants, although sometimes a consonant will come together with the same consonant in the same word, but not the same syllable. There are no silent consonants, although the letter '''h''' is silent at the end of a word but causes the stress to move to the final syllable. It is used in that way only in borrowed, non-native Mirad words. Also, there are no letters in "native" Mirad with diacritical marks like '''&eacute;''' or '''&ntilde;'''. : Here are the letters that are pronounced somewhat differently from English: :* The letter '''x''' is pronounced like an ''sh'' in English, or a ''ch'' in French. :* In native Mirad words, '''h''' is pronounced like the ''h'' in English ''hand''. It is sometimes used to simulate foreign sounds like the ''ch'' in Yiddish '''la<u>ch</u>ayim''' (''to life!''), or German '''Ba<u>ch</u>'''. If '''h''' comes at the end of a word, it is silent, but, being a consonant, it can serve to move the stress to the word-final syllable, as in '''Allah''', pronounced '''al-LA'''. :* The letter '''j''' is pronounced like the ''zh'' in Russian ''<u>Zh</u>ivago'' or the ''ge'' in English ''mira<u>ge</u>''. :* The letter '''s''' is always unvoiced as English ''ss'' and never sounds like a '''z'''. :* The letter '''g''' is always a hard sound as in English ''<u>g</u>ap'', not as in English ''wa<u>g</u>e''. :* The letter '''c''' represents the unvoiced affricative sound '''t͡ʃ''' like the ''ch'' in English ''<u>ch</u>ur<u>ch</u>''. Some chemical names and metric units use the letter '''c''', such as '''calilk''' (''chlorine''). The the '''c''' is found in a foreign borrowing unchanged in its spelling, then it is pronounced as it would be in that foreign word. :* The unvoiced plosives '''p''', '''t''', and '''k''' are pronounced without the puff of breath that sometimes follows them in their English counterparts. The corresponding consonants in French are exact equivalents. :* The consonant '''r''' should be a flap or trill like the ''r'' in Brit. Eng. ''ve<u>r</u>y'' or the single, intervocalic ''r'' in Spanish ''pe<u>r</u>o''. :* The consonant '''q''' is usually pronounced as a '''k''', but in foreign borrowings or proper names, it may be pronounced according to context. :* The consonants in the Mirad alphabet correspond one-to-one with phonemes. There are no cases of consonant sounds being represented in native words by digraphs as in English ''ph'', ''sh'', ''ch'', or ''th''. For example, the ''sh'' sound in English is represented by '''x''' in Mirad. The English ''ch'' sound is represented in Mirad with the letter '''c'''. There are no equivalents in Mirad for the English sounds ''th'' in ''this'' or the ''th'' in ''think'', but the combination '''th''' in foreign borrowings is pronounced as it is in the source language. : Here is a chart showing the phonetic values of Mirad consonants: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size: smaller; margin-left:3.2em " |+ Consonants |- ! Mirad Consonant/<br>Semi-Consonant<br>Grapheme !! IPA !! Articulation !! Nearest Equivalents |- | '''b''' || [b] || unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive || French ''<u>b</u>on'', English ''<u>b</u>oy'' |- | '''c''' || [tʃ] || unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate || English ''<u>ch</u>ild'', Spanish ''<u>ch</u>ico'' |- | '''d''' || [d] || unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive || French ''<u>d</u>e'', English ''<u>d</u>og'' |- | '''f''' || [f] || unvoiced labio-dental fricative || English ''<u>f</u>og'' |- | '''g''' || [g] || unaspirated voiced velar plosive || French ''<u>g</u>are'', English ''<u>g</u>ood'' (always hard, even before ''e'' and ''i''). |- | '''h''' || [h]<br>[x] || glottal fricative || English ''<u>h</u>ouse''<br>(used in some foreign words and names as a ''kh''-like sound like German ''Ba<u>ch</u>''. Not pronounced at the end of foreign borrowings like ''Allah'' or ''Arkansah''. |- | '''j''' || [ʒ] || voiced palatal fricative || French ''<u>j</u>e'' or English ''mira<u>g</u>e''. |- | '''k''' || [k] || unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative || French ''<u>c</u>arte'', English ''s<u>k</u>ip'' (without aspiration). |- | '''l''' || [l] || voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant || English ''<u>l</u>ove'' or French ''be<u>l</u>'' (never a dark '''l''' as in English ''be<u>ll</u>''. |- | '''m''' || [m] || voiced bilabial nasal || English ''<u>m</u>other''. |- | '''n''' || [n]<br>[ŋ] || voiced alveolar nasal ||English ''<u>n</u>obody''<br>Before ''g'' or ''k'', like English ''fa<u>n</u>g''. |- | '''p''' || [p] || unvoiced bilabial plosive || French ''<u>p</u>ain'', English ''s<u>p</u>an'' (without aspiration). |- | '''q''' || - || - || (Only used in foreign words, or some chemical names, where it pronounced ''k'' in Mirad). |- | '''r''' || [r] || alveolar flap || Spanish ''mi<u>r</u>a'' or Italian ''<u>R</u>oma'' or British Eng. '''ve<u>r</u>y''. |- | '''s''' || [s] || unvoiced alveolar fricative || Always hard as in English ''<u>s</u>afe'' (never a ''z'' sound as in ''rose''). |- | '''t''' || [t] || unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive || French ''<u>t</u>ous'', English ''s<u>t</u>op'' (without aspiration). |- | '''v''' || [v] || voiced labial-dental fricative || English ''<u>v</u>ery''. Spanish and German speakers need to beware: this is not a bilabial consonant, nor is it an ''f'' sound. |- | '''x''' || [ʃ] || unvoiced post-alveolar fricative || English ''<u>sh</u>ape'' or French ''<u>ch</u>er'' |- | '''z''' || /z/ || voiced alveolar fricative || English ''<u>z</u>one''. German speakers, beware. Mirad '''z''' is pronounced like a German '''s''', as in '''<u>s</u>ehr''', not like '''z''' as in '''zehn''', which sounds more like ''ts''. |} : Note that the sounds '''y''' and '''w''' are not included in the section on consonants, because they are glides, that is, they act as boundaries of the vowel nucleus of a syllable, but not the vowel nucleus itself. They are sometimes called semivowels or approximants, but in the present description of Mirad, they are treated in the following section on vowels. = Vowels = : Mirad vowels are divided into simple and glided vowels. The simple vowels are single letters, while the glided vowels have one or more semi-vowel glides ('''y''' or '''w''') prefixed or suffixed. A '''y''' colors a vowel palatally, while a '''w''' colors a vowel labio-velarly. === Simple Vowels === The Mirad graphemes (alphabetic letters) used to represent the simple vowel phonemes (minimal meaningful sounds) are as follows: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em" |+ Vowel Graphemes and Phonemes |- ! Grapheme !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''o''' !! '''u''' |- !rowspan=1| Phoneme | '''/a/''' || '''/e/''' || '''/i/''' || '''/o/''' || '''/u/''' |} === Pronunciation of Simple Vowels === : The vowel sounds depend on where they are produced in the mouth and whether the lips are rounded or not. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em" |+ Articulation of Simple Vowels |- ! || colspan="2" | Front || colspan="2"| Back |- class=small ! || colspan="3" | Unrounded || Rounded |- align=center ! High | colspan="2"| '''i''' || || '''u''' |- align=center ! Mid | colspan="2"| '''e''' || || '''o''' |- align=center ! Low | colspan="2"| || '''&#x0251;''' || |} :The simple vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some close examples in Spanish and French, and not-so-close examples in English. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Vowels |- ! Vowel !! IPA¹ !! Spanish !! French !! English<br>Approximation |- | '''a''' || [''a''] || m<u>a</u>no || <u>à</u><br>[[File:fr-à.ogg]] || ''f<u>a</u>ther'' |- | '''e''' || [''e''] || h<u>e</u>cho || <u>et</u><br>[[File:fr-et.ogg]] || ''d<u>ay</u>'' ² |- | '''i''' || [''i''] || s<u>i</u> || s<u>i</u><br>[[File:fr-si.ogg]] || ''s<u>ee</u>''² |- | '''o''' || [''o''] || n<u>o</u> || de l'<u>eau</u><br>[[File:fr-eau.ogg]] || ''s<u>o</u>''³ |- | '''u''' || [''u''] || t<u>u</u> || <u>ou</u><br>[[File:fr-ou.ogg]] || ''t<u>oo</u>''³ |} : Note that in actual practice, '''i''' and '''e''' have a shorter, more relaxed sound if they are followed by a consonant in the same syllable (a closed syllable). The Mirad word '''it''' (''he/she/him/her'') sounds much like ''it'' in English. Similarly, '''e''' in '''eb''' (''between'') sounds like the short ''e'' in English ''ebb''. :<small>Note 1) The International Phonetic Alphabet</small> :<small>Note 2) This sound in English actually ends in palatal glide (''y'' sound) and is not pure as in French or Spanish.</small> :<small>Note 3) This sound in English ends in a velar glide (''w'' sound) and is not pure as in French or Spanish.</small> === Glided Vowels === : Glided vowels are those preceded and/or followed by the semi-vowel glides '''y''' or '''w'''. This chart shows the possible glided vowels, their IPA equivalents, and their approximate pronunciations using English and other languages. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em" |+ Glided Vowels |- ! Glided Vowels !! IPA¹ !! Pronunciation |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-y-glided Vowels |- | '''ya''' || [ja] || Eng. ''y<u>ach</u>t'', Fr. ''<u>hia</u>cinthe''<br>[[File:en-us-yacht.ogg]] |- | '''ye''' || [je] || Eng. ''<u>ye</u>t'', Fr. ''grill<u>é</u>'' (''grilled'')<br>[[File:fr-grillé.ogg]] |- | '''yi''' || [ji] || Eng. ''<u>yea</u>st''*, Fr. ''bou<u>illi</u>'' |- | '''yo''' || [jo] || Eng. ''<u>yo</u>ke''*, Fr. ma<u>illot</u><br>[[File:fr-maillot.ogg]] |- | '''yu''' || [ju] || Eng. ''<u>you</u>''*, Fr. ''p<u>iou-piou</u>'' |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-w-Glided Vowels |- | '''wa''' || [wa] || Eng. ''w<u>a</u>ter'', Fr. ''g<u>oua</u>che'' (''poster paint'') <br>[[File:en-us-water.ogg]] |- | '''we''' || [we] || Eng. ''w<u>e</u>t'', Fr. ''<u>ouais</u>'' (''yes'') |- | '''wi''' || [wi] || Eng. ''w<u>ee</u>''², Fr. ''<u>oui</u>'' (''yes'')<br>[[File:Fr-oui.ogg]] |- | '''wo''' || [wo] || Eng. ''w<u>o</u>ke''² |- | '''wu''' || [wu] || Eng. ''w<u>oo</u>''² |- ! colspan=3 | Post-y-Glided Vowels |- | '''ay''' || [aɪ] || Eng. ''s<u>igh</u>t'', Sp. ''h<u>ay</u>'' (''there is'')<br>[[File:en-us-I.ogg]] |- | '''ey''' || [eɪ] || Eng. ''d<u>ay</u>'', Sp. ''r<u>ey</u>'' (''king'')<br>[[File:en-us-day.ogg]] |- | '''iy''' || [iɪ] || Eng. ''s<u>ee</u>'', Fr. ''b<u>ille</u>'' (''marble'')<br>[[File:en-us-see.ogg]] |- | '''oy''' || [oɪ] || Eng. ''b<u>oy</u>'', Sp. ''h<u>oy</u>'' (''today'')<br>[[File:en-us-boy.ogg]] |- | '''uy''' || [uɪ] || Eng. ''g<u>ooey</u>'', Sp. ''m<u>uy</u>'' (''very'')<br>[[File:en-us-gooey.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Post-w-Glided Vowels |- | '''aw''' || [ɔ] || Eng. ''<u>awe</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-awe.ogg]] |- | '''ew''' || [eʊ] || colloq. Eng. ''T<u>ell</u> me!''<br>[[File:en-us-tell.ogg]] |- | '''iw''' || [iʊ] || Eng. ''<u>eew!</u> (sound of disgust)'', Du. ''ni<u>ew</u>''<br>[[File:Nl-nieuw.ogg]] (''new'') |- | '''ow''' || [oʊ] || Eng. ''kn<u>ow</u>'', f<u>oe</u><br>[[File:en-us-know.ogg]] |- | '''uw''' || [uʊ] || Eng. ''g<u>oo</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-goo.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-y-Post-w-Glided Vowels |- | '''yaw''' || [jaʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>a</u>w''<br>[[File:en-us-yaw.ogg]] |- | '''yew''' || [jeʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>e</u>ll'' (very rare) |- | '''yiw''' || [jiʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>ie</u>ld'' (very rare) |- | '''yow''' || [joʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>o</u> bro!'' |- | '''yuw''' || [juʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>ou</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-you.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Circum-y-Glided Vowels |- | '''yay''' || [jaɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>i</u>kes''<br>[[File:en-us-yikes.ogg]] |- | '''yey''' || [jeɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>ea</u>!''<br>[[File:en-us-yay.ogg]] |- | '''yiy''' || [jiɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>ee</u>sh! (sound of disgust)''<br>[[File:en-us-ye.ogg]] |- | '''yoy''' || [joɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>oi</u>nk'' ( ''= New Jyoizy'' )<br> |- | '''yuy''' || [juɪ] || Eng. ''H<u>ughie</u>''<br>[[File:EN-AU_ck1_Hughie.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-w-Post-y-Glided |- | '''way''' || [waɪ] || Eng. ''<u>wi</u>se'', Fr. '''<u>ouailles</u>''' (''flock'')<br>[[File:en-us-wise.ogg]] |- | '''wey''' || [weɪ] || Eng. ''<u>way</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-way.ogg]] |- | '''wiy''' || [wiɪ] || Eng. ''<u>wee</u>!'' (sound of fun)<br>[[File:en-us-we.ogg]] |- | '''woy''' || [woɪ] || Eng. ''<u>woy</u>'' (rhymes with ''boy'') |- | '''wuy''' || [wuɪ] || Eng. ''<u>wooi</u>sh'' (rhymes with ''gooey'') |- | '''aw''' || [ɔː] || Eng. ''<u>aw</u>kward'' |} : In Mirad, the above glided vowels are considered single vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress. So, a word like '''boy''' (''without'') has one consonant ('''b''') and one vowel '''oy''', a post-glided vowel. The letter '''y''' is not a consonant. Similarly, the word '''yan''' (''together'') is composed of the pre-glided vowel '''ya''' plus the consonant '''n'''. : The combination '''hw''' in Mirad is pronounced exactly as ''wh'' in English. The Mirad word '''hway''' (''bravo'') is pronounced exactly as English '''why?'''. The Mirad word is spelled with one consonant ('''h''') followed by one pre-&post-glided vowel '''way'''. : Note that Mirad currently has no words that end in '''w''' except for the prefix '''gaw-''', which means ''re-'' as in English ''re-do''. Words with final '''w''' may be used to represent proper names of people and places but none exist so far in the current Mirad-English dictionary. When '''w''' appears before a vowel, the '''w''' belongs to the syllable following it. The word for ''one'', '''awa''', is syllabified as '''a-wa''' and is stressed on the first syllable. Except for proper nouns referring to people and places, such as '''Waxington''', there are also no native (non-borrowed) Mirad words that begin with '''w''' except for some masculine pronouns like '''wit''' (''he/him''), the sound of the letter '''w''' ('''wu'''), and the chemical terms '''wulk''' (''tungsten'') and '''wumulk''' (''w boson''). <div style="font-size:smaller"> : Note 1: International Phonetic Alphabet. See chart and click on sounds at [[https://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ipa-sounds/ipa-chart-with-sounds/]]. : Note 2: Without the typical ''y-glide'' at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe. : Note 3: Without the typical ''w-glide'' at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe. </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Alphabet|Syllabification}}</noinclude> gjv1f6y2c8ghftthdq4akjwl6grqxif 4673898 4673897 2026-10-03T17:06:54Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Glided Vowels */ 4673898 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> = Consonants = {{IPA notice}} : Consonants are sounds that restrict air flow in the mouth. The sounds of the consonants in an abstract sense are '''''phonemes''''', while the symbols used to represent these sounds in writing are '''''graphemes'''''. == Consonant graphemes and phonemes == : The following chart shows the correspondence of the consonant graphemes and their phonemic values represented in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): {| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller" |+ Correspondence of Consonant Graphemes and Phonemes |- !row=1| Grapheme | '''b''' || '''c''' || '''d''' || '''f''' || '''g''' || '''h''' || '''j''' || '''k''' || '''l''' || '''m''' || '''n''' || '''p''' || '''q''' || '''r''' || '''s''' || '''t''' || '''v''' || '''x''' || '''z''' |- !row=1| Phoneme | /b/ || /t͡ʃ/ || /d/ || /f/ || /g/ || /h/ || /ʒ/ || /k/ || /l/ || /m/ || /n/ || /p/ || /k/ || /ɽ/ || /s/ || /t/ || /v/ || /ʃ/ || /z/ |} == Pronunciation of Consonants == : The following chart shows the Mirad consonants with their phonemic values in the IPA: {| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center;background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em; font-size:smaller" |+ Consonants |- ! !! !! '''Labial''' !! '''Alveolar''' !! '''Palatal''' !! '''Velar''' !! '''Glottal''' |- ! rowspan="1" | '''Nasal''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | '''/m/''' || '''/n/''' || || || |- ! rowspan="2" | '''Plosive''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | '''/b/''' || '''/d/''' || || '''/g/''' || |- ! <small>'''unvoiced'''</small> | '''/p/''' || '''/t/''' || || '''/k/''' || |- ! rowspan="2" | '''Affricate''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | || || || || |- ! <small>'''unvoiced'''</small> | || || '''/t͡ʃ/''' || || |- ! rowspan="2" | '''Fricative''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | '''/v/''' || '''/z/''' || '''/ʒ/''' || || |- ! <small>'''unvoiced'''</small> | '''/f/''' || '''/s/''' || '''/ʃ/''' || || '''/h/''' |- ! rowspan="1" | '''Approximant''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | || '''/l/''' || || || |- ! rowspan="1" | '''Flap''' ! <small>'''voiced'''</small> | || '''/ɽ/''' || || || |} : The phonemes /'''r'''/ and /'''l'''/ are '''''consonant liquids''''' and behave in a special way in forming words in Mirad. : In Mirad, every consonant has a one-to-one correspondence with a single phoneme (ideal sound). Mirad does not use digraphs like ''sh'' or ''ph'' to represent consonant sounds. There are no double consonants, although sometimes a consonant will come together with the same consonant in the same word, but not the same syllable. There are no silent consonants, although the letter '''h''' is silent at the end of a word but causes the stress to move to the final syllable. It is used in that way only in borrowed, non-native Mirad words. Also, there are no letters in "native" Mirad with diacritical marks like '''&eacute;''' or '''&ntilde;'''. : Here are the letters that are pronounced somewhat differently from English: :* The letter '''x''' is pronounced like an ''sh'' in English, or a ''ch'' in French. :* In native Mirad words, '''h''' is pronounced like the ''h'' in English ''hand''. It is sometimes used to simulate foreign sounds like the ''ch'' in Yiddish '''la<u>ch</u>ayim''' (''to life!''), or German '''Ba<u>ch</u>'''. If '''h''' comes at the end of a word, it is silent, but, being a consonant, it can serve to move the stress to the word-final syllable, as in '''Allah''', pronounced '''al-LA'''. :* The letter '''j''' is pronounced like the ''zh'' in Russian ''<u>Zh</u>ivago'' or the ''ge'' in English ''mira<u>ge</u>''. :* The letter '''s''' is always unvoiced as English ''ss'' and never sounds like a '''z'''. :* The letter '''g''' is always a hard sound as in English ''<u>g</u>ap'', not as in English ''wa<u>g</u>e''. :* The letter '''c''' represents the unvoiced affricative sound '''t͡ʃ''' like the ''ch'' in English ''<u>ch</u>ur<u>ch</u>''. Some chemical names and metric units use the letter '''c''', such as '''calilk''' (''chlorine''). The the '''c''' is found in a foreign borrowing unchanged in its spelling, then it is pronounced as it would be in that foreign word. :* The unvoiced plosives '''p''', '''t''', and '''k''' are pronounced without the puff of breath that sometimes follows them in their English counterparts. The corresponding consonants in French are exact equivalents. :* The consonant '''r''' should be a flap or trill like the ''r'' in Brit. Eng. ''ve<u>r</u>y'' or the single, intervocalic ''r'' in Spanish ''pe<u>r</u>o''. :* The consonant '''q''' is usually pronounced as a '''k''', but in foreign borrowings or proper names, it may be pronounced according to context. :* The consonants in the Mirad alphabet correspond one-to-one with phonemes. There are no cases of consonant sounds being represented in native words by digraphs as in English ''ph'', ''sh'', ''ch'', or ''th''. For example, the ''sh'' sound in English is represented by '''x''' in Mirad. The English ''ch'' sound is represented in Mirad with the letter '''c'''. There are no equivalents in Mirad for the English sounds ''th'' in ''this'' or the ''th'' in ''think'', but the combination '''th''' in foreign borrowings is pronounced as it is in the source language. : Here is a chart showing the phonetic values of Mirad consonants: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size: smaller; margin-left:3.2em " |+ Consonants |- ! Mirad Consonant/<br>Semi-Consonant<br>Grapheme !! IPA !! Articulation !! Nearest Equivalents |- | '''b''' || [b] || unaspirated voiced bilabial plosive || French ''<u>b</u>on'', English ''<u>b</u>oy'' |- | '''c''' || [tʃ] || unvoiced palato-alveolar affricate || English ''<u>ch</u>ild'', Spanish ''<u>ch</u>ico'' |- | '''d''' || [d] || unaspirated voiced alveolar plosive || French ''<u>d</u>e'', English ''<u>d</u>og'' |- | '''f''' || [f] || unvoiced labio-dental fricative || English ''<u>f</u>og'' |- | '''g''' || [g] || unaspirated voiced velar plosive || French ''<u>g</u>are'', English ''<u>g</u>ood'' (always hard, even before ''e'' and ''i''). |- | '''h''' || [h]<br>[x] || glottal fricative || English ''<u>h</u>ouse''<br>(used in some foreign words and names as a ''kh''-like sound like German ''Ba<u>ch</u>''. Not pronounced at the end of foreign borrowings like ''Allah'' or ''Arkansah''. |- | '''j''' || [ʒ] || voiced palatal fricative || French ''<u>j</u>e'' or English ''mira<u>g</u>e''. |- | '''k''' || [k] || unaspirated unvoiced velar fricative || French ''<u>c</u>arte'', English ''s<u>k</u>ip'' (without aspiration). |- | '''l''' || [l] || voiced post-alveolar lateral approximant || English ''<u>l</u>ove'' or French ''be<u>l</u>'' (never a dark '''l''' as in English ''be<u>ll</u>''. |- | '''m''' || [m] || voiced bilabial nasal || English ''<u>m</u>other''. |- | '''n''' || [n]<br>[ŋ] || voiced alveolar nasal ||English ''<u>n</u>obody''<br>Before ''g'' or ''k'', like English ''fa<u>n</u>g''. |- | '''p''' || [p] || unvoiced bilabial plosive || French ''<u>p</u>ain'', English ''s<u>p</u>an'' (without aspiration). |- | '''q''' || - || - || (Only used in foreign words, or some chemical names, where it pronounced ''k'' in Mirad). |- | '''r''' || [r] || alveolar flap || Spanish ''mi<u>r</u>a'' or Italian ''<u>R</u>oma'' or British Eng. '''ve<u>r</u>y''. |- | '''s''' || [s] || unvoiced alveolar fricative || Always hard as in English ''<u>s</u>afe'' (never a ''z'' sound as in ''rose''). |- | '''t''' || [t] || unaspirated unvoiced alveolar plosive || French ''<u>t</u>ous'', English ''s<u>t</u>op'' (without aspiration). |- | '''v''' || [v] || voiced labial-dental fricative || English ''<u>v</u>ery''. Spanish and German speakers need to beware: this is not a bilabial consonant, nor is it an ''f'' sound. |- | '''x''' || [ʃ] || unvoiced post-alveolar fricative || English ''<u>sh</u>ape'' or French ''<u>ch</u>er'' |- | '''z''' || /z/ || voiced alveolar fricative || English ''<u>z</u>one''. German speakers, beware. Mirad '''z''' is pronounced like a German '''s''', as in '''<u>s</u>ehr''', not like '''z''' as in '''zehn''', which sounds more like ''ts''. |} : Note that the sounds '''y''' and '''w''' are not included in the section on consonants, because they are glides, that is, they act as boundaries of the vowel nucleus of a syllable, but not the vowel nucleus itself. They are sometimes called semivowels or approximants, but in the present description of Mirad, they are treated in the following section on vowels. = Vowels = : Mirad vowels are divided into simple and glided vowels. The simple vowels are single letters, while the glided vowels have one or more semi-vowel glides ('''y''' or '''w''') prefixed or suffixed. A '''y''' colors a vowel palatally, while a '''w''' colors a vowel labio-velarly. === Simple Vowels === The Mirad graphemes (alphabetic letters) used to represent the simple vowel phonemes (minimal meaningful sounds) are as follows: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em" |+ Vowel Graphemes and Phonemes |- ! Grapheme !! '''a''' !! '''e''' !! '''i''' !! '''o''' !! '''u''' |- !rowspan=1| Phoneme | '''/a/''' || '''/e/''' || '''/i/''' || '''/o/''' || '''/u/''' |} === Pronunciation of Simple Vowels === : The vowel sounds depend on where they are produced in the mouth and whether the lips are rounded or not. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em" |+ Articulation of Simple Vowels |- ! || colspan="2" | Front || colspan="2"| Back |- class=small ! || colspan="3" | Unrounded || Rounded |- align=center ! High | colspan="2"| '''i''' || || '''u''' |- align=center ! Mid | colspan="2"| '''e''' || || '''o''' |- align=center ! Low | colspan="2"| || '''&#x0251;''' || |} :The simple vowels are pronounced as they are in many European Latin-based languages. The table below gives their phonetic values and some close examples in Spanish and French, and not-so-close examples in English. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Simple Vowels |- ! Vowel !! IPA¹ !! Spanish !! French !! English<br>Approximation |- | '''a''' || [''a''] || m<u>a</u>no || <u>à</u><br>[[File:fr-à.ogg]] || ''f<u>a</u>ther'' |- | '''e''' || [''e''] || h<u>e</u>cho || <u>et</u><br>[[File:fr-et.ogg]] || ''d<u>ay</u>'' ² |- | '''i''' || [''i''] || s<u>i</u> || s<u>i</u><br>[[File:fr-si.ogg]] || ''s<u>ee</u>''² |- | '''o''' || [''o''] || n<u>o</u> || de l'<u>eau</u><br>[[File:fr-eau.ogg]] || ''s<u>o</u>''³ |- | '''u''' || [''u''] || t<u>u</u> || <u>ou</u><br>[[File:fr-ou.ogg]] || ''t<u>oo</u>''³ |} : Note that in actual practice, '''i''' and '''e''' have a shorter, more relaxed sound if they are followed by a consonant in the same syllable (a closed syllable). The Mirad word '''it''' (''he/she/him/her'') sounds much like ''it'' in English. Similarly, '''e''' in '''eb''' (''between'') sounds like the short ''e'' in English ''ebb''. :<small>Note 1) The International Phonetic Alphabet</small> :<small>Note 2) This sound in English actually ends in palatal glide (''y'' sound) and is not pure as in French or Spanish.</small> :<small>Note 3) This sound in English ends in a velar glide (''w'' sound) and is not pure as in French or Spanish.</small> === Glided Vowels === : Glided vowels are those preceded and/or followed by the semi-vowel glides '''y''' or '''w'''. This chart shows the possible glided vowels, their IPA equivalents, and their approximate pronunciations using English and other languages. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow; {{Text default color}}; font-size:smaller; margin-left:3.2em" |+ Glided Vowels |- ! Glided Vowels !! IPA¹ !! Pronunciation |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-y-glided Vowels |- | '''ya''' || [ja] || Eng. ''y<u>ach</u>t'', Fr. ''<u>hia</u>cinthe''<br>[[File:en-us-yacht.ogg]] |- | '''ye''' || [je] || Eng. ''<u>ye</u>t'', Fr. ''grill<u>é</u>'' (''grilled'')<br>[[File:fr-grillé.ogg]] |- | '''yi''' || [ji] || Eng. ''<u>yea</u>st''*, Fr. ''bou<u>illi</u>'' |- | '''yo''' || [jo] || Eng. ''<u>yo</u>ke''*, Fr. ma<u>illot</u><br>[[File:fr-maillot.ogg]] |- | '''yu''' || [ju] || Eng. ''<u>you</u>''*, Fr. ''p<u>iou-piou</u>'' |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-w-Glided Vowels |- | '''wa''' || [wa] || Eng. ''w<u>a</u>ter'', Fr. ''g<u>oua</u>che'' (''poster paint'') <br>[[File:en-us-water.ogg]] |- | '''we''' || [we] || Eng. ''w<u>e</u>t'', Fr. ''<u>ouais</u>'' (''yes'') |- | '''wi''' || [wi] || Eng. ''w<u>ee</u>''², Fr. ''<u>oui</u>'' (''yes'')<br>[[File:Fr-oui.ogg]] |- | '''wo''' || [wo] || Eng. ''w<u>o</u>ke''² |- | '''wu''' || [wu] || Eng. ''w<u>oo</u>''² |- ! colspan=3 | Post-y-Glided Vowels |- | '''ay''' || [aɪ] || Eng. ''s<u>igh</u>t'', Sp. ''h<u>ay</u>'' (''there is'')<br>[[File:en-us-I.ogg]] |- | '''ey''' || [eɪ] || Eng. ''d<u>ay</u>'', Sp. ''r<u>ey</u>'' (''king'')<br>[[File:en-us-day.ogg]] |- | '''iy''' || [iɪ] || Eng. ''s<u>ee</u>'', Fr. ''b<u>ille</u>'' (''marble'')<br>[[File:en-us-see.ogg]] |- | '''oy''' || [oɪ] || Eng. ''b<u>oy</u>'', Sp. ''h<u>oy</u>'' (''today'')<br>[[File:en-us-boy.ogg]] |- | '''uy''' || [uɪ] || Eng. ''g<u>ooey</u>'', Sp. ''m<u>uy</u>'' (''very'')<br>[[File:en-us-gooey.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Post-w-Glided Vowels |- | '''aw''' || [ɔ] || Eng. ''<u>awe</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-awe.ogg]] |- | '''ew''' || [eʊ] || colloq. Eng. ''T<u>ell</u> me!''<br>[[File:en-us-tell.ogg]] |- | '''iw''' || [iʊ] || Eng. ''<u>eew!</u> (sound of disgust)'', Du. ''ni<u>ew</u>''<br>[[File:Nl-nieuw.ogg]] (''new'') |- | '''ow''' || [oʊ] || Eng. ''kn<u>ow</u>'', f<u>oe</u><br>[[File:en-us-know.ogg]] |- | '''uw''' || [uʊ] || Eng. ''g<u>oo</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-goo.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-y-Post-w-Glided Vowels |- | '''yaw''' || [jaʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>a</u>w''<br>[[File:en-us-yaw.ogg]] |- | '''yew''' || [jeʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>e</u>ll'' (very rare) |- | '''yiw''' || [jiʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>ie</u>ld'' (very rare) |- | '''yow''' || [joʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>o</u> bro!'' |- | '''yuw''' || [juʊ] || Eng. ''y<u>ou</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-you.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Circum-y-Glided Vowels |- | '''yay''' || [jaɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>i</u>kes''<br>[[File:en-us-yikes.ogg]] |- | '''yey''' || [jeɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>ea</u>!''<br>[[File:en-us-yay.ogg]] |- | '''yiy''' || [jiɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>ee</u>sh! (sound of disgust)''<br>[[File:en-us-ye.ogg]] |- | '''yoy''' || [joɪ] || Eng. ''y<u>oi</u>nk'' ( ''= New Jyoizy'' )<br> |- | '''yuy''' || [juɪ] || Eng. ''H<u>ughie</u>''<br>[[File:EN-AU_ck1_Hughie.ogg]] |- ! colspan=3 | Pre-w-Post-y-Glided |- | '''way''' || [waɪ] || Eng. ''<u>wi</u>se'', Fr. '''<u>ouailles</u>''' (''flock'')<br>[[File:en-us-wise.ogg]] |- | '''wey''' || [weɪ] || Eng. ''<u>way</u>''<br>[[File:en-us-way.ogg]] |- | '''wiy''' || [wiɪ] || Eng. ''<u>wee</u>!'' (sound of fun)<br>[[File:en-us-we.ogg]] |- | '''woy''' || [woɪ] || Eng. ''<u>woy</u>'' (rhymes with ''boy'') |- | '''wuy''' || [wuɪ] || Eng. ''<u>wooi</u>sh'' (rhymes with ''gooey'') |} : In Mirad, the above glided vowels are considered single vowels for the purposes of grammar, syllabification, and stress. So, a word like '''boy''' (''without'') has one consonant ('''b''') and one vowel '''oy''', a post-glided vowel. The letter '''y''' is not a consonant. Similarly, the word '''yan''' (''together'') is composed of the pre-glided vowel '''ya''' plus the consonant '''n'''. : The combination '''hw''' in Mirad is pronounced exactly as ''wh'' in English. The Mirad word '''hway''' (''bravo'') is pronounced exactly as English '''why?'''. The Mirad word is spelled with one consonant ('''h''') followed by one pre-&post-glided vowel '''way'''. : Note that Mirad currently has no words that end in '''w''' except for the prefix '''gaw-''', which means ''re-'' as in English ''re-do''. Words with final '''w''' may be used to represent proper names of people and places but none exist so far in the current Mirad-English dictionary. When '''w''' appears before a vowel, the '''w''' belongs to the syllable following it. The word for ''one'', '''awa''', is syllabified as '''a-wa''' and is stressed on the first syllable. Except for proper nouns referring to people and places, such as '''Waxington''', there are also no native (non-borrowed) Mirad words that begin with '''w''' except for some masculine pronouns like '''wit''' (''he/him''), the sound of the letter '''w''' ('''wu'''), and the chemical terms '''wulk''' (''tungsten'') and '''wumulk''' (''w boson''). <div style="font-size:smaller"> : Note 1: International Phonetic Alphabet. See chart and click on sounds at [[https://www.internationalphoneticalphabet.org/ipa-sounds/ipa-chart-with-sounds/]]. : Note 2: Without the typical ''y-glide'' at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe. : Note 3: Without the typical ''w-glide'' at the end of the English vowel. The vowel should be pure, as in the Romance languages of Europe. </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Alphabet|Syllabification}}</noinclude> b7oovxg4lfi26azxmj9igetb2yx1rik 0 448478 4673899 4660408 2026-10-03T17:14:26Z Tyoyafud 6233 4673899 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> : Mirad words can be categorized as: ::* Substantives (or Nouns and Pronouns) ::* Verbs ::* Modifiers (Adjectives and Adverbs) ::* Connectors (Prepositions and Conjunctions) ::* Particles : The chart below offers a more detailed breakdown: <div style="background: lightYellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|1}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}}";> '''<u>SUBSTANTIVES</u>''' * Nouns ( = '''sunduni''') :* Common Nouns ::* Countable Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tam'''....''house'') :::* Animate Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tob'''....''person'') :::* Inanimate Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pur'''....''car'') :::* Gender-Neutral Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''nyem'''....''box'') :::* Male-Specific Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''twob'''....''man'') :::* Female-Specific Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''toyb'''....''woman'', '''tayf'''....''dress'') :::* Singular Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''sem'''....''table'') :::* Plural Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''semi'''....''tables'') :::* Abstract Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''xeyn'''....''deeds'') ::* Uncountable Nouns :::* Mass Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''miek'''....''sand'', '''gla miek'''....''a lot of sand'') :::* Deverbal Nouns ( ~ Gerunds/Infinitives/Abstractions)&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''melyexen'''....''farming'', '''melyexer'''....''to farm'', '''ifon'''....''love'') :::* Deadjectival Nouns&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''vian'''....''beauty'') :* Proper Nouns ::* Full names&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''Uyanmela Anx'''....''European Union'') ::* Acronyms&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''UA'''....''EU'') :* Abbreviations of Noun Expressions ('''i.m.'''....''d.c.'') * Pronouns ( = '''avduni''') :* Personal Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''iyt'''....''she'') :* Reflexive Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''aut'''....''myself'') :* Possessive Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''atas'''....''mine'') :* Deictic ( ~ Demonstrative) Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''hus'''....''that'') :* Quantitative Determiner Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''glati'''....''many of them'') :* Reciprocal Pronouns&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''hyuit'''....''one another'') '''<u>VERBS</u>''' ( = '''erduni''') * Tenses :* Present&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pe'''....''goes'') :* Past&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pa'''....''went'') :* Future&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''po'''....''will go'') :* Atemporal&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pu!'''....''Go!'') * Aspects :* Progressive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''peye'''....''is going'', '''peya'''....''was going'') :* Perfect&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''paye'''....''has gone'', '''paya'''....''had gone'') :* Imminent&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''poye'''....''is about to go'', '''poya'''....''was to go'') :* Potential&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''puye'''....''is apt to go'', '''puya'''....''was apt to go'') * Moods :* Hypothetical&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pu'''....''would go'', '''[van has] pu'''....''[that it] go'') :* Indicative&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''po'''...''will go'', '''pe'''....''goes'') * Voices :* Active&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''It yijba ha mes.'''....''He opened the door.'') :* Passive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''Ha mes yijbwa.'''....''The door was opened.'') :* Medio-passive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''Ha mes yija.'''....''The door opened.'') * Transitivity :* Transitive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''bexer'''....''to hold'') :* Intransitive&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( '''beser'''....''to stay'') * Dynamicity :* Static&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tuja'''....''slept'') :* Dynamic&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tujpa'''....''fell asleep'') * Focus :* Subject-oriented&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''yafe'''....''is able'', '''tia'''....''learned'') :* Patient-oriented&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''yafwe'''....''is possible'', '''tua'''....''informed'') '''<u>MODIFIERS</u>''' * Adjectives ( = '''aduni''') :* Deictic Adjectives ( ~ Determiners)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''duhoa?'''....''which?'', '''hyea'''....''any'') :* Descriptive Adjectives&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''via'''....''beautiful'') :* Denominal Adjectives&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''vensona'''....''conditional'') :* Pronominal ( ~ Possessive) Adjectives)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''yata'''....''our'') :* Deverbal Adjectives ( ~ Participles)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''tejea'''....''living'', '''obwa'''....''removed'') :* Numeric Adjectives&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''awa'''....''one'', '''ewa'''....''two'') * Adverbs ( = '''ayduni''') :* Inherent adverbs&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''voy'''....''not'') :* Derived adverbs&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ikay'''....''fully'') '''<u>CONNECTORS</u>''' * Prepositions ( = '''ebduni''') :* Simple Prepositions&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''av'''....''for'') :* Complex Prepositions ('''be zam bi'''....''in front of'', '''yib bi'''....''far from'') * Conjunctions ( = '''yanxduni''') :* Coordinating&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''ay'''....''and'', '''ey'''....''or'') :* Subordinating&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''van'''....''that'', '''ven'''....''if'') :* Correlative&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''hyaewa'''...'''ay'''....''both''...''and'') :* Adverbial&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''johus'''....''then'', '''avhus'''....''therefore'') '''<u>PARTICLES</u>''' ( = '''dunesi''') * Interjections&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ( = '''tipduni''') ('''hay!'''....''hello!'', '''hway!'''....''bravo!'') * Cardinal Numbers&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''a'''....''one'', '''e'''....''two'') * Letter Names&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''a''', '''ba''', '''ca''') * Onomatopeia&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''pao!''', '''xux!''') * Abbreviations&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''a.g.'''....''etc.'', '''a.k.'''....''e.g.'') * Musical notes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; ('''la''', '''ti''', '''do''') </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Phonotactics|Nouns}}</noinclude> p8109swioz58d9fjqk1ae2uhycs1we0 0 450432 4673911 4672840 2026-10-03T18:20:42Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Types of Numbers */ 4673911 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yoona'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yoon-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yoonxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yaona'''....''sextuple'' || '''yaonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yaon-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yaonxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>An extra ''o'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yoonat''' or '''yoot'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yoontajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yoonati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must keep the '''-on''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yoon</u>gona'''....''<u>quinti</u>partite''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yaon</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yoondeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yaondeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab'') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> ay6tp9pzw4cgvi6tjkrbldhzkzpgi2i 4673912 4673911 2026-10-03T18:32:46Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Multiples */ 4673912 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yoondeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yaondeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab'') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> m4njmg19mvo4txxjtqhlddxiyxcqfl7 4673913 4673912 2026-10-03T18:36:39Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Number Words Pertaining to Meter */ 4673913 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yaon-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab'') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> fu1sh8408u66lhhwji2mox40t3v593q 4673914 4673913 2026-10-03T18:37:44Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad */ 4673914 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yawn-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab'') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> t1f5aat7ug36okbtmhwb8w3uuk1mnrh 4673915 4673914 2026-10-03T18:38:28Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Number Words Referring to Groups of People */ 4673915 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yawn-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab'') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> edj8gdc8lxxcuwdy2veldx6k4vwfh8c 4673916 4673915 2026-10-03T18:50:55Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Number Words Referring to Groups of Years */ 4673916 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yawn-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab''') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters are prefaced with the word '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> 7ge5f9yvkki3l1sbymngq4jqu1byold 4673917 4673916 2026-10-03T18:59:19Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Metric Units */ 4673917 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yawn-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab''') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters) are prefixed with '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....'to buy, to purchase'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> 7pwe3k62plfho904xmd3upls8bahbuc 4673923 4673917 2026-10-03T19:39:20Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Currency Nomenclature */ 4673923 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yawn-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab''') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters) are prefixed with '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' ::::* '''jobnixbuer'''....''to loan'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....''to buy, to purchase'' ::::* '''jobnuxbier'''....''to rent'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''ojbier'''....''to borrow'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''ojbuer'''....''to lend'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> foxvk6auej6rwfyklxws7ffwwqolto3 4673924 4673923 2026-10-03T19:59:07Z Tyoyafud 6233 /* Currency Nomenclature */ 4673924 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{status|100%}}</noinclude> == Types of Numbers == : Numerals are words used to vocalize numbers, which are scalar symbols used to count and quantify things and people. For example the numeral ''two'' is how the number ''2'' is read or spoken. Mirad uses Arabic numbers (0, 1, 2, 3...), as in all Western World languages. : Numerals can be various parts of speech: ::* '''''numeric nouns''''' (''The score was <u>six</u> to <u>four</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric pronouns''''' (''I want <u>two</u>. Give me the <u>fifth one</u>.'') ::* '''''numeric determiners''''' (''<u>Five</u> days ago. The <u>fifth</u> day. A <u>double</u> dose.'') ::* '''''prefixes''''' (''<u>mono</u>chrome'', ''<u>bi</u>centennial'', ''<u>tri</u>angle'') ::* '''''rootwords''''' ('''<u>an</u>xer'''....''to unite'', '''<u>on</u>xer'''....''to annihilate'') : Number-based words include: ::* '''''cardinal numbers''''' (''one, two, three...'' used in counting and arithmetic) ::* '''''ordinal numbers''''' (''first, second...'' indicating ordered position) ::* '''''multiplicative numbers''''' (''double, triple, foursome...'') ::* '''''fractional numbers''''' (''half, third, hundredth...'') ::* '''''frequency numbers''''' (''once, twice, thrice...'') ::* '''''miscellaneous number-based words''''' (''only, percentage, annihilate'') == Cardinal Numbers == [[File:Waehlscheibe-kurzwahlnummern.jpg|thumb|]] : The cardinal numbers are words used in counting and reciting numerals such as telephone numbers, social security numbers, and zip codes, and in arithmetic. They are also used as the so-called "ordinal" stem vowels of words that relate to one another in a scalar, hierarchical, or some other ontological relationship. See this in [[Mirad_Grammar/Vocabulary_Formation|the chapter on Vocabulary Formation]]. === Units === :* The cardinal unit numerals are formed from the simple and pre-'''y'''-glided vowels. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; text-align:center;font-size:smaller;" |+ Units |- ! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 |- | '''o''' || '''a''' || '''e''' || '''i''' || '''u''' || '''yo''' || '''ya''' || '''ye''' || '''yi''' || '''yu''' |- | ''zero'' || ''one'' || ''two'' || ''three'' || ''four'' || ''five'' || ''six'' || ''seven'' || ''eight'' || ''nine'' |} ::* '''Ata yibdalar sag se 703-842-6190''' (pronounced: '''ye-o-i-yi-u-e-ya-a-yu-o).'''....''My telephone number is...''. ::* '''At tambese <u>114</u>''' (pronounced: '''a-a-u''') ''Maple Street.'' ::* '''<u>E</u> gab <u>e</u> se <u>u</u>.'''....''<u>Two</u> plus <u>two</u> is <u>four</u>.'' === Decades === ::* The decade formant '''-l-''' is used to form the '''''decades'''''. Followed by '''-o'''....''zero'', we have the base decade numerals. These can be used for number recitation, arithmetic, and as numeric adjectives followed by plural nouns: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decades with the -l- Formant |- ! 10 !! 20 !! 30 !! 40 !! 50 !! 60 !! 70 !! 80 !! 90 |- | '''alo''' || '''elo''' || '''ilo''' || '''ulo''' || '''yolo''' || '''yalo''' || '''yelo''' || '''yilo''' || '''yulo''' |- | ''ten'' || ''twenty'' || ''thirty'' || ''forty'' || ''fifty'' || ''sixty'' || ''seventy'' || ''eighty'' || ''ninety'' |} :: By changing the '''o'''....''zero'' in '''lo''' to other cardinal unit numerals, the numerals within decades can be generated as follows: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Decadal Counting |- | '''ala'''....''11'' || '''ela'''....''21'' || '''ila'''....''31'' || '''ula'''....''41'' || '''yola'''....''51'' || '''yala'''....''61'' || '''yela'''....''71'' || '''yila'''....''81'' || '''yula'''....''91'' |- | '''ale'''....''12'' || '''ele'''....''22'' || '''ile'''....''32'' || '''ule'''....''42'' || '''yole'''....''52'' || '''yale'''....''62'' || '''yele'''....''72'' || '''yile'''....''82'' || '''yule'''....''92'' |- | ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ... |- | '''alyu'''....''19'' || '''elyu'''....''29'' || '''ilyu'''....''39'' || '''ulyu'''....''49'' || '''yolyu'''....''59'' || '''yalyu'''....''69'' || '''yelyu'''....''79'' || '''yilyu'''....''89'' || '''yulyu'''....''99'' |} ::* '''At ayse <u>alo</u> dati.'''....''I have <u>ten</u> friends.'' ::* '''It yafe sagder byu <u>alyo</u>.'''....''He can count up to <u>fifteen</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Yulyu</u> gob <u>alo</u> gese <u>yilyu</u>.'''....''<u>Ninety-nine</u> minus <u>ten</u> equals <u>eighty-nine</u>.'' === Hundreds === ::* By adding the hundreds formant '''s''', you get the '''''hundreds''''': ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Hundreds with the -s- Formant |- ! 100 !! 200 !! 300 !! 400 !! 500 !! 600 !! 700 !! 800 !! 900 |- | '''aso''' || '''eso''' || '''iso''' || '''uso''' || '''yoso''' || '''yaso''' || '''yeso''' || '''yiso''' || '''yuso''' |} :: All the in-between numerals of the hundreds can be generated by modifying the '''so''' ending with the units and decades: :::* '''asa'''....''101'' :::* '''asale'''....''112'' :::* '''yosyulyi'''....''598'' :::* '''yusyulyu'''....''999'' === Thousands === ::* The '''''thousands''''' are generated with the formant '''r''': : :: Note: The numeral categories starting with the thousands on up end in '''-o''' and are separated from the rest of a numeral by a space. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Thousands |- ! 1000 !! 2000 !! 3000 !! 4000 !! 5000 !! 6000 !! 7000 !! 8000 !! 9000 |- | '''aro''' || '''ero''' || '''iro''' || '''uro''' || '''yoro''' || '''yaro''' || '''yero''' || '''yiro''' || '''yuro''' |} :::* '''aro'''....''1,000'' :::* '''aro a'''....''1,001'' :::* '''ero isi'''....''2,300'' :::* '''yoro yasula'''....''5,641'' === Millions === ::* The '''''millions''''' are generated with the formant '''ml'''. The millions part of the numeral are kept separate from the rest of the numeral. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Millions with the -ml- Formant |- ! 1,000,000 !! 2,000,000 !! 3,000,000 !! 4,000,000 !! 5,000,000 !! 6,000,000 !! 7,000,000 !! 8,000,000 !! 9,000,000 |- | '''amlo''' || '''emlo''' || '''imlo''' || '''umlo''' || '''yomlo''' || '''yamlo''' || '''yemlo''' || '''yimlo''' || '''yumlo''' |} :::* '''emlo yala'''....''2,000,051'' :::* '''umlo esu'''....''4,000,204'' :::* '''yumlo usyoro isyala'''....''9,405,361'' === Billions === ::* The '''''billions''''' are generated with the formant '''mr'''; ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Billions |- ! 1,000,000,000 !! 2,000,000,000 !! 3,000,000,000 !! 4,000,000,000 !! 5,000,000,000 !! 6,000,000,000 !! 7,000,000,000 !! 8,000,000,000 !! 9,000,000,000 |- | '''amro''' || '''emro''' || '''imro''' || '''umro''' || '''yomro''' || '''yamro''' || '''yemro''' || '''yimro''' || '''yumro''' |} : In numerals ending in '''-ro''' (''thousand''), '''-mlo''' (''million''), and '''-mro''' (''billion''), these numerals keep the '''-o''' and are separated by a space from the other elements of the numeral. :::* '''imro emlo yoro asyula'''....''three billion, two million, five thousand, one hundred fifty one'' :::* '''iro asyulyo'''....''3,195'' :::* '''yamlo asyulyo'''....''6,000,195'' :::* '''alomro yelyomlo asyilyaro yusele'''....''10,075,186,922'' === Trillions etc. === : The '''''trillions''''' are generated with the word '''garale''', which means ''10 to the positive power of 12 or 10¹².'' : These numerals do not combine with surrounding numerals. ::* '''i garale'''....''3,000,000,000'' (''three trillion'') ::* '''eso garale'''....''200,000,000,000'' (''two hundred trillion'') : Even higher numerals are shown in the [[Mirad_Grammar/Numbers#Number_Chart|Number Chart later in this chapter]]. == Numeric Determiners == : Numeric Determiners are adjectives based on numerals that modify a following noun. === Integers === : The unit numeric integer determiners, which are used to quantify nouns, consist of the cardinal units followed by the unit formant '''wa'''. The noun following the numeric determiner is plural if the number is greater than one. The '''wa''' formant is used on unit numerals when they are stand-alone, not when they are part of a larger number. In contrast with English usage, "zero" is followed by a singular noun (''zero box'' vs. ''zero boxes''. Think of it as ''not a single box''). ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Standalone Unit Numeric Determiners |- ! owa tam !! awa tam !! ewa tami !! iwa tami !! uwa tami !! yowa tami !! yawa tami !! yewa tami !! yiwa tami !! yuwa tami |- | ''no/zero houses'' || ''one house'' || ''two houses'' || ''three houses'' || ''four houses''|| ''five houses'' || ''six houses'' || ''seven houses'' || ''eight houses'' || ''nine houses'' |} : <small>If a unit number is used in forming larger numbers like 13 or 204, no '''wa''' is used.</small> :: In a sequence of noun modifiers, the numerical determiner goes in the same place as in English, eg: ::* '''Ata <u>iwa</u> gajaga twidi bese bay at.'''....''My <u>three</u> older brothers live with me.'' ::* '''Hia <u>uwa</u> tomi losexwo.'''....''These <u>four</u> buildings will be destroyed.'' ::* '''At fu <u>ewa ey iwa</u> gouni.'''....''I would like <u>two or three</u> pieces.'' : The numeric determiners beyond the units do NOT take the '''-wa''' suffix. For example, '''ala tami'''....''eleven houses''. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Numeric Determiners modifying a singular or plural noun |- ! Mirad !! English !! '''Wa''' Behavior !! Pluralization Behavior |- | '''o<u>wa</u> tam''' || ''no houses, zero houses'' || The numeral is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || The numeral is less than 2, <br>so the noun is singular. |- | '''awa tam''' || ''one house, a house''|| " || " |- | '''ewa tam<u>i</u>''' || ''two houses''|| " || The numeral is greater than 2, <br>so the noun is plural. |- | '''iwa tami''' || ''three houses''|| " || " |- | '''uwa tami''' || ''four houses'' || " || " |- | '''yowa tami''' || ''five houses'' || " || " |- | '''yawa tami''' || ''six houses''|| " || " |- | '''yewa tami''' || ''seven houses'' || " || " |- | '''yiwa tami''' || ''eight houses'' || " || " |- | '''yuwa tami''' || ''nine houses'' || " || " |- | '''alo tami''' || ''ten houses'' || The numeral is not a unit <br>so no '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''ase tami''' || ''a hundred two houses'' || " || " |- | '''ero iwa tami''' || ''two thousand three houses'' || The numeral '''i''' is a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is suffixed. || " |- | '''iro alo tami''' || ''three thousand ten houses'' || The numeral '''alo''' is not a unit, <br>so '''wa''' is not suffixed. || " |} : Numeric determiners can be pronominalized as things and persons by suffixing '''s''' or '''t''', respectively. These can, in turn, be pluralized by suffixing '''i'''. Furthermore, person pronouns can be feminized with a '''y''' before the '''t'''. The '''s''' suffix is short for '''sun'''....''thing'' or '''suni'''....''things''. The '''t''' ending is short for '''aot'''....''person'' or '''aoti'''....''persons.'' For example: ::* '''Et ayse awa tam. At gey ayse <u>awas</u>.''' (singular inanimate pronoun)....''You have one house. I have <u>one</u> too.'' ::* '''At aysa alo drari. Hij at ayse anay <u>ewasi</u> (plural inanimate pronoun).'''....''I had ten pencils. Now I only have <u>two</u>.'' ::* '''Esa <u>asoti</u> yeb be ha duzam.''' (plural animate pronoun).... '''There were <u>a hundred people</u> in the concert hall.''' ::* '''Yat yefe kebier <u>awoyt</u> bi huti.''' (singular animate female pronoun)....''We must choose <u>one female person</u> from those people.'' === Ordinals === : Ordinal numeric determiners (= ordinals) like ''first'', ''second'', etc. are formed from the cardinal numerals by adding the adjectival ending '''a''' to the cardinal numeral. A variation of this is with the word '''nap''' (''order'') inserted: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Ordinal Numeric Determiner !! Variation with '''nap''' (''order'') |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oa'''....''zeroth'' || '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aa'''....''first'' || '''anapa'''....''first'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''ea'''....''second'' || '''enapa'''....''second'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ia'''....''third'' || '''inapa'''....''third'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloa'''....''tenth'' || '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' |- | '''asu'''....''104'' || '''asua'''....''104th'' || '''asunapa'''....''104th'' |- | '''garale'''....''trillion'' || '''garalea'''....''trillionth'' || '''garalenapa'''....''trillionth'' |} : Note: '''ana''' is an adjective meaning ''only, single'', eg. '''Iyt se ana tud.'''....''She is an only child''. As an adverb, '''anay''' means ''only'', eg. '''At yexe anay be tam.'''....''I work only at home.'' : There are other ordinal adjectives that are not based on numbers: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Words Not Based on Numbers |- ! Root Word !! Ordinal Word |- |'''ij'''....''beginning'' || '''ijna''' or '''ijnapa'''....''first'' |- |'''uj'''....''end'' || '''ujna''' or '''ujnapa'''....''last'' |- |'''aj'''....''past'' || '''ajna''' or '''ajnapa'''....''ex-, former, previous'' |- |'''oj'''....''future'' || '''ojna''' or '''ojnapa'''....''future, upcoming'' |- |'''ej'''....''present'' || '''ejna''' or '''ejnapa'''....''current, new, present'' |- |'''ja'''....''before'' || '''jana''' or '''janapa'''....''previous, last, foregoing'' |- |'''jo'''....''after'' || '''jona''' or '''jonapa'''....''next, following'' |- |'''za'''....''in front of''|| '''zana''' or '''zanapa'''....''next'' |- |'''zo'''....''behind''|| '''zona''' or '''zonapa'''....''last (previous, foregoing)'' |} : Ordinal determiners and adjectives can be converted to adverbs by adding the suffix '''y''' to the adjectival counterparts: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Ordinal Adverbs |- ! Adjective !! Adverb |- | '''aa'''....''first'' || '''aay'''....''firstly'' |- | '''anapa'''....''first'' || '''anapay'''....''primarily'' |- | '''ea'''....''second'' || '''eay'''....''secondly'' |- | '''ujna'''....''last'' || '''ujnay'''....''finally'' |} : Ordinal determiners can be converted to animate pronouns (persons) with the suffix '''t''' and inanimate pronouns (things) with the suffix '''s'''. These, in turn, can be pluralized with the suffix '''i'''. Neutral-gender animate pronouns can be made specifically masculine or feminine by changing '''at''' to '''wat''' for the former, and to '''ayt''' for the latter: ::* '''ha aas'''....''the first thing'' ::* '''ha aat'''....''the first person'' ::* '''ha aati'''....''the first people'' ::* '''hua aayt'''....''that first female'' ::* '''ha enapas'''....''the second thing'' ::* '''ewat'''....''another guy'' ::* '''Ha ujnati so ha ijnati.'''....''The last shall be first.'' ::* '''ha zanapat'''....''the next fellow'' : Again, in the sequencing of stacked adjectival elements, the order is as in English, that is: <deictic or pronominal determiner> | <ordinal determiner> | <cardinal numerical determiner> | <adjective> ::* '''hua <u>uwa</u> aga tami'''....''those <u>four</u> big houses'' ::* '''ha <u>aa</u> alo oga tami'''....''the <u>first</u> ten little houses'' ::* '''ata <u>anapa</u> ewa oga tudi'''....''my <u>first</u> two little children'' Note: Ordinal numeric determiners are not to be confused with '''''ordinal vowels''''', which are used to derive scalar iterations of nouns. Cardinal numbers are used in the latter case, eg.: ::* '''d<u>o</u>b'''....''state'' (1st level) ::* '''d<u>a</u>b'''....''government'' (2nd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>e</u>b'''....''leader'' (3rd level derivative) ::* '''d<u>i</u>b'''....''administration'' (4th " " ) ::* '''d<u>u</u>b'''....''minister'' (5th " " ) === Fractions === : Fractional numeric determiners ( = fractions) like ''half'' and ''quarter'' are formed by adding '''-yn''' for those functioning as nouns, '''-yna''' for adjectives, '''-ynay''' for adverbs, or '''-yn''' for prefixes, to the respective cardinal numeral. {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:1.6em;font-size:smaller;" |+ Fractional Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Fraction as Noun !! As Adjective !! As Adverb || As Prefix || As Verb |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oyn'''....''a void, vacuum, null'' || '''oyna'''....''null, nil'' || -- || '''oyn-'''....''devoid of'' || '''oynxer'''....''annihilate, nullify'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''ayn'''....''whole'' || '''ayna'''....''entire, whole'' || '''aynay'''....''entirely'' || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, whole-, all-'' || '''aynxer'''....''integrate'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eyn'''....''a half'' || '''eyna'''....''half'' || '''eynay'''....''halfway'' || '''eyn-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-, demi-'' || '''eynxer'''....''halve'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''iyn'''....''a third'' || '''iyna'''....''third'' || '''iynay'''....''by a third'' || '''iyn-'''....''terci''- || '''iynxer'''....''cut in third'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' || '''uyna'''....''quarter'' || '''uynay'''....''quarterly'' || '''uyn-'''....''quadri''- || '''uynxer'''....''quarter'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' || '''aloyna'''....''tenth'' || '''aloynay'''....''by a tenth'' || '''aloyn-'''....''deci''- || '''aloynxer'''....''decimate'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''asoyn'''....''hundredth, percent'' || '''asoyna'''....''hundredth'' || '''asoynay'''....''by a hundredth'' || '''asoyn-'''....''centi-'' || '''asoynxer'''....''cut by a hundred'' |} : Here are some examples: :* '''His uxo ha <u>oynxen</u> bi yata mir.'''....''This will cause the <u>anihilation</u> of our world.'' :* '''Ha <u>ayna</u> mir te ayv et.'''....''The <u>whole</u> world knows about you.'' :* '''Is se gas vyel ha <u>ayn</u> bi isa goni.'''....''It is more than the <u>whole</u> of its parts.'' :* '''Ferad se <u>ayn</u>dyana dalzeyn.'''....''French is a <u>holo</u>phrastic language.'' :* '''Et yafe bier <u>eyn</u> bi is.'''....''You can take <u>half</u> of it.'' :* '''Yat yefo <u>eynxer</u> eta yexnix.'''....''We will have to <u>halve</u> your salary.'' :* '''Hus sa <u>eyn</u>vyan.'''....''That was a <u>half-</u>truth.'' :* '''Eso <u>eyn</u>zyunida dropek.'''....''There is going to be a <u>hemi</u>spheric war.'' :* '''Duven his se <u>eyn</u>utexea dopar?'''....''Is this a <u>semi-</u>automatic weapon?'' :* '''<u>Iynxu</u> hua absakpovel.'''....''<u>Cut</u> that pie <u>in thirds</u>.'' :* '''It yeyfe bixwer ay <u>uynxwer</u>.'''....''He should be drawn and <u>quartered</u>.'' :* '''Hia nas se <u>aloyn</u> bi hos yat nixa zojab.'''....''This money is a <u>tenth</u> of what we earned last year.'' :* '''Ha dep <u>aloynxwu</u>.'''....''The army <u>would be decimated.</u>'' :* '''Ewa <u>asoyni</u> bi ha dityan baksa.'''....''Two <u>percent (=hundredths)</u> of the citizenry got sick.'' :* '''Hia tom se anay <u>asoyn</u> ge aga vyel hua tom.'''....''This building is only <u>a hundredth</u> as big as that building.'' :* '''Hwut se <u>oyntofa</u>.'''....''That guy is naked.'' : The fractional adverbs can be used as in these examples: :* '''Et so <u>aynay</u> dudyefa av eta xeyni.'''....'''You will be <u>wholly</u> accountable for your actions.''' :* '''Iyt <u>eynay</u> tikabeloka.'''....''She <u>almost</u> (= halfway) threw up.'' : Pronominalizations like ''half of it, a third of them'': ::* '''<u>Eynas</u> sa fia.'''....''<u>Half of it</u> was good.'' ::* '''<u>Eynasi</u> sa fua.'''....''<u>Half of them</u> (things) were bad.'' ::* '''Esa uwa tobi be hua fukyes. <u>Eynati</u> toja.'''....''There were four people in that accident. <u>Half (of them)</u> died.'' ::* '''<u>Iynati</u> bi yet se vyaka.'''....''<u>A third</u> of you are right.'' ::* '''<u>Uynati</u> bi yat yantexe.'''....''<u>A quarter</u> of us agree.'' ::* '''<u>Alo asoyni</u> bi hia dyesi fyunxwa.'''....''<u>Ten percent</u> of these books were ruined.'' === Multiples === : Multiplicative numeric determiners ( = multiples) like ''double'', ''triple'' can be formed by adding '''-on''' to the respective cardinal numeral if the numeral is '''''monosyllabic''''', otherwise just '''-n'''. These noun forms can be adjectivized with the suffix '''-a'''. They can also serve as prefixes on animate nouns, inanimate nouns, and prefixes, as the following chart shows. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Multiplicative Numeric Determiners |- ! Cardinal Numeral !! Multiple as Noun !! ...As Adjective !! ...As Adverb !! ...As Prefix !! ...as Verb-maker |- | '''o'''....''zero'' || '''oon'''....''null'' || '''oona'''....''nil'' || || '''on-'''....''zero-'' || '''onxer'''....''cancel, zero out'' |- | '''a'''....''one'' || '''aon'''....''single'' || '''aona'''....''single'' || '''aonay'''....''singly'' || '''an-'''....''uni-/mono-'' || '''anxer'''....''unify'' |- | '''e'''....''two'' || '''eon'''....''twosome, double'' || '''eona'''....''double'' || '''eonay'''....''doubly'' || '''en-'''....''di-/bi-'' || '''enxer'''....''double'' |- | '''i'''....''three'' || '''ion'''....''threesome, triplet'' || '''iona'''....''triple'' || '''ionay'''....''triply'' || '''in-'''....''tri-''- || '''inxer'''....''triple'' |- | '''u'''....''four'' || '''uon'''....''quartet'' || '''uona'''....''quadruple'' || '''uonay'''....''quadruply'' || '''un-'''....''quadri-/tetra-'' || '''unxer'''....''quadruple'' |- | '''yo'''....''five'' || '''yoon'''....''quintet'' || '''yowna'''....''quintuple'' || '''yoonay'''....''quintuply'' || '''yown-*'''....''quinti-/penta-'' || '''yownxer*'''....''quintuple'' |- | '''ya'''....''six'' || '''yaon'''....''sextet'' || '''yawna'''....''sextuple'' || '''ywonay'''....''sextuply'' || '''yawn-*'''....''sexi-/hexa-'' || '''yawnxer*'''....''sextuple'' |- | '''alo'''....''ten'' || '''alon'''....''decade'' || '''alona'''....''decadic'' || '''alonay'''....''by a multiple of ten'' || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || '''alonxer'''....''multiply by ten'' |- | '''aso'''....''hundred'' || '''ason'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asona'''....''hundredfold'' || '''asonay'''....''by a hundredfold'' || '''ason-'''....''hecato-'' || '''asonxer'''....''multiply by a hundred'' |} :: * <small>A ''w'' is added to these prefixes to avoid ambiguity with '''yan''' meaning ''together'' and '''yon''' meaning ''apart.''</small> : The multiplicative noun ''dozen'' is expressed by '''aleon'''. :* '''<u>Aleoni</u> bi pati yizpapa.'''....''<u>Dozens</u> of birds flew by.'' : By adding the suffix '''-at''' to the noun multiple, we get groupings of people. The '''-na-''' in some of these words can be omitted, thereby simplifying the words: :* '''aonat''' or '''aot''' ....''solo, single, person'' ::* '''aonatser''' of '''aotser'''....''become single, become a person'' ::* '''aonawat'''....''singleton'' :* '''eonat''' or '''eot'''....''duo, pair, twosome, couple'' ::* '''eotxer'''....''to copulate'' ::* '''eontajat'''....''twin'' :* '''ionat''' or '''iot'''....''trio, threesome, trinity'' ::* '''iotxer'''....''to do a threesome'' ::* '''Ionatin'''....''Trinitarianism'' ::* '''iontajati'''....''triplets'' :* '''uonat''' or '''uot''' ....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''uontajat'''....''quadruplet'' :* '''yownat''' or '''yowt'''....''quintet, group of five people'' ::* '''yowntajati'''....''quintuplets'' ::* '''yownati'''....''quintets'' : By adding the suffix '''-un''' instead of '''-on''', we get the following: :* '''aun'''....''unit'' ::* '''auna'''....''unitary, individual'' ::* '''aunser'''....''unite'' ::* '''aunyan'''....''series'' :::* '''aunyana'''....''serial'' :* '''eun'''....''pair'' ::* '''euna'''....''even, paired, binary'' ::* '''oleuna'''....''odd, non-binary, uneven, unpaired'' :::* '''oleunat'''....''odd man out'' :::* '''eunxer'''....''even out'' : Some examples where the above multiple determiners and derivatives are used: ::* '''Yat naptyopa be <u>eo(na)ti</u> yez bi ha mep.'''....''We marched in <u>twos (= pairs)</u> down the street.'' ::* '''<u>Asonati</u> upo bay yat bu hia ovdal.'''....''<u>Hundreds (of people)</u> will come with us to this protest.'' ::* '''Hia ivxel xwe <u>en</u>jabay.'''....''This celebration happens <u>bi</u>ennially.'' ::* '''Iyt se <u>un</u>tupokyat.'''....''She is a <u>quadri</u>plegic. (Lit: x 4+limb+loss+person)'' ::* '''Diwe sagu ha <u>auni</u>.'''....''Please count the <u>units</u>.'' ::* '''Yet gafisa <u>aronay</u>!'''....''You all have improved <u>a thousandfold</u>!'' ::* '''Tob se <u>en</u>tyoyaba sat.'''....''Man is a <u>bi</u>pedal creature.'' : Note: Sometimes the multiple prefix ending in '''-on''' in the numbers below ten is shortened to '''-n''' in common words: ::* '''<u>an</u>zyuk'''....''<u>mono</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>en</u>zyuk'''....''<u>bi</u>cycle'' ::* '''<u>in</u>gun'''....''<u>tri</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>un</u>gun'''....''<u>quadr</u>angle'' ::* '''<u>yown</u>gon'''....''<u>penta</u>gon'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gon'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon'' : Note: The prefixes for ''penta-/quinti-'' and ''hexa-/sext-'' must use '''w''' so as to distinguish them from the prefixes '''yon'''....''apart'' and '''yan'''....''together''. This rule does not apply to numbers inside chemical names and formulas (See [[Mirad Grammar/Vocabulary Formation#Coding Chemical Elements|Coding Chemical Elements]]). ::* '''<u>yown</u>gun'''....''<u>penta</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yon</u>per'''....''separate, go <u>apart</u>'' ::* '''<u>yawn</u>gun'''....''<u>hexa</u>gon''&nbsp;&nbsp;BUT: '''<u>yan</u>uper'''....''meet, come <u>together</u>'' : Note: ::* '''aot'''....''individual, person'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, pair, duo'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Distributives === : The following table shows the Mirad equivalents for distributive numbers that refer to the base or radix upon which a number is based. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; font-style:smaller;" |- ! number ! Latinate ! Grecian ! Mirad |- | 0 | ''nullary'' | ''niladic'', ''medadic'' | '''onsuna''' |- | 1 | ''unary'' |'' monadic'' | '''ansuna''' |- | 2 | ''binary'' | ''dyadic'' | '''ensuna''' |- | 3 | ''ternary'' | ''triadic'' | '''insuna''' |- | 4 | ''quaternary'' | tetradic | '''unsuna''' |- | 5 | ''quinary'' | ''pentadic'' | '''yoonsuna''' |- | 6 | ''senary'' | ''hexadic'' | '''yaonsuna''' |- | 7 | ''septenary'' | ''heptadic'' | '''yensuna''' |- | 8 | ''octonary'' | ''octadic'' | '''yinsuna''' |- | 9 | ''novenary'' |'' enneadic'' | '''yunsuna''' |- | 10 | ''denary, decimal'' | ''decadic'' | '''alonsuna''' |- | 11 | ''undenary, undecimal'' | ''endecadic'' | '''alansuna''' |- | 12 | ''duodenary, duodecimal'' | ''dodecadic'' | '''alensuna''' |- | 16 | ''sedecimal'' | ''hexadecimal'' | '''alyansuna''' |- | 20 | ''vigenary, vicenary'' | ''icosadic'' | '''elonsuna''' |} === Frequentatives === : Words related to frequency are formed in various ways: :: With '''-xag''' (''frequency'') ::* '''duhoxag?'''....''how many times?, how often?'' ::* '''oxag'''....''never (zero times)'' ::* '''axag'''....''once'' ::* '''exag'''....''twice'' ::* '''ixag'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''aloxag'''....''ten times'' ::* '''glaxag'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''gloxag'''....''seldom'' ::* '''hexag''' ....''sometimes'' ::* '''hyaxag'''....''at all times'' ::* '''hyoxag'''....''not a single time'' ::* '''graxag'''....''too often'' ::* '''grexag'''....''frequently enough'' ::* '''groxag'''.....''not often enough'' ::* '''gwaxag'''.....''most often'' ::* '''gwoxag'''.....''least often'' :: Or, with '''-jod(i)'''....''times, instances'' ::* '''duhogla jodi?'''....''how many times?'' ::* '''owa jod'''....''zero times, not a single time'' ::* '''awa jod'''....''one time'' ::* '''ewa jodi'''....''two time, twice'' ::* '''iwa jodi'''....''three times, thrice'' ::* '''ge jodi vyel'''....''as many times as'' ::* '''ga jodi vyel'''....''more times than, more often than'' ::* '''gla jodi'''....''many times, often'' ::* '''glo jodi'''....''seldom'' :: Some of the above expressions can be adjectivized: ::* '''axaga kyes'''....''a one-time occurrence'' ::* '''ajoda akut'''....''a one-time winner'' ::* '''glaxaga teaput'''....''a frequent visitor'' ::* '''glojoda pat'''....''a rare bird'' :* 1 :** ''daily, every day, once a day''....'''juba / hyajub''' :** ''weekly, every week, once a week''....'''yejuba / hyayejub''' :** ''monthly, every month, once a month''....'''jiba / hyajib''' :** ''yearly/annually, every year, once a year''....'''jaba / hyajab''' :* 2 :** ''twice a day''....'''exag hyajub''' :** ''twice a week/biweekly''....'''exag hyayeyub / eynyejuba''' :** ''twice a month/bimensual''....'''exag hyajib / eynjiba''' :** ''twice a year/biannial/semiannual''....'''exag hyajab / eynjaba''' :* 2 :** ''every other day''....'''hya enapa jub''' (= '''every second day''') :** ''every other week''....'''hya enapa yeyub''' :** ''every other month''....'''hya enapa jib''' :** ''every other year/biennial''....'''hya enapa jab / enjaba''' :* 3 :** ''every three months/trimestral/trimonthly''....'''hya enapa jib / enjiba''' :* 4 :** ''quarterly''....'''hya enapa jib / uynjaba''' :* 6 ::* ''every semester''....'''hya yaonjib / hya eynjab''' === Sequentials === : Number words expressing sequence or order can be expressed in two ways: :* With the adjectival ending '''-a''': ::* '''oa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''aa'''....''first'' (as a prefix, means ''arch-'') ::* '''ea'''....''second'' ::* '''ia'''....''third'' ::* '''aloa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''asea'''....''one hundred and second'' :* Or with the ending '''napa''', where '''nap''' means ''order'': ::* '''onapa'''....''zeroth'' ::* '''anapa'''....''first'' ::* '''enapa'''....''second'' ::* '''inapa'''....''third'' ::* '''alonapa'''....''tenth'' ::* '''aronapa'''....''thousandth'' === Temporals === : Aggregates of days are formed with '''jub''' (''day''): ::* '''yejub'''....''week'' (''seven day'') : Aggregates of months are formed with '''jib''' (''month''): ::* '''ijib'''....''trimester'' (''three month'') ::* '''yajib'''....''semester'' (''six month'') : Aggregates of years are formed with '''jab''' (''year''): ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium'' ::* '''lojab'''....''decade'' ('''lo''' is short for '''alo''') ::* '''sojab'''....''century'' ('''so''' is short for '''aso''') ::* '''rojab'''....''millennium'' ('''ro''' is short for '''aro''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennial'' ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee'' === Latinate Number Words Ending in -ary === : Latinate number words ending in -ary are translated with a number prefix and the suffix '''-suna''' in Mirad: ::* '''onsuna'''....''nullary'' ::* '''ansuna'''....''unary'' ::* '''ensuna'''....''binary'' ::* '''insuna'''....''ternary, trinary'' ::* '''unsuna'''....''quaternary'' ::* '''yownsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yawnsuna^*'''....''quinary'' ::* '''yensuna'''....''senary, septenary'' ::* '''yinsuna'''....''octonary'' ::* '''yunsuna'''....''novenary'' ::* '''alonsuna'''....''denary'' ::* '''alansuna'''....''undenary'' ::* '''alensuna'''....''duodenary'' : * A '''w''' is added to disambiguate the numeric prefix from '''yan-''' (''together'') and '''yon-''' (''apart''). === Number Words Ending in -fold or -ple === :* Number words in English ending in ''-fold'', ''-ple'', or ''-ploid'' are translated with '''-gala''' (''-fold, multiple'') in Mirad: ::* '''angala'''....''unifold, simple, haploid, onefold, one-off, single, solitary'' ::* '''engala'''....''double, ducplicate, twofold'' ::* '''ingala'''....''triple,triplicate, threefold'' ::* '''ungala'''....''quadruple, quadruplicte, fourfold'' ::* '''yowngala'''....''quintuple, fivefold, quintuplicate'' ::* '''yawngala'''....''sextuple, sextuplicate, sixfold'' ::* '''yengala'''....''septuple, sevenfold, septuplicate'' ::* '''yingala'''....''octuple, octuplicate, eightfold'' ::* '''yungala'''....''nonuple, nonuplicate, ninefold'' ::* '''alongala'''....''tenfold'' ::* '''asongala'''....''hundredfold, centuplicate'' ::* '''arongala'''....''thousandfold'' ::* '''amlongala'''....''millionfold'' ::* '''amrongala'''....''billionfold'' : Add a final '''-s''' to the above words to derive an inaninimate noun form: ::* '''angalas'''....''singleton'' ::* '''engalas'''....''duplicate'' ::* '''ingalas'''....''triplicate'' ::* '''ungalas'''....''quadruplicate'' ::* '''yowngalas'''....''quintuplicate, quintuplet, pentuplet'' ::* '''yawngalas'''....''sextuplicate, sextuplet, hextuplet'' ::* '''yengalas'''....''septuplet, helptuplet'' ::* '''yingalas'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yungalas'''....''nonuplet'' ::* '''alongalas'''....''decuplet'' : Some multiplicative verbs can also be derived thusly: ::* '''galer'''....''to multiply'' ::* '''engaler'''....''to duplicate, to double'' ::* '''ingaler'''....''to triple'' ::* '''ungaler'''....''to quadruple'' : The opposite of multiplication is division, so, change '''gal''' to '''gol''': ::* '''goler'''....''to divide'' ::* '''engoler'''....''to divide by two, to halve, to disect'' ::* '''ingoler'''....''to divide by three, to trisect'' ::* '''ungoler'''....''to divide by four, to quarter'' ::* '''alongoler'''....''to divide by ten, to decimate'' : Another way to create words referring to divisions is to insert a '''y''' before the '''n''' in the numeric prefix: ::* '''ayn'''....''a whole'' ::* '''eyn'''....''a half'' ::* '''iyn'''....''a third'' ::* '''uyn'''....''a quarter'' ::* '''yoyn'''....''a fifth'' ::* '''yayn'''....''a sixth'' ::* '''yeyn'''....''a seventh'' ::* '''yiyn'''....''an eighth'' ::* '''yuyn'''....''a ninth'' ::* '''aloyn'''....''a tenth'' ::* '''asoyn'''....''a hundredth, percent'' ::* '''aroyn'''....''a thousandth'' : Verbs can be derived from the above: ::* '''aynxer'''....''to integrate'' ::* '''eynxer'''....''to halve, to dissect'' ::* '''iynxer'''....''to trisect'' ::* '''uynxer'''....''to quarter'' ::* '''aloynxer'''....''to decimate'' === Number Words Pertaining to Arithmetic Base === : Numbers words pertaining to arithmetic base end in '''-syoba''': ::* '''ensyoba'''....''binary, base 2'' ::* '''insyoba'''....''ternary, base 3'' ::* '''alonsyoba'''....''decimal, base 10'' ::* '''alyansyoba'''....''hexadecimal, base 16'' ::* '''elonsyoba'''....''vigesimal, base 20'' === Number Words Pertaining To Directions in Communications === : Number words pertaining to directions in communications end in '''-izona''': ::* '''anizona'''....''simplex, unidirectional, one-way'' ::* '''enizona'''....''duplex, bidirectional, two-way'' === Number Words Pertaining to Angular Shapes === : Number words pertaining to angular shapes end in '''-guna''': ::* '''inguna, ingun(san)'''....''triangular, triangle'' ::* '''unguna, ungun(san)'''....''quadrangular, quadrangle, square'' ::* '''yownguna, yowngun(san)'''....''pentagonal, pentagon'' ::* '''yawnguna, yawngun(san)'''....''hexagonal, hexagon'' ::* '''yinguna, yingun(san)'''....''octagonal, octogon'' ::* '''alanguna, alangun(san)'''....''hendecagonal, hendecagon'' : Some number words relating to volumes (ending in '''-nid'''): ::* '''yawngekunid'''....''cube, hexahedron'' ::* '''elonkunid'''....''icosahedron'' ::* '''elunkunid'''....''icositetrahedron'' ::* '''unkunid'''....''tetrahedron'' ::* '''yinkunid'''....''octahedron'' ::* '''yunkunid'''....''nonahedron'' === Number Words Pertaining to Meter === : Number words pertaining to meter ending in '''-deup'''. ::* '''indeup'''....''trimeter'' ::* '''undeup'''....''tetrameter'' ::* '''yowndeup'''....''pentameter'' ::* '''yawndeup'''....''hexameter'' ::* '''yendeup'''....''heptameter'' ::* '''yindeup'''....''octameter'' === Number Words for Feet on an Animal === : Numbers words for feet on an animal end in '''tyoyaba'''. ::* '''entyoyaba'''....''bipedal'' ::* '''untyoyaba'''....''quadrupedal'' === List of Numeric Prefixes in English and Mirad === : Here is a list of numeric prefixes used in English and Mirad. The English prefixes can vary between Germanic, Latinate, and Greek-based. ::* '''o(n)-'''....''zero-, nil-, null-, un-, non-'' ::* '''oyn-'''....''no-'' ::* '''a(n)-'''....''uni-, one-, mono-, sim-, singul-, prim-, arch-, sol-, hen-'' ::* '''ayn-'''....''whole-, holo-, sol-'' ::* '''e(n)-'''....''two-, bi(n/s)-, di(s)-, du(al)-, dyo-, duo-, dy-, bin-, second'' ::* '''ey(n)-'''....''half-, semi-, hemi-'' ::* '''eo(n)-'''....''double, diplo-, dupl-, twi-, twofold, twosome, pair, dyo-'' ::* '''i(n)-'''....''three-, tri-, trito-'' ::* '''io(n)-'''....''triple, tripl-, tri-, threefold, threesome, tris-, triad-'' ::* '''iy(n)-'''....''third, terci-, terti-, tern-, trin-'' ::* '''u(n)-'''....''four-, quadr-, tetra-, tetarto-, tessar-, quatern-'' ::* '''uo(n)-'''....''quadrupl-, quart-, tetrad-, fourfold, foresome, tetraplo-'' ::* '''uy(n)-'''....''quarter, quart-, quadru-'' ::* '''yo(wn)-*'''....''five, quint-, penta-, pempto-, pentad-, pentaplop'' ::* '''yoy(n)-'''....''fifth, quint-, pentaplo-'' ::* '''ya(wn)-*'''....''six, sex-, hexa-, hexaplo-, hexad-'' ::* '''yay(n)-'''....''sixth, hect-, octo-'' ::* '''yawn-'''....''sixfold, sext-, hect-, octaplo-, octad-'' ::* '''ye(n)-'''....''seven, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yey(n)-'''....''seventh, sept-, hept-'' ::* '''yeon-'''....''seven-fold, heptad-, septim-'' ::* '''yi(n)-'''....''eight, oct-, ogdoo-'' ::* '''yion-'''....''octet, octad, octav-, eight-fold'' ::* '''yu(n)-'''....''nine, novem-, noven-, nona-, ennea-'' ::* '''yuyn-'''....''nineth'' ::* '''yuon-'''....''ennead, nonad, enneaplo-, nine-fold'' ::* '''alo-'''....''ten, deci-, deca-'' ::* '''aloyn-'''....''tenth, dec-, decad-'' ::* '''elo-'''....''twenty, viginti-, icos-'' ::* '''aso-'''....''hundred, centi-, hecato-, hectad-'' ::* '''asoyn-'''....''hundredth, cent-, hectad-'' ::* '''aro-'''....''thousand, milli-, kilo-'' ::* '''aroyn-'''....''thousandth, millen-, chiliad-'' : * A '''w''' is added to these words to avoid confusion with '''yan''' (''together'') and '''yon''' (''apart''). === Number Words Referring to Groups of People === : Number words referring to groups of people end in '''-ot''': ::* '''oot'''....''nobody, zero group'' ::* '''aot'''....''person, individual, solo'' ::* '''eot'''....''couple, duo, pair, twosome'' ::* '''iot'''....''trio, threesome'' ::* '''uot'''....''quartet, foursome'' ::* '''yoot'''....''quintet, fivesome'' ::* '''yaot'''....''sextet'' ::* '''yeot'''....''septet'' ::* '''yiot'''....''octet'' ::* '''yuot'''....''nonet'' ::* '''alot'''....''decet'' === Number Words Referring to Groups of Years === ::* '''ejab'''....''biennium'' ::* '''ijab'''....''triennium, triennial'' ::* '''ujab'''....''quadrennium'' ::* '''yojab'''....''quinquennium, lustrum'' ::* '''yajab'''....''sexennium'' ::* '''yejab'''....''septennial'' ::* '''yijab'''....''octennial'' ::* '''yujab'''....''novennium'' ::* '''alojab'''....''decade, decennary, decennial, decennium'' (usu. abbreviated to '''lojab''') ::* '''elojab'''....''vicennium, vicennial, score'' ::* '''yolojab'''....''jubilee, fifty years'' ::* '''asojab'''....''century'' (usu. abbreviated to '''sojab''') ::* '''esojab'''....''bicentenary'' ::* '''arojab'''....''millennium, chiliad'' === Number Words Referring to Parts of a Year === ::* '''eynjab'''....''half a year'' ::* '''uynjab'''....''quarter'' === Number Words Referring to Sets of Things === : Number words referring to sets of things end in '''-yan'''. The corresponding words in English may end in ''-ad'' or ''-ile'': ::* '''onyan'''....''nilad, empty set'' ::* '''anyan'''....''set, series, monad'' ::* '''enyan'''....''dyad, set of two, duad, pair, median'' ::* '''inyan'''....''triad, set of three, tercile, tertile'' ::* '''unyan'''....''tetrad, set of four, quartile'' ::* '''yownyan'''....''pentad, set of five, quintile'' ::* '''yawnyan'''....''hexad, set of six, sextile'' ::* '''yenyan'''....''heptad, set of seven, septile'' ::* '''yinyan'''....''octad, set of eight, octile'' ::* '''yunyan'''....''nonad, set of nine'' ::* '''alonyan'''....''decad, set of ten, decile'' ::* '''alanyan'''....''baker's dozen, set of eleven'' ::* '''alenyan'''....''dozen, set of twelve'' ::* '''alyanyan'''....''hexadecile'' ::* '''elonyan'''....''ventile, vigintile'' ::* '''asonyan'''....''centile, percentile'' ::* '''aronyan'''....''millile'' === Number Words About Twins, Triplets, etc.=== :* Words referring to twins, triplets, etc. end in the word '''-tid''', meaning ''sibling'': ::* '''eontid'''....''twin, fraternal twin'' :::* '''eontwid'''....''twin brother, male twin'' :::* '''eontiyd'''....''twin sister, female twin'' :::* '''geta eontiyd'''...''identical twin'' ::* '''iontid'''....''triplet'' ::* '''uontid'''....''quadruplet'' ::* '''yowntid'''....''quintuplet'' (Note the '''w''', used to avoid confusion with '''yon''' ::* '''yawntid'''....''sextuplet'' (" " ") ::* '''yentid'''....''septuplet'' ::* '''yintid'''....''octuplet'' ::* '''yuntid'''....''nonuplet'' == Number Chart == : The following chart shows numbers in Mirad as symbols, adjectives, pronouns, prefixes, and verbs: {| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Number Chart |- ! colspan=5| Multiple !! colspan=4 |Fraction |- ! Numeral !! Adjective !! Noun !! Prefix¹ !! Verb !!leftmargin=10px| Numeral !! Noun !! Prefix !! Verb |- | 0 || '''owa'''<br>''zero '' || '''oon'''<br>''nonentity, null''<br>'''oot'''<br>''nobody '' || '''on-'''<br>''zero- '' || '''onxer'''<br>''nullify '' ||1/0 || '''oyn'''<br>''zeroth'' || '''oyn-'''<br>''nihil- '' || '''oynxer'''<br>anihilate |- | 1 || '''awa'''<br>''one''<br>'''aa'''<br>''first''<br>'''ana'''<br>''single, lone''<br>'''aona'''<br>''whole'' || '''aon'''<br>''entity''<br>'''aot'''<br>''solo, individual '' || '''an-'''<br>''uni-, mono- '' || '''anxer'''<br>''unify''|| 1/1 || '''ayn'''<br>''whole '' || '''ayn-'''<br>''holo- '' || '''aynxer'''<br>integrate |- | 2 || '''ewa'''<br>''two''<br>'''ea'''<br>''second''<br>'''ena'''<br>''dual''<br>'''ensuana'''<br>''binary'' || '''eon'''<br>''double''<br>'''eot'''<br>''duo, pair, couple '' <br>'''eontid'''<br>''twin''|| '''en-'''<br>''bi-, di- '' || '''eonxer'''<br>double<br>'''eotxer'''<br>''copulate '' || 1/2|| '''eyn'''<br>''half '' || '''eyn-'''<br>''semi- '' || '''eyxner'''<br>''halve, disect'' |- | 3 || '''iwa'''<br>''three''<br>'''ia'''<br>''third''<br>'''insuana'''<br>''ternary'' || '''ion'''<br>''triple''<br>'''iot'''<br>''trio, threesome''<br>'''iontid'''<br>''triplet'' || '''in-'''<br>''tri- '' || '''ionxer'''<br>''triple '' || 1/3|| '''iyn'''<br>''third '' || '''iyn-'''<br>''terci- '' || '''iynxer'''<br>''trisect'' |- | 4 || '''uwa'''<br>''four''<br>'''ua'''<br>''fourth'' || '''uon'''<br>''quadruple''<br>'''uot'''<br>''quartet, foursome''<br>'''uontid'''<br>''quadruplet'' || '''un-'''<br>''tetra- '' || '''uonxer'''<br>''quadruple '' ||1/4|| '''uyn'''<br>''fourth ''<br>'''uynjab'''<br>''quarter'' || '''uyn-'''<br>''quadri- '' || '''uynxer'''<br>''quarter'' |- | 5 || '''yowa'''<br>''five ''<br>'''yoa'''<br>''fifth''|| '''yoon'''<br>''quintuple''<br>'''yoot'''<br>''quintet ''<br>'''yoontid'''<br>''quintuplet'' || '''yown-'''²<br>''penta- '' || '''yoonxer'''<br>''quintuple '' || 1/5|| '''yoyn'''<br>''fifth '' || '''yoyn-'''<br>''quint- '' || '''yoynxer'''<br>''cut in fifths'' |- | 6 || '''yawa'''<br>''six ''<br>'''yaa'''<br>''sixth'' || '''yaon'''<br>sextuple<br>'''yaot'''<br>''sextet ''<br>'''yaontid'''<br>''sextuplet'' || '''yawn-'''³<br>''hecto- '' || '''yaonxer'''<br>''sextuple '' || 1/6|| '''yayn'''<br>''sixth '' || '''yayn-'''<br>''hexi- '' || '''yaynxer'''<br>''cut in sixths'' |- | 7 || '''yewa'''<br>''seven ''<br>'''yea'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeon'''<br>''septuple''<br>'''yeot'''<br>''septet ''<br>'''yeontid'''<br>''septuplet''<br>'''yejub'''<br>''week'' || '''yen-'''<br>''hepto- '' || '''yeonxer'''<br>mult<br>'' seven'' || 1/7|| '''yeyn'''<br>''seventh'' || '''yeyn-'''<br>''hepti- '' || '''yeyxner'''<br>''cut in sevenths'' |- | 8 || '''yiwa'''<br>''eight ''<br>'''yia'''<br>''eighth'' || '''yion'''<br>''octuple''<br>'''yiot'''<br>''octet ''<br>'''yiontid'''<br>''octuplet'' || '''yin-'''<br>''octo- '' || '''yionxer'''<br>mult<br>'' eight '' || 1/8|| '''yiyn'''<br>''eighth '' || '''yiyn-'''<br>''octi- '' || '''yiynxer'''<br>''cut in eighths'' |- | 9 || '''yuwa'''<br>''nine ''<br>'''yua'''<br>''ninth'' || '''yuon'''<br>''nonuple''<br>'''yuot'''<br>''set of nine ''<br>'''yuontid'''<br>''nonuplet'' || '''yun-'''<br>''nona- '' || '''yuonxer'''<br>''multiply by nine '' || 1/9|| '''yuyn'''<br>''nineth '' || '''yuyn-'''<br>''novi- '' || '''yuynxer'''<br>''cut in ninths'' |- | 10 || '''alo'''<br>''ten ''<br>'''aloa'''<br>''tenth''<br>'''alosuana'''<br>''decimal'' ||'''alon'''<br>''tenfold ''<br>'''alojab'''...''decade'' || '''alon-'''<br>''deca- '' || '''alonxer'''<br>''increase by a<br>factor of ten '' || 1/10|| '''aloyn'''<br>''tenth '' || '''aloy-'''<br>''deci- '' || '''aloynxer'''<br>''decimate'' |- | 100<br>10⁴ || '''aso'''<br>''hundred''<br>'''asoa'''<br>''hundredth'' || '''ason'''<br>''hundredfold ''<br>'''asojab'''<br>''century''|| '''aso-'''<br>''heca- '' || '''asonxer'''<br>''increase a<br>hundredfold'' || 1/100<br>10^-2|| '''asoyn'''<br>''hundredth<br> percentage<br>cent '' || '''asoy-'''<br>''centi- '' || '''asoynxer'''<br>''cut into hundredths'' |- | 1,000<br>10³ || '''aro'''<br>''thousand ''<br>'''aroa'''<br>''thousanth'' || '''aron'''<br>''thousandfold ''<br>'''arojab'''<br>''millennium''|| '''aro-'''<br>''kilo- '' || '''aronxer'''<br>''multiply by a<br>thousand'' || 1/1000<br>10^-3|| '''aroyn'''<br>''thousandth '' || '''aroy-'''<br>''milli- '' || '''aroynxer'''<br>''divide by a thousand'' |- | 1,000,000<br>10⁶ || '''amlo'''<br>''million ''<br>'''amloa'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amlon'''<br>''millionfold '' || '''amlo-'''<br>''mega-'' || || 10^-6|| '''amloyn'''<br>''millionth'' || '''amloy-'''<br>''micro-'' || |- | 10⁹ || '''amro'''<br>''billion ''<br>'''amroa'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amron'''<br>''billionfold '' || '''amro-'''<br>''giga- '' || || 10^-9|| '''amroyn'''<br>''billionth'' || '''amroy-'''<br>''nano-'' || |- |10¹² || '''garale'''³<br>''trillion ''<br>'''garalea'''<br>''trillianth'' || '''garalen'''<br>''trillionfold '' || '''garale-'''<br>''tera-'' || || 10^-12|| '''goralen'''<br>''trillionth'' || '''gorale-'''<br>''pico-'' || |- |10¹⁵ || '''garalyo'''<br>''quadrillion ''<br>'''garalyoa'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionfold '' || '''garalyo-'''<br>''peta-'' || ||10^-15|| '''garalyon'''<br>''quadrillionth'' || '''goralyo-'''<br>''femto-'' || |- |10¹⁸ || '''garalyi'''<br>''quintillion ''<br>'''garalyia'''<br>''quintillionth'' || '''garalyin'''<br>''quintillionfold '' || '''garalyi-'''<br>''exa-'' || ||10^-18|| '''goralyin'''<br>''quintillianth'' || '''goralyi-'''<br>''atto-'' || |- |10²¹ || '''garela'''<br>''sextillion ''<br>'''garelaa'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''garelan'''<br>''sextillionfold '' || '''garela-'''<br>''zetta-'' || ||10^-21|| '''gorelan'''<br>''sextillionth'' || '''gorela-'''<br>''zepto-'' || |- |10²⁴ || '''garelu'''<br>''septillion ''<br>'''garelua'''<br>''septillionth'' || '''garelun'''<br>''eptillionfold '' || '''garelu-'''<br>''yotta-'' || ||10^-24|| '''gorelun'''<br>''septillianth'' || '''gorelu-'''<br>''yocto-'' || |- | 10²⁷ || '''garelye'''<br>''octillion ''<br>'''garelyea'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''garelyen'''<br>''octillionfold '' || '''garelye-'''<br>''ronna-'' || ||10^-27|| '''gorelyen'''<br>''octillionth'' || '''gorelyen'''<br>''ronto-'' || |- | 10³⁰ || '''garilo'''<br>''nonillion ''<br>'''gariloa'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''garilon'''<br>''nonillionfold '' || '''garilo-'''<br>''quetta-'' || ||10^-30|| '''gorilon'''<br>''nonillionth'' || '''gorilo-'''<br>''quecto-'' || |} <div style=";font-size:smaller;"> ::* Note 1: Sometimes the final '''-n''' on the numeric prefix is dropped, especially as an ordinal vowel in scalar words, eg. '''anapa'''<br>''first'', '''atistam'''<br>''elementary school''. ::* Note 2: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yon-'''<br>''dis-, apart'' ::* Note 3: An extra '''o''' is inserted into this prefix to distinguish it from '''yan-'''<br>''con-, together'' ::* Note 4: '''Garale''' is short for '''alo gar ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of 12''. By the same token, '''gorale''' is short for '''alo gor ale'''<br>''ten to-the-power-of-minus 12'' </div> = Metric Units = : Mirad uses the [[wikipedia:International System of Units|International System of Units (SI)]] for rendering measurement units. These symbols are pronounced as if you were spelling each letter out (see [[Mirad Grammar/Phonology and Orthography#Alphabet|the alphabet]]. Bear in mind that majiscules (uppercase letters) are prefixed with '''ag-''' (''big''). Similarly, Greek letters are rendered by their Greek names (ω = ''omega'', Ω = ''agomega''). The measurement unit names are followed by '''nak''' (''measurement unit''). == SI Base Units == ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI base units</big> |- !English<br>Unit<br>Name !Symbolic<br>Abbreviation !Quantity<br>Unit !Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- !second |style="text-align:center" |s |time |style="text-align:center" |'''sonak''' |- !meter |style="text-align:center" |m |length |style="text-align:center" |'''minak''' |- !kilogram |style="text-align:center" |kg |mass |style="text-align:center" |'''kigenak''' |- !ampere |style="text-align:center" |A |electric current |style="text-align:center" |'''aganak''' |- !kelvin |style="text-align:center" |K |thermodynamic temperature |style="text-align:center" |'''agkinak''' |- !Mole |style="text-align:center" |mol |amount of substance |style="text-align:center" |'''miolinak''' |- !candela |style="text-align:center" |cd |luminous intensity |style="text-align:center" |'''cadanak''' |} == SI Derived Units == : Here are SI derived units with special names and symbols: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>SI derived units with special names and symbols</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbeviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''radian''' | align="center" | rad | plane angle | align="center" |'''roadanak''' |- |'''steradian''' | align="center" | sr | solid angle | align="center" |'''soronak''' |- |'''hertz''' | align="center" | Hz | frequency | align="center" |'''aghezunak''' |- |'''newton''' | align="center" | N | force, weight | align="center" |'''agninak''' |- | '''pascal''' | align="center" | Pa | pressure, stress | align="center" | '''agpoanak''' |- | '''joule''' | align="center" | J | energy | align="center" | '''agjinak''' |- | '''watt''' | align="center" | W | power | align="center" | '''agwunak''' |- | '''coulomb''' | align="center" | C | electric charge | align="center" |'''agcanak''' |- | '''volt''' | align="center" | V | electrical potential difference | align="center" | '''agvunak''' |- | '''farad''' | align="center" | F | capacitance | align="center" | '''agfenak''' |- | '''ohm''' | align="center" | Ω | electrical resistance | align="center" | '''agomeganak''' |- | '''Siemens''' | align="center" | S | electrical conductance | align="center" | '''agsonak''' |- | '''Weber''' | align="center" | Wb | magnetic flux | align="center" | '''agwubanak''' |- | '''tesla''' | align="center" | T | magnetic flux density | align="center" | '''agtonak''' |- | '''henry''' | align="center" | H | inductance | align="center" | '''aghenak''' |- | '''degree Celsius''' | align="center" | °C | temperature | align="center" | '''nogagcanak''' |- | '''lumen''' | align="center" | lm | luminous flux | align="center" | '''liminak''' |- | '''lux''' | align="center" | lx | illuminance | align="center" | '''lixunak''' |- | '''becquerel''' | align="center" | Bq | radioactivity | align="center" | '''agbakonak''' |- | '''gray''' | align="center" | Gy | absorbed dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''aggeyunak''' |- | '''sievert''' | align="center" | Sv | equivalent dose (of ionizing radiation) | align="center" | '''agsovunak''' |- | '''katal''' | align="center" | kat | catalytic activity | align="center" | '''kiatonak''' |- | '''byte''' | align="center" | b | 8 bits of information | align="center" | '''banak''' |} == Convenient Non-SI Units == : Also, here are some non-SI units that are very convenient and acceptable: ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Convenient non-SI units</big> |- ! English<br>Name ! Symbolic<br>Written<br>Abbreviation ! Quantity<br>Unit ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- |'''litre''' | align="center" | L | volume | align="center" |'''aglonak''' |- |'''hectare''' | align="center" | ha | area | align="center" |'''heanak''' |- |'''ton''' | align="center" | t | area | align="center" |'''tonak''' |- |'''decibel''' | align="center" | dB | loudness | align="center" |'''daagbanak''' |- |'''fathom''' | align="center" | ftm | depth of water | align="center" |'''fetominak''' |} == Pronunciation of Coherent Derived Unit Formulae == : The following chart shows how in Mirad to pronounce coherent derived unit formulae in terms of base units. Note that the backslash means ''per'' or ''divided by'' and is pronounced '''gol'''. The symbol x means ''times'' and is pronounced '''gal'''. The superscript number is a power and is pronounced '''gar''' plus the number (with '''-wa''', if a unit number). The negative superscript number is pronounced '''gor''' plus the number (again, with '''-wa''' if a unit number). See [[Mirad Grammar/Determiners#Arithmetical Expressions|Arithmetical Expressions]] for further information on these terms. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ <big>Examples of coherent derived units in terms of base units</big> |- ! Name ! Symbolic<br>Formula ! Derived<br>Quantity ! Typical<br>Symbol ! Mirad<br>Pronunciation |- | '''square meter''' | align="center" | m² | area | align="center" |{{math|''A''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter''' | align="center" | m³ | volume | align="center" | {{math|''V''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''meter per second''' | align="center" | m/s | speed, velocity | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak''' |- | '''meter per second squared''' | align="center" | m/s² | acceleration | align="center" | {{math|''a''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gol-sonak-gar-ewa''' |- |rowspan=2| '''reciprocal meter''' |rowspan=2 align="center" | m⁻¹ | wavenumber | align="center" | {{math|''σ''}}, {{math|''ṽ''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gor-awa''' |- | vergence (optics) | align="center" | {{math|''V''}}, 1/{{math|''f''}} |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}} | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per square meter''' | align="center" | kg/m² | surface density | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}_A | align="center" | '''kigenak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | '''cubic meter per kilogram''' | align="center" | m³/kg | specific volume | align="center" | {{math|''v''}} | align="center" | '''minak-gar-iwa-gol-kinak-ge''' |- | '''ampere per square meter''' | align="center" | A/m² | current density | align="center" | {{math|''j''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |- | Amperes per meter|'''ampere per meter''' | align="center" | A/m | magnetic field strength | align="center" | {{math|''H''}} | align="center" | '''aganak-gol-minak''' |- | '''mole per cubic meter''' | align="center" | mol/m³ | concentration | align="center" |{{math|''c''}} | align="center" | '''minolinak-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''kilogram per cubic meter''' | align="center" | kg/m³ | Mass concentration (chemistry)|mass concentration | align="center" | {{math|''ρ''}}, {{math|''γ'' }} | align="center" | '''kinak-ge-gol-minak-gar-iwa''' |- | '''candela per square meter''' | align="center" | cd/m² | luminance | align="center" | {{math|''L''}}_v | align="center" | '''canak-da-gol-minak-gar-ewa''' |} == SI Macro and Micro Prefixes == : The SI has a whole list of prefixes that act as multipliers (macro) or dividers (micro) of the above and other measurement units. For example, a ''kilometer'' is a meter times a 1,000 (macro unit), whereas a millimeter is a meter divided by a 1,000 (micro unit). '''Agbanak''' means '''byte''', so '''garale-agbanak''' is ''terabyte''. This breaks down to ''10¹² bytes''. Here is a table showing the Mirad macro and micro prefixes: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Scalar Metrics |- ! colspan=4 | Macro !! colspan=4 | Micro |- ! Base<br>10!! US/UK Name!!Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !!SI Symbol !! Base<br>10 !! (US/UK Name) !! Mirad Prefix....SI Prefix !! SI Symbol |- | 1 || one || '''an-''' *... ''mono-, uni-'' || ||1/1 ||whole || '''ayn-'''....''holo-, uni-'' || |- | 2 ||two || '''en-'''....''bi-'' || || 1/2 ||half||'''eyn-'''....''demi-, di-''|| |- | 3 ||three || '''in-'''....''tri-'' || || 1/3 ||third ||'''iyn-'''....''terci-''|| |- | 4 ||four || '''un-'''....''tetra-'' || || 1/4 ||fourth || '''uyn-'''....''quadri-''|| |- | 5 ||five || '''yown-''' ....''penta-'' || || 1/5 ||fifth ||'''yoyn'''....''quinti-''|| |- | 6 ||six || '''yawn-'''....''hexa-'' || || 1/6 ||sixth ||'''yayn'''....''sexti-''|| |- | 7 ||seven || '''yen-'''....''hepta-'' || || 1/7 ||seventh || '''yeyn'''....''septi-''|| |- | 8 ||eight || '''yin'''....''octo-'' || || 1/8 ||eighth || '''yiyn'''....''octi-''|| |- | 9 ||nine || '''yun'''....''nona-'' || || 1/9 ||ninth || '''yuyn'''....''novi-''|| |- | 10 ||ten || '''alon-'''....''deca-'' || ''da'' || 1/10 ||tenth || '''aloy-'''....''deci-''|| ''d'' |- | 10² ||hundred || '''aso-'''....''hecto-'' **|| ''h'' || 10^-2 ||hundredth || '''asoy-'''....''centi-''|| ''c'' |- | 10³ ||thousand || '''amso-'''....''kilo-'' ||''k'' || 10^-3 ||thousandth)|| '''amsoy-'''....''milli-''|| ''m'' |- | 10⁶ ||million || '''amlo-'''....''mega-'' || ''M'' || 10^-6 ||millionth || '''amloy-'''....''micro-''|| ''r'' |- | 10⁹ ||billion /milliard || '''amro-'''....''giga-'' || ''G'' || 10^-9 ||billionth/ milliardth || '''amroy-'''....''nano-''|| ''n'' |- | 10¹² ||trillion /billion || '''garale-'''....''tera-'' || ''T'' || 10^-12 ||trillionth / billionth)|| '''gorale-'''....''pico-''|| ''p'' |- | 10¹⁵ ||quadrillion)/ billiard|| '''garalyo-'''....''peta-'' || ''P''||10^-15 ||quadrillionth) / billiardth || '''goralyo-'''....''femto-''||''f'' |- | 10¹⁸ ||quintillion / trillion || '''garalyu-'''....''exa-'' || ''E''||10^-18 ||quintillionth)/ trillionth || '''goralyu'''....''atto-''||''a'' |- | 10²¹ ||sextillion)/ trilliard || '''garela-'''....''zetta-'' || ''Z''||10^-21 ||sextillionth / trilliardth || '''gorela'''....''zepto-''||''z'' |- | 10²⁴ ||septillion)/ quadrillion || '''garelu-'''....''yotta-'' || '' Y'' ||10^-27 ||septillionth / quadrillionth|| '''gorelu'''....''yocto-''||''y'' |} : : **Note: The '''gar''' (''to a plus power'') and '''gor''' (''to a minus power'') forms are alternatives for the numeric prefixes beyond 100. For example, ''billion'' (10⁹) could be expressed as '''garyu-'''(ten) to the 9th power'', while ''billionth'' could be expressed by '''goryu''' (''(ten) to the minus 9th power). The prefix '''garya-''' is composed of the positive exponential operator '''gar''' (''to the power of''), followed by the number ''6''. The prefix '''gorale-''' is composed of the negative exponential operator '''gor''' (''to the root of''), followed by the number ''12''. == Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols == : The macro and micro values can also be represented with abbreviated symbols, which can be pronounced in Mirad as spelled out alphabetics. Greek letter are rendered by their names in Greek. Upper case equivalents are preceded with '''ag-'''. Here is a table showing grams: : :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Kg Metrics With Abbreviated Symbols |- ! colspan=2 | MACRO !! colspan=2 | MICRO |- ! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation !! Symbol (Expansion) !! Mirad Pronunciation |- | ''dag'' (decagram)|| '''daagenak''' || ''dg'' |(decigram)||'''dagenak''' |- | ''hg'' (hectogram)|| '''hegenak''' || ''cg'' (centigram)||'''cagenak''' |- | ''kg'' (kilogram) || '''kogenak''' || ''mg'' (milligram)||'''migenak''' |- | ''Mg'' (macrogram)|| '''agmigenak''' ||''μg'' (microgram)|| '''mugenak''' |- | ''Gg'' (gigagram)|| '''aggegenak''' || ''ng'' (nanogram)|| '''nigenak''' |- | ''Tg'' (teragram)|| '''agtogenak''' || ''pg'' (picagram)|| '''pogenak''' |- | ''Pg'' ( petagram)|| '''agpogenak''' || ''fg'' (femtogram)|| '''fegenak''' |- | ''Eg'' (exagram)|| '''agegenak''' || ''ag'' (attogram)|| '''agenak''' |- | ''Zg'' (zettagram)|| '''agzegenak''' || ''zg'' (zeptogram) || '''zegenak''' |- | ''Yg'' (yottagram)|| '''agyugenak''' || ''yg'' (yoctogram) || '''yugenak''' |} : The squared and cubed representations of the above are followed by '''gar ewa''' (''squared'') and '''gar iwa''' (''cubed''), respectively: ::* ''10 km²''....(pronounced as:) '''alo kominaki gar ewa''' ::* ''12 mm³''....(pronounced as:) '''ale miminaki gar iwa''' = Expressing Frequency = : There are two ways to form determiners of frequency: ::* Using '''jod(i)''' meaning ''occasion(s), instance(s), time(s)'', or ::* Using '''xag''' meaning ''frequency'' : Here is a chart showing the most common frequency determiners: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Frequentative Determiners |- ! "Jod" Method !! "Xag" Method !! Meaning |- | '''duhogla jodi?''' || '''duhoxag?''' || ''how often?, how many times?'' |- | '''hogla jodi''' || '''hoxag''' || ''how often, how frequently'' |- | '''hagla jodi''' || '''haxag''' || ''the frequency'' |- | '''hegla jodi''' || '''hexag''' || ''sometimes, on some occasions'' |- | '''higla jodi''' || '''hixag''' || ''this often, this many times'' |- | '''hugla jodi''' || '''huxag''' || ''that often, that many times, so many times'' |- | '''huugla jodi''' || '''huuxag''' || ''so often, so many times'' |- | '''hyogla jodi''' || '''hyoxag''' || ''never'' |- | '''hyagla jodi''' || '''hyaxag''' || ''always, at all times'' |- | '''hyegla jodi''' || '''hyexag''' || ''any number of times, however often'' |- | '''hyigla jodi''' || '''hyixag''' || ''as often, the same number of times'' |- | '''hyugla jodi''' || '''hyuxag''' || ''not as often, some other number of times'' |- | '''ga jodi''' || '''gaxag (vyel)''' || ''more often (than)'' |- | '''ge jodi''' || '''gexag (vyel)''' || ''as many times (as), as often (as)'' |- | '''go jodi''' || '''goxag (vyel)''' || ''less often (than)'' |- | '''gla jodi''' || '''glaxag''' || ''many times, often'' |- | '''gle jodi''' || '''glexag''' || ''quite a few times, quite often'' |- | '''glo jodi''' || '''gloxag''' || ''not so many times, seldom'' |- | '''gra jodi''' || '''graxag''' || ''too often'' |- | '''gre jodi''' || '''grexag''' || ''often enough'' |- | '''gro jodi''' || '''groxag''' || ''too seldom'' |- | '''gwa jodi''' || '''gwaxag''' || ''as often as possible, most often, most times'' |- | '''gwe jodi''' || '''gwexag''' || ''an average number of times'' |- | '''gwo jodi''' || '''gwoxag''' || ''least often, as seldom as possible'' |- | '''owa jod''' || '''oxag''' || ''never, at no time, zero times'' |- | '''awa jod''' || '''axag''' || ''once, one time'' |- | '''awa ga jod''' || '''ga axag''' || ''again, once more'' |- | '''ewa jodi''' || '''exag''' || ''twice, two times'' |- | '''iwa jodi''' || '''ixag''' || ''thrice, three times'' |- | '''alo jodi''' || '''aloxag''' || ''ten times'' |- |- '''asoni bi jodi''' || -- || ''hundreds of times'' |- |- '''yowa gal haxag vyel zojab''' || '''yoxag vyel zojab''' || ''five times as often as last year'' |} : Examples: ::* '''<u>Duhoxag</u> et pe ha tayegoblam?'''....''<u>How often</u> do you go to the barber shop?'' ::* '''<u>Duhogla jodi</u> et akaye hia ekun?'''....''<u>How many times</u> have you won this game?'' ::* '''At teataye hua dyezun <u>iwa ey uwa jodi</u>.'''....''I have seen that film <u>three or four times</u>.'' ::* '''At teataye is <u>huugla jodi (or: huuxag) van</u> at bokseye.'''....''I have seen it <u>so many times that</u> I am getting sick.'' ::* '''Hus xwaye <u>gaxag vyel</u> et te.'''....''That has happened <u>more often than</u> you know.'' = Mathematical Expressions = [[File:Arithmetic symbols2.svg|90px|thumb|none]] : Mathematical vocabulary is based mostly on deriviatives of the degree word '''ga'''....''more''. == Chart of Arithmetical Operations == : The following chart shows Mirad mathematical operation terms and symbols: {{small/top}} {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; margin-left:3.2em; font-size:smaller;" |+ Arithmetical Operation Vocabulary |- ! Verb !! Operation !! Patient !! Subject !! Operator !! Sign !! Result |- | '''gaber'''....''add'' || '''gaben'''....''addition'' || '''gabwas'''....''addend, summand'' || '''gabus'''....''augend'' || '''gab'''....''plus'' || '''gabsiyn'''....''plus sign'' (<big>+</big>) || '''gabix'''....''sum'' |- | '''galer'''....''multiply'' || '''galen'''....''multiplication'' || '''galwas'''....''multiplicand'' || '''galus'''....''multiplier, factor'' || '''gal'''....''times'' || '''galsiyn'''....''times sign'' (<big>x</big>) || '''galix'''....''product'' |- | '''garer'''....''raise to the power of''<br>'''egarer'''....''to square''<br>'''igarer'''....''to cube'' || '''garen'''....''exponentiation'' || '''garwas'''....''base'' || '''garus'''....''exponent'' || '''gar'''....''raised to the power of'' || || '''garix'''....''power'' |- | '''gazer'''....''logarithmize'' || '''gazen'''....''logarithmization'' || '''gazwas'''....''base''||'''gazus'''....''antilogarithm'' ||'''gaz'''....''the log of'' || ||'''gazix'''....''logarithm'' |- | '''gober'''....''subtract'' || '''goben'''....''subtraction'' || '''gobwas'''....''minuend'' || '''gobus'''....''subtrahend'' || '''gob'''....''minus'' || '''gobsiyn'''....''minus sign'' (<big>-</big>) || '''gobix'''....''difference'' |- | '''goler'''....''divide'' || '''golen'''....''division.... fraction'' || '''golwas'''....''dividend'', ''numerator''|| '''golus'''....''divisor, denominator'' || '''gol'''....''divided by'' || '''golsiyn'''....''division sign'' (<big>÷</big>) || '''golix'''....''quotient'' |- | '''gorer'''....''derive the nth root of'' || '''goren'''....''root extraction'' || '''gorwas'''....''radicand'' || '''gorus'''....''degree'' || '''gor'''....''the nth root of'' || '''gorsiyn'''....''radical sign'' (<big>√</big>) || '''gorix'''....''root'' |- | '''gexer'''....''equal'' || '''gexen'''....''equation'' || '''gexwas'''....''thing being equated'' || '''gexus'''....''equator'' || '''ge'''....''equal to'' || '''gesiyn'''....''equal sign'' (<big>=</big>) || |} {{small/end}} == How to Verbalize Math Expressions == ::* ''1 + 1 = 2.''....'''Awa gab awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''3 - 1 = 2.''....'''Iwa gob awa gese ewa.''' ::* ''2 x 4 = 8.''....'''Ewa gal uwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''10 % 2 = 5.''....'''Alo gol ewa gese yuwa.''' ::* ''5² = 25.''....'''Yowa gar ewa gese elyu.''' ::* ''2³ = 8.''....'''Ewa gar iwa gese yiwa.''' ::* ''4 √2 = 2 = 2.''....'''Uwa gor ewa gese ewa.''' ::* ''log₁₀ 1000 = 3.''....'''Aro gaz alo gese iwa.''' : Note 1: '''gese''' (''equals'') can be substituted with '''se''' (''is''), eg.: ::* '''Ewa gab ewa se uwa.'''....''Two plus two is four.'' : Note 2: If numbers are used as numeric adjectives, the units take the suffix '''-wa''', eg.: ::* '''E<u>wa</u> sicirufebi gab a<u>wa</u> marofeb gese yanmul.'''....''Two oranges plus one apple equals a salad.'' : Examples of mathematical expressions: ::* '''Ewa <u>gab</u> ewa gese uwa.'''....''Two <u>plus</u> two equals four.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gal</u> iwa gese yawa.'''....''Two <u>times</u> three equals six.'' ::* '''Iwa <u>gar</u> ewa gese yuwa.'''....''Three <u>to the second power</u> equals nine.'' ::* '''Ewa <u>gob</u> ewa gese owa.'''....''Two <u>minus</u> two equals zero.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gol</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>divided by</u> three equals three.'' ::* '''Yuwa <u>gor</u> iwa gese iwa.'''....''Nine <u>cubed</u> equals three.'' ::* '''Aso <u>gor</u> ewa gese alo.'''....''One hundred <u>squared</u> equals ten.'' ::* '''Aro <u>gaz</u> alo gese iwa.'''....''Log₁₀(1000) = 3. (= Log base 10 of 1000 equals three'') == Decimal Expressions == : Decimal expressions like ''2.5'' use the word '''nod'''....''point'' as in English. ::* '''Hia lisovol kyinse ga vyel 10.8 (alo nod yiwa) kigenaki.'''....''This tomato weighs more than 10.8 (ten point eight) kilograms.'' = Calendar and Time Expressions = :: The word for calendar is '''judar'''. The sections below explain how calendar expressions are formed and used: === Basic Calendar Units === [[File:Calendar (PSF).png|thumb|none]] : Time is divided using the following basic terms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''job''' || ''time'' |- | '''jab''' || ''year'' |- | '''jeb''' || ''season'' |- | '''jib''' || ''month'' |- | '''jub''' || ''day'' |- | '''jwob*''' || ''hour'' |- | '''jwab*''' ('''jwap''') || ''minute'' (''moment'') |- | '''jweb*''' ('''jwep''') || ''second'' (''instant'') |} * Note: These would ordinarily be '''jyob''', '''jyab''', and '''jyeb''' respectively, but the '''w''' glide is much easier to pronounce after the letter '''j''', and is therefore substituted. == Other Calendar Units == : Other calendar units are formed through the agglutination of numerical stubs to some of the time units above: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Other Calendar Units |- ! Mirad !! English !! Numerical Formula |- | '''rojab''' || ''millenium'' || year x 1,000 |- | '''sojab''' || ''century'' || year x 100 |- | '''lojab''' || ''decade'' || year x 10 |- | '''eynjab''' || ''half year'' || year x 1/2 |- | '''uynjab''' || ''quarter'' || year x 1/4 |- | '''yajib''' || ''semester'' || month x 6 |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' || day x 7 |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' || day x 7 end |- | '''eynjwob''' || ''half hour'' || hour x 1/2 |} : ''This'', ''next'', ''last'', etc. are expressed as follows: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Pointers |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''hijub'''<br>'''hiyejub'''<br>'''hijab''' || ''today''<br>''this week''<br>''this year'' |- | '''zojub'''<br>'''zoyejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''yesterday''<br>''last week''<br>''last year'' |- | '''zajub'''<br>'''zayejub'''<br>'''zajab''' || ''tomorrow''<br>''next week''<br>''next year'' |- | '''hujub'''<br>'''huyejub'''<br>'''hujab''' || ''that day''<br>''that week''<br>''that year'' |- | '''jazojub'''<br>'''ja ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jazojab''' || ''the day before yesterday''<br>''two weeks ago''<br>''the year before last'' |- | '''jozajub'''<br>'''jo ewa yejubi'''<br>'''jozajab''' || ''the day after tomorrow''<br>''two weeks from now''<br>''the year after next'' |- | '''Duhojub?'''|| ''Which day?'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day''¹ |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hejubi''' || ''some days'' |- | '''bi jub bu jub''' || ''from day to day'' |- | '''e jubi jay''' || ''two days ago'' |- | '''gla jubi joy''' || ''many days later'' |} : ¹ ''All day'' is expressed by '''ha ayna jub''' or '''hya ha jub'''. == Seasons of the Year == [[File:Seasons gijinka.png|thumb|]] : Seasons of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for ''season'' '''jeb''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Seasons of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jeab''' || ''spring'' |- | '''jeeb''' || ''summer'' |- | '''jeib''' || ''autumn, Fall'' |- | '''jeub''' || ''winter'' |} : Examples of usage: ::* '''be jeab'''....''in spring'' ::* '''ja jeeb'''....''before summer'' ::* '''ju jeib'''....''until autumn'' ::* '''ji jeub'''....''since winter'' ::* '''je ha jeb'''....''during the season'' ::* '''ub ha uj bi jeeb'''....''toward the end of summer'' ::* '''eb jeab ay jeeb'''....''between spring and summer'' ::* '''jeeba gemoj'''....''vernal equinox'' ::* '''jeiba fayebi'''....''autumn leaves'' ::* '''jeba til'''....''seasonal drink'' ::* '''jeubyena jebmalyen'''....''wintry climate'' ::* '''jeabyena malyen'''....''spring-like weather'' ::* '''jeuben'''....''hibernation'' ::* '''hijeab'''....''this season'' ::* '''zajeab'''....''next season'' ::* '''zojeab'''....''last season'' ::* '''hyajeab'''....''every season'' == Months of the Year == : Months of the year are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for month '''jib'''. Unlike in English, the months of the year in Mirad are not capitalized. Nor are days of the week. :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}}; font-size:smaller;" |+ Months of the Year |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jiab''' || ''January'' |- | '''jieb''' || ''February'' |- | '''jiib''' || ''March'' |- | '''jiub''' || ''April'' |- | '''jiyob''' || ''May'' |- | '''jiyab''' || ''June'' |- | '''jiyeb''' || ''July'' |- | '''jiyib''' || ''August'' |- | '''jiyub''' || ''September'' |- | '''jilob''' || ''October'' |- | '''jilab''' || ''November'' |- | '''jileb''' || ''December'' |} : Some expressions using the months: ::* '''be jilob'''....''in October'' ::* '''ja jiyab'''....''before June'' ::* '''lojo zajiyeb'''....''by next July'' ('''lojo''' = ''not after'') ::* '''hijib'''....''this month'' ::* '''zojib'''....''last month'' ::* '''zajib'''....''next month'' ::* '''bi-jib-bu-jiba jobnis'''....''month-to-month rent'' ::* '''jibay'''....''monthly'' ::* '''jibi joy'''....''months later'' ::* '''jiba sindrurun'''....''monthly magazine'' ::* '''hujiba jobnis'''....''that month's rent'' ::* '''hya ionjib'''....''every trimester'' ::* '''jibiler'''....''to menstruate'' ::* '''byi zojilob'''....''since last October'' ::* '''ub zejib'''....''toward mid-month'' == Days of the Week == : Days of the week are expressed by internally scalarizing the word for day '''jub''': :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Days of the Week |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''juab''' || ''Monday'' |- | '''jueb''' || ''Tuesday'' |- | '''juib''' || ''Wednesday'' |- | '''juub''' || ''Thursday'' |- | '''juyob''' || ''Friday'' |- | '''juyab''' || ''Saturday'' |- | '''juyeb''' || ''Sunday'' |} : Here are some common terms relating to days of the week: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Day Expressions |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''Duhojub?''' || ''Which day?'' |- | '''hojub...''' || ''the day that...'' |- | '''hejub''' || ''someday'' |- | '''hijub''' || ''today'' |- | '''hujub''' || ''that day'' |- | '''hyijub''' || ''(on) the same day'' |- | '''hyajub''' || ''every day'' |- | '''hyejub''' || ''any day'' |- | '''zajub''' || ''yesterday'' |- | '''zojub''' || ''tomorrow'' |- | '''ha jajub'''<br>'''be ha jana jub''' || ''the day before, (on) the previous day'' |- | '''ha jojub'''<br>'''be ha jona jub''' || ''the day after, (on) the following day'' |- | '''jazojub''' || ''the day before yesterday'' |- | '''jozajub''' || ''the day after tomorrow'' |- | '''hya ea jub''' || ''every other/second day'' |- | '''hyajub boy juyeb''' || ''every day except Sunday'' |- | '''yejub''' || ''week'' |- | '''hiyejeb''' || ''this week'' |- | '''yejubuj''' || ''weekend'' |- | '''yexjub''' (or) '''zeyejub''' || ''weekday'' |- | '''enyejuba(y)''' || ''bi-weekly'' |- | '''zoyejub''' || ''last week'' |} : Examples of Usage: ::* '''(be) juyob'''....''on Friday'' ::* '''ju juib'''....''until Wednesday'' ::* '''ji zojub'''....''since yesterday'' ::* '''lojo jubuj'''....''by [Lit: not after] day's end'' ::* '''jo zajub'''....''after tomorrow'' ::* '''je ha jub'''....''during the day'' ::* '''bi juab bu juub'''....''from Monday to Friday'' ::* '''yejubuja ponpop'''....''a weekend getaway'' == Parts of the Day == : Here are the principal parts of a day: {| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Parts of the Day |- ! Daytime !! Nighttime |- | '''maj'''....''daytime, day'' ||'''moj'''....''nighttime, night'' |- | '''bi maj'''....''A.M.'' ||'''bi moj'''....''P.M.'' |- | '''jamajij'''....''pre-dawn'' || '''jamojij'''....''pre-dusk'' |- | '''majij'''....''daybreak, dawn''|| '''mojij'''....''dusk'' |- | '''amaryap'''....''sunrise, sunup''||'''amaryop'''....''sunset, sundown'' |- | '''jwamaj'''....''morning''<br>'''zajwamaj'''....''tomorrow morning''<br>'''hijwamaj'''....''this morning''<br>'''zojwamaj'''....''yesterday morning''<br>'''hujwamaj'''....''that morning''<br>'''hyajwamaj'''....''every morning''||'''jwamoj'''....''evening''<br>'''zajwamoj'''....''tomorrow evening''<br>'''hijwamoj'''....''this evening''<br>'''zojwamoj'''....''yesterday evening''<br>'''hujwamoj'''....''that evening''<br>'''hyajwamoj'''....''every evening'' |- | '''zemaj'''....''noon''||'''zemoj'''....''midnight'' |- | '''jozemaj'''....''afternoon''||'''jozemoj'''....''after midnight'' |- | '''majuj'''....''twilight''|| '''jwomoj'''....''late night'' |} ::* Examples of Usage: ::* '''At tijpa <u>ja majij</u>.'''....''I woke up <u>before dawn</u>.'' ::* '''At iyfe tuyjer <u>be ha jwoa jozemaj</u>.'''....''I like to nap <u>in the late afternoon</u>.'' ::* '''It yexe bi <u>amaryap bu amaryop</u>.'''....''He works from <u>sunup to sundown</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Be gwa jwamoji</u>, at teaxe yibsin.'''....''<u>Most evenings</u>, I watch television.'' == Expressing Dates == : The following is a how a date ('''jud''') is normally expressed: ::* '''be juab, 11 jieb 2018 joK.'''....''on Monday, February 11th, 2018 A.D.'' :A date like 2018 can be expressed as ''twenty eighteen'' ('''elo alyi''') or ''two thousand eighteen'' ('''ero alyi'''). : The day ''11'' in the above expression is pronounced '''ala'''. : The acronym for ''B.C.'' is '''jaK''', short for '''ja Krist''' (''before Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized "BCE", meaning ''Before the Common/Current Era'' is expressed in Mirad with '''jaEJ''' ('''ja ha Eja Joeb'''). : The acronym for ''A.D.'' is '''joK''', short for '''jo Krist''' (''after Christ''). : The acronym for the de-Christianized ''C.E.'' is '''EJ''', short for '''ha Eja Joeb''' (''the Current Era''). : Other date expressions follow: ::* '''be <u>ha 1800 jabi</u> (alyi aso jabi)'''....''In <u>the 1800's</u> (eighteen hundreds)'' ::* '''ja <u>ha 20a (eloa)</u> asojab'''....''before <u>the 20th (twentieth)</u> century'' ::* '''eb <u>1920 (yulo elo)</u> ay 2001 (emso awa)'''....''between <u>1920 (nineteen twenty)</u> and (two thousand one)'' ::* '''<u>hyaje</u> hua alojab'''....''<u>throughout</u> that decade'' ::* '''At yexa hum <u>je gla jabi</u>.'''....''I worked there <u>for [Lit: during] many years</u>.'' ::* '''Ujbu his <u>lojo</u> jiyab.'''....''Finish this <u>by</u> [Lit: not after] May.'' ::* '''Iyt so him <u>ub ha uj bi</u> 2 (ewa) jiab.'''....''She will be here <u>toward the end of</u> January 2nd.'' ::* '''At taja je ha Podea <u>Eloni</u>.'''....''I was born in the Roaring <u>Twenties</u>.'' == Telling Time == [[File:Old Clock DSCN4746.jpg|thumb|]] : Clock time expressions use mostly the word '''jwob''' (''hour'') or '''jwobi''' (''hours''). : Times of the day are expressed in the 24-hour European system, or what might be called by Americans "military clock time." So, 3PM in U.S. parlance should be expressed in Mirad as ''15 hours'' ('''ulo jwobi'''), which is the same as ''15:00'' or ''15 hundred hours''. : The usual time-of-day question is '''Se duhojwob?'''....''What time is it?'' [Lit: is what-hour?] : The typical answer is in the format '''Se alo (jwobi) yuwa.''' (Lit: ''(It) is ten hours five''). The use of '''jwobi''' is optional, but if '''jwobi''' is modified by '''awa'''....''one'', then the singular form '''jwob''' is used. : Here are some typical answers: ::* '''Se awa jwob.'''....''It is one o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is one hour.''] ::* '''Se ewa jwobi.'''....''It is two o'clock AM'' [Lit: ''It is two hours.''] ::* '''Se ale jwobi.'''....''It is twelve o'clock AM.'' ::* '''Se alyu jwobi elo.'''....''It is 15:30 (3:30 PM).'' ::* '''Se eli jwobi ali.'''....''It is 23:13 (11:13 PM).'' ::* '''Se elu jwobi.'''....''It is 24:00 (12 PM).'' : The words '''jwob''' and '''jwobi''' can be abbreviated as '''j.'''. ::* '''be elo j.'''....''At 8:00 PM'' : The designation AM and PM can be used but are not necessary in the 24-hour clock system: ::* '''bi maj'''....(''AM'') ::* '''bi moj'''.... (''PM'') ::* '''Se <u>vyavay</u> 15:10 (= alu alo).'''....''It is exactly 7:10 P.M..''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''It is <u>exactly</u> fifteen ten.''] ::* '''Et sa jwoa <u>bey</u> alo jwabi.'''....''You were late by 10 minutes.''&nbsp;&nbsp;[Lit: ''You were late <u>by</u> ten minutes.''] ::* '''Has ijo <u>yuz</u> 21:30 (= ela jwobi ilo).'''....''It will begin <u>around</u> 10:30 PM.'' ::* '''Puu him <u>lojo vyel</u> 15:00 j.'''....''Get here <u>no later than</u> 3 PM.'' ::* '''Ha yuzpar puo hum <u>yeb</u> 10 jwabi.'''....''The bus will arrive there <u>within</u> 10 minutes.'' ::* '''Ha jwobar <u>izeade</u>¹ 17:00.'''....''The clock says [Lit. ''indicates''] 5 PM.'' ::* '''Yit pua be 3 j. <u>be ha nod</u>.'''....''They arrived at 3 <u>on the dot</u>''. :::<small>Note 1: '''izeade''' (''indicates'') can be substituted with '''de''' (''says'').</small> : Note the following clock time idioms: :{| class="wikitable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Clock Idioms |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''jwa''' || ''early'' |- | '''jwe''' || ''on time'' |- | '''jwo''' || ''late'' |- | '''Se <u>vyavay</u> elo j.''' || ''It is <u>exactly</u> 8 PM.'' |- | '''<u>yub bi</u> zemaj'''<br>or '''<u>yuz bi</u> zemaj.''' || ''<u>around</u> noon'' |- | '''<u>ub</u> zemoj''' || ''<u>toward</u> midnight'' |- | '''<u>yeb bi</u> jwebi''' || ''<u>within</u> seconds'' |- | '''alo jwabi <u>ja hij</u>''' || ''ten minutes <u>ago</u> [= before now]'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 3 j.''' || ''<u>no later than / by</u> 3 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''jwobay''' || ''hourly / by the hour / on the hour'' |- | '''Hia pop <u>efxe</u> 2 1/2 (= ewa gab eyn) jwobi.''' || ''This trip <u>takes (Lit: necessitates) </u> 2 1/2 hours.'' |- | '''<u>ju</u> awa jwob bi hij''' || ''<u>until</u> one hour from now'' |- | '''<u>ji</u> zojub be 10a j.''' || ''<u>since</u> yesterday at 10 o'clock.'' |- | '''<u>je</u> ha jana 12 jwabi''' || ''<u>for/during/over</u> the last 12 minutes'' |- | '''<u>ja</u> ojo 10 j.''' || ''<u>before / by</u> 10 AM.'' |- | '''<u>lojo</u> 10 jwobi.''' || ''<u>by / in / within</u> 10 hours.'' |- | '''<u>jo</u> 10 j.''' || ''<u>after</u> 10 o'clock AM.'' |- | '''At saye him <u>ji</u> ewa jwobi.''' || ''I have been here <u>for [= since]</u> two hours.'' |} = Expressing Age = [[File:Russian Age Rating System.svg|thumb|]] : Many expressions relating to age are built on the Mirad word for ''age'': '''jag'''. : The typical question is: ::* '''<u>Duhojaga</u> et se?'''....''<u>How old</u> are you?'' (Lit. ''what-aged'') : A typical answer is one of the following. ::* '''At se <u>eli jabi jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three years old.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli jaga.</u>'''....''I am <u>age twenty-three.</u>'' ::* '''At se <u>eli.</u>'''....''I am <u>twenty-three.</u>'' : Here are some ways to compare age: ::* '''gejaga vyel et'''....''as old as you, the same age as you'' ::* '''gajaga vyel et'''....''older than you'' ::* '''gojaga vyel et'''....''not as old as you'' ::* '''gajoga vyel et'''....''younger than you'' ::* '''grajaga'''....''too old'' ::* '''grejaga'''....''old enough'' ::* '''grojagat'''....''a minor (an underaged person)'' ::* '''zejaga'''....''middle aged'' ::* '''gwajogat'''....''the youngest one'' ::* '''gwajagat'''....''the oldest one'' ::* '''ha gwajagat bi ha tixutyan.'''....''the oldest one in (= of) the class.'' ::* '''Fiyzuu eta gajagati.'''....''Respect your elders.'' ::* '''iwa jabi gajaga vyel et'''....''three years older than you'' : Here is a chart showing the words used to describe people at various ages. Note, that starting with teenager, the number part of the expression means somewhere in a range of numbers, so the letter '''y''' is added to the number. ::{| class="wikitable" style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; |+ People of different ages |- ! Mirad !! English |- | '''awajubjagat''' || ''one day old baby'' |- | '''awajagat''' || ''one-year-old'' |- | '''alojagat''' || ''ten-year-old'' |- | '''aloyjagat''' || ''teenager'' |- | '''eloyjagat''' || ''vicenarian, twenty-something-year-old'' |- | '''iloyjagat''' || ''tricenarian, thirty-something-year-old'' |- | '''uloyjagat''' || ''quadracenarian, forty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yoloyjagat''' || ''quinquacenarian, fifty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yaloyjagat''' || ''sexagenarian, sixty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yeloyjagat''' || ''octogenarian, eighty-something-year-old'' |- | '''yiloyjagat''' || ''nonagenarian, ninety-something-year-old'' |- | '''asoyjagat''' || ''centenarian, hundred-something-year-old'' |- | '''aybasoyjagat''' || ''supercentenarian, hundred-and-ten-something-year-old'' |} : Here is a list of important age expressions and categories: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|3}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> * '''duhojaga?'''....''how old?'' * '''hojoga'''....''of the age (that...)'' * '''hajaga'''....''of the age'' * '''hejaga'''....''of some age'' * '''hijaga'''....''this old'' * '''hujaga'''....''that old'' * '''huujaga'''....''so old'' * '''hyajaga'''....''of every age'' * '''hyejaga'''....''of any age'' * '''hyijaga / gejaga'''....''of the same age, as old'' * '''hyujaga / ogejaga'''....''of a different age, not as old'' * '''zejaga''' .... ''middle-aged'' * '''jaga'''....''old'' * '''jayga'''....''oldish'' * '''joga'''....''young'' * '''joyga''' .... ''youngish'' * '''gle jaga'''....''rather old, oldish'' * '''gla jaga'''....''very old'' * '''glo jaga'''....''not very old'' * '''gra jaga'''....''too old, super-aged'' * '''gro jaga'''....''under-aged, minor'' * '''ge jaga'''....''as old, of the same age'' * '''awa (<u>jab</u>) jaga'''....''one <u>year</u> old'' * '''ewa (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''two <u>years</u> old'' * '''alo (<u>jabi</u>) jaga'''....''ten <u>years</u> old'' * '''ga jaga <u>vyel</u> et'''....''older <u>than</u> you'' * '''ga joga <u>vyel</u> at'''....''younger <u>than</u> me'' * '''go jaga <u>vyel</u> wit'''....''less old <u>than</u> him'' * '''ge joga <u>vyel</u> iyt'''....''as young <u>as</u> her'' * '''ha gwa jagat <u>bi</u> ata tidetyan'''....''the youngest <u>of</u> my siblings'' * '''gajagat''' .... ''an elder'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' * '''jagat''' .... ''old person, elder, senior'' * '''jagwat''' .... ''old man'' * '''jagayt''' .... ''old woman'' * '''jogat'''....''a youth'' * '''jogwat'''....''a boy, a male youth'' * '''jogayt'''....''a girl, m female youth'' * '''grejagat'''....''an adult, someone of age'' * '''grojagat'''....''a minor'' (''one insufficiently old'') * '''jagseat'''....''an adolescent'' * '''jagsyat'''/'''agsyat'''....''a grownup'' * '''tud''' .... ''child, offspring'' * '''twud''' .... ''male child, son'' * '''tuyd''' .... ''female child, daughter'' * '''tudet''' .... ''baby, infant'' * '''tobet''' .... ''youth, young person'' * '''twobet''' .... ''boy, young man'' * '''toybet''' .... ''girl, young woman, maiden'' </div> : Some other examples of usage: ::* '''Et <u>jagseye</u> fi.'''....''You <u>are aging</u> well.'' ::* '''At voy <u>jogseye</u> hyegla.'''....''I am not <u>getting</u> any <u>younger</u>.'' ::* '''His se taam av <u>ha jagati</u>.'''....''This is a home for <u>the elderly</u>.'' ::* '''Gawaku eta <u>jogan</u>!'''....''Regain your <u>youth</u>!'' ::* '''At se <u>ga jaga vyel</u> ha memyazi.'''....''I am <u>older than</u> the hills.'' ::* '''Teaxu ata <u>gwa joga</u> tud.'''....''Look at my <u>youngest</u> child.'' ::* '''Yat ife yata <u>awajagat</u>.'''....''We love our <u>one-year-old</u>.'' ::* '''<u>Jagseatan</u> se yika joob bi tej.'''....''<u>Adolescence</u> is a difficult period of life.'' ::* '''<u>Agsu</u>!'''....''<u>Grow up!</u>'' : Note the difference: ::* '''agaser'''....''to get bigger'' ::* '''agser'''....''to grow'' = Currency Nomenclature = [[File:Mon argent.jpg|thumb]] : The ISO abbreviation for the currency expressions from various countries of the world are used to form the Mirad equivalents. The lowercase ISO code abbreviation for a particular country's denomination is spelled out in Mirad alphabetics and then the letter '''n''' is suffixed (mnemonic for '''nas'''....''money''). Then, since a monetary unit can be considered a proper noun, the first letter is capitalized, eg.: ::* The ISO code abbreviation for "U.S. dollar" is "USD". ::* Lowercase is "usd" ::* Spelled out in Mirad alphabetics is '''u so da'''. ::* This, with '''n''' suffixed, results in '''usodan'''. ::* Finally, the first letter is capitalized, giving '''Usodan'''. ::* Pluralized, '''Usodan''' becomes '''Usodani''' (''= U.S. dollars''). ::* The Euro is therefore '''Euron'''. ::* The Thai baht is '''Toheban'''. ::* The Russian ruble is '''Rouban'''. : The ISO codes can be found at [[Wikipedia: List_of_circulating_currencies|List of circulating currencies]]. A portion of that file is replicated here: {| class="wikitable sortable" style="background:lightyellow;{{text default color}};font-size:smaller;" |+ Currencies ! English Currency Name ! Currency<br>symbol ! ISO 4217|ISO code ! Mirad Name |- |Jordanian dinar |JD |JOD |'''Jiodan''' |- |Moroccan dirham |DH |MAD |'''Miadan''' |- |Australian dollar |$ |AUD |'''Audan''' |- | Bitcoin | '''₿''' | data-sort-value="" | (''BTC'') | '''Batocan''' |- |Brunei dollar |$ |BND |'''Banidan''' |- |Eastern Caribbean dollar |$ |XCD |'''Xucadan''' |- |Hong Kong dollar |$ |HKD |'''Hekidan''' |- |New Zealand dollar |$ |NZD |'''Nizudan''' |- |Singapore dollar |$ |SGD |'''Sogedan''' |- |United States dollar |$ |USD |'''Usodan''' |- |Armenian dram |֏ |AMD |'''Amidan''' |- |Euro |€ |EUR |'''Euron''' |- |Central African CFA franc |Fr |XAF |'''Xuafen''' |- |CFP franc |Fr |XPF |'''Xupofen''' |- |Swiss franc |Fr |CFN |'''Cufenin''' |- |West African CFA franc |Fr |XOF |'''Xuofen''' |- |Netherlands Antillean guilder |ƒ |ANG |'''Anigen''' |- |Danish krone |kr |DKK |'''Dakikin''' |- |Turkish lira |₺ |TRY |'''Toroyun''' |- |Mauritanian ouguiya |UM |MRU |'''Miroun''' |- |Pound sterling|Sterling |£ |GBP |'''Gebapon''' |- |Saint Helena pound |£ |SHP |'''Sohepon''' |- |South African rand |R |ZAR |'''Zuaron''' |- |Russian rouble |₽ |RUB |'''Rouban''' |- |Indian rupee |₹ |INR |'''Iniron''' |- |Israeli new shekel |₪ |ILS |'''Ilison''' |} :The hundredth fractional unit for most currencies can be converted into Mirad by appending the word '''-asoyn''' to the end of the Mirad name of the currency. : For example: ::* The American cent is '''Usodan-asoyn'''. ::* The Euro cent is '''Euron-asoyn'''. ::* The British penny is '''Gebapon-asoyn'''. : In context, all of the above can be abbreviated to '''asoyn'''. :The symbol used for each currency can also be taken from the Wikipedia table referenced above. The symbol precedes the number and a comma is used for the thousand breaker and a period is used for the decimal breaker. For example: ::* ''Five point six Euros'' ==> '''Yowa nod yawa Euroni''' ==> '''€5.6''' ::* ''Two thousand nine dollars'' ==> '''Emro yuwa Usodani''' ==> '''$2,009''' : Note: : The bitcoin has the ISO code BTC, so it is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan'''. Its billionth fractional unit is called a satoshi and is translated into Mirad as '''Batocan-amroyn'''. : Other monetary vocabulary: <div style="background: lightyellow;{{Text default color}}; border: solid blue 2px; {{column-count|2}};{{column-rule|2px solid blue}};font-size:smaller;";> ::* '''nas'''....''money'' :::* '''nasa'''....''monetary'' :::* '''kyaxler nas'''....''convert money'' ::* '''nasam'''....''bank'' :::* '''nasnexam'''....''savings bank'' :::* '''nasyen'''....''currency'' :::* '''nases'''....''change'' ::::* '''biner nases av'''....''to get change for'' :::* '''nasbol'''....''subsidy'' :::* '''nasbyok'''....''fine, penalty'' :::* '''nasdab'''....''plutocracy'' :::* '''nasdref'''....''check'' ::::* '''drer nasdref'''....''to write a check'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer nasdref'''....''to cash a check'' ::::* '''nyember nasdref''''....''to deposit a check'' :::* '''nasdrev'''....''bill, note, banknote'' :::* '''drefnas'''....''paper money'' ::::* '''alo Usodan nasdrev'''....''ten dollar bill'' :::* '''nasdim'''....''fund'' :::* '''nasgab'''....''tip'' :::* '''nasgon'''....''stock, share'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxam'''....''stock exchange'' ::::* '''nasgon ebkyaxut'''....''stock broker'' ::::* '''nasgon nunuiem'''....''stock market'' ::::* '''nasgon buiut'''....''stock broker ::::* '''nasgonbexut'''....''shareholder'' ::::* '''nasgonuer'''....''to invest'' :::* '''nasilp'''....''cash flow'' :::* '''nastun'''....''finance'' :::* '''nasvek'''....''bet'' ::::* '''nasvekiam'''....''gambling casino'' :::* '''nasmug'''....''coin'' ::::* '''nasmug exwa'''....''coin-operated'' ::::* '''nasmugxer'''....''to mint'' ::::* '''nasmugyeb'''....''coin purse'' :::* '''nasok'''....''deficit'' ::::* '''nasokya'''....''bankrupt'' ::::* '''nasokrer'''....''go bankrupt'' :::* '''nasak'''....''profit'' ::::* '''nasaker'''....''to profit'' ::::* '''nasakgon'''....''dividend'' ::::* '''nasakyaker'''....''to speculate'' :::* '''nasnyaxun'''....''nest-egg'' :::* '''nasyeb'''....''wallet'' :::* '''nasyef'''....''debt'' ::::* '''nasyef draf'''....''debit card'' :::* '''nasyuv'''....''bond'' :::* '''ilnas'''....''cash'' ::::* '''ilnasuer'''....''to dispense cash'' :::::* '''ilnasuir'''....''ATM'' ::::* '''ilnasaxer'''....''to cash'' ::* '''nax'''....''price'' ::* '''nayx'''....''cost'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''nam'''....''store'' ::* '''namper'''....''to shop'' :::* '''nampen zen'''....''shopping center'' :::* '''nayxer'''....''to cost'' ::* '''naz'''....''value'' :::* '''nazier'''....''to be worth'' :::* '''nazder'''....''to appraise'' <hr> ::* '''nyaxer'''....''to accumulate, to amass'' :::* '''nyaxun'''....''pile, stack, heap'' ::* '''nyaz'''....''wealth, luxury'' :::* '''nyaza'''....''wealthy, rich'' ::::* '''nyazaser'''....''to get rich'' <hr> ::* '''nexer'''....''to save, to economize'' :::* '''nexyea'''....''thifty'' :::* '''donex'''....''economy'' <hr> ::* '''nyexer'''....''to store, to stock'' :::* '''nyexam'''....''storehouse, warehouse'' :::* '''nyexim'''....''stock room'' :::* '''nyexwa'''....''stocked, in stock'' :::* '''nyexundrer'''....''to inventory'' :::* '''nyexunyeb'''....''storage bin'' :::* '''nyexuun'''....''consignment'' :::* '''nyexun'''....''stocked item'' ::::* '''nyexunyan'''....''inventory'' :::* '''nyeb'''....''container'' :::* '''nyem'''....''box'' <hr> ::* '''nier'''....''to demand, to consume'' :::* '''niut'''....''consumer'' ::* '''nixer'''....''to earn'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' ::::* '''jobnixbuer'''....''to loan'' :::* '''nixun'''....''earnings'' <hr> ::* '''nyixer'''....''to order, to requisition'' :::* '''nyixwa'''....''ordered, on order'' :::* '''nyixdref'''....''order form'' :::* '''nyixut'''....''client'' ::::* '''nyixutyan'''....''clientele'' <hr> ::* '''nuer'''....''to supply, to procure, to equip, to furnish'' ::* '''nuier'''....''to merchandize'' :::* '''nuien'''....''supply and demand, merchandizing'' :::* '''nuix'''....''budget'' ::::* '''nuixer'''....''to budget'' <hr> ::* '''nuxer'''....''to pay'' :::* '''nuxut'''....''payer'' :::* '''nuxun'''....''payment'' :::* '''nuxuer'''....''to charge'' :::* '''nuxbier'''....''to buy, to purchase'' ::::* '''jobnuxbier'''....''to rent'' :::* '''ojnux'''....''credit'' ::::* '''ojnux draf'''....''credit card'' <hr> ::* '''nyuer'''....''to produce'' :::* '''nyun'''....''commodity'' :::* '''nyuun'''....''product'' :::* '''nyuut'''....''producer'' :::* '''nyuf'''....''package, parcel'' ::::* '''nyufber'''....''to package'' ::::* '''nyuyf'''....''packet'' :::* '''nyus'''....''freight, shipment, cargo'' :::* '''nyuv'''....''wrap'' ::::* '''nyuvber'''....''to wrap up'' <hr> ::* '''nyuxer'''....''to deliver, to ship'' :::* '''nyuxun'''....''delivery, shipment'' :::* '''nyuxdraf'''....''shipping invoice'' :::* '''nyuxen boy nax'''....''FOB'' :::* '''nyuxier'''....''to take delivery of'' :::* '''nyuxyofwa'''....''undeliverable, out of stock'' <hr> ::* '''ebkyaxer'''....''to exchange'' :::* '''ebkyaxem'''....''stock market'' :::* '''ebkyaxder'''....''to bargain, to negotiate'' <br> ::* '''bier'''....''to take'' :::* '''jobbier'''....''to borrow, to rent'' <br> ::* '''buer'''....''to give'' :::* '''nixbuer'''....''to sell'' :::* '''jobbuer'''....''to lend, to rent out, to let'' :::* '''buier'''....''to barter'' </div> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Determiners|Pronouns}}</noinclude> nd66amfhm231syqsj87sx3pkite5j0m 3 452012 4673998 4671768 2026-10-04T10:31:20Z MathXplore 3097823 /* Reporting User:AAASecurityGuard */ move to [[User talk:MathXplore/2026#Reporting User:AAASecurityGuard]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4673998 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Talk header}} {{User reviewer}} {{User Wikiversity admin}} {{User Wikipedia rollbacker}} {{User Meta-Wiki}} {{User Commons}} {{User Wikidata}} {{User Wikiquote}} {{User contrib|10,000}} {{clear}} ==Archives== * [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-undo&target=MathXplore Reverts] ([https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&tagfilter=mw-rollback&target=MathXplore rollback]) * [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Log?type=move&user=MathXplore&page=&wpdate=&tagfilter=&subtype=&wpFormIdentifier=logeventslist Move log] *[[/2023]] *[[/2024]] *[[/2025]] *[[/2026]] cml763emaooyq4z1rmfvvoiuz1l426b 2 465383 4673890 4673189 2026-10-03T16:19:49Z ~2026-40500-29 3615407 /* 2026-09-30 */ link to official source of info (META-wiki) 4673890 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2024-02-27 == I've been looking around here since 15 January 2024 trying to see if there is anything I can contribute to this wiki. I still don't understand how this place works. On the surface it appears that the only users who will find this wiki useful are those who want to publish a complete book about a specific topic. I have looked around for a bit and found a lot of old undeveloped skeletons. The exception so far is the cookbook where, I assume, contributors who are not not the original author can add their own recipes. But there are a lot of old, most likely outdated technical half-finished books about proprietary ware with authours who are no longer active. Today I saw for the first time a banner (MediaWiki:Sitenotice) which shows up on all the pages that I visited: * "The Wikibooks community is developing a policy on the use of generative AI. Please view the [[Wikibooks:Artificial Intelligence|draft policy]] and provide feedback on its [[Wikibooks talk:Artificial Intelligence|talk page]]." which is a good sign for me because I rarely get to see such banners on other wiki-projects, even when others seem to see them. I wonder why this one does not also show up in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Bulletin Board]] Also today I discovered that the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] has had content in it sine 2024-02-05 that I did not see until today and I wonder why. I am pretty sure I have checked this page periodically since I started participating more frequently on 2024-01-15. == 2024-03-01 == When I first started editing here I tried to find a new book every day by clicking [[Special:RandomInCategory/Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Books|''Random book'']] (Navigation menu). Then I started finding books in the list of [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]]. I wish it was easier to locate books through [[Wikibooks:Card Catalog Office|Browse]]. Some interesting pages discovered by accident: # [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]] # [[Field Guide/Birds/Falco peregrinus]] # [[Horticulture/Chainsaws]] # [[Transwiki:Civics]] # [[Cookbook:Fried-brain Sandwich]] # [[Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook]] # [[How to Solve the Rubik's Cube]] One of the things I am trying out here is actively using my ''watchlist'', something I rarely do on other wikis. This wiki is different because it does not automatically add pages that I edit to my watchlist which, so far, is a pain. But we'll see how I feel about it as time goes on and I have accumulated lots of pages on m watchlist. '''note to self''': check if this is something controlled through my preferences. Another I do different here is use ''visual edit'' whenever I can (also a pain, but hopefully will get better when I get used to it). === ''visual stability'' === One of the things I really like about Wikibooks is its ''visual stability'' (I need to find a term for this). Knowing where things are helps when trying to go through foreign language wikis. The English wikipedia and others have moved on to a different looking page. When I log in at WB I see the same every time: * On my first horizontal line: [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] [[Special:Notifications|Alert (n1) Notices (n2)]] [[User talk:Ottawahitech|My discussion]] [[User:Ottawahitech/sandbox|Sandbox]] [[Special:Preferences|Preferences]] [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|Contributions]] Log out * My second horizontal line: [[User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|User page]] [[User talk:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Discussion]] [[User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Read]] Edit Edit source View history * on the vertical left bar I see: ==== Navigation menu ==== * [[Main Page]] * [[Help:Contents|Help]] * [[Wikibooks:Card Catalog Office|Browse]] * [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Cookbook]] * [[Wikijunior]] * [[Wikibooks:Featured books|Featured books]] * [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]] * Donations * [[Special:RandomInCategory/Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Books|Random book]] * [[Using Wikibooks]] ==== Community ==== * [[Wikibooks:Reading room|Reading room forum]] * [[Wikibooks:Community Portal|Community portal]] * [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Bulletin Board|Bulletin Board]] * [[Wikibooks:Maintenance|Help out!]] * [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|Policies and guidelines]] ==== [[Wikibooks:Contact us|Contact us]] ==== ==== Tools ==== * [[Special:WhatLinksHere/User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|What links here]] * [[Special:RecentChangesLinked/User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Related changes]] * [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|User contributions]] * [[Special:Log/Ottawahitech|Logs]] * [[Special:Mute/Ottawahitech|Mute preferences]] * [[Special:UserRights/Ottawahitech|View user groups]] * Upload file * [[Special:SpecialPages|Special pages]] * Page information * Get shortened URL * Download QR code ==== Sister projects ==== * Wikipedia * Wikiversity * Wiktionary * Wikiquote * Wikisource * Wikinews * Wikivoyage * Commons * Wikidata * MediaWiki * Meta-Wiki ==== Languages ==== If I ever decide to write a book (I really don't think so right now), what would I write about? One thing that comes to mind which is not properly covered in any of the wmf-wikis (I think?) is a comparison between wmf-wiki and [[User:Ottawahitech/WB: Yahoo Groups vs wikiland|Yahoo Groups administration]] == 2024-03-18 == I just discovered [[META:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)]] when I was following links posted by @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] on [[another wiki]] which led me to the VP at ENWQ where [[an announcement of this meta RFC had been posted on March 14]]. Just curious why the same announcement was not posted here == 2024-03-20 Happy birthday == Just received a happy birthday note from my calendar. Today is my fourth birthday at [https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiquote:Village_pump&oldid=2760053#Would_this_be_the_correct_page_to_ask_how_to_make_amends_for_any_harm_we've_caused_Wikiquote? the English Wikiquote], sigh... Note to self: fix the wiki link above ==2026-09-30== I have not participated much in the enwb community since I started this diary. So what has changed here since the last time I updated this page? Hmm, lets see… In the real world AI /SI (artificial intelligence) has become common in web-searches causing a drop in polularity for the Wikimedia (wm) websites. It is nice to see that content from wm as well as so-called-fake sources are being used as input into the AI-sausage thereby creating more balanced artificial-intelligence content available to the public. However the inevitable drop in popularity of these wiki websites may end up choking the free content contributions, number of willing contributors, and the amount of financial donation to the Wikimedia Movement. Many more language wiki websites continue to be added to Wikimedia, but at the same time some are being shelved. For example: all (I think?) language versions of wn (WikiNews) have been shelved. Interesting to note that the same wm-User (RIP) who controlled the development of enwn (English-WikiNews) also controlled the development of enwb (en-WikiBooks). I am wondering which other wm-websites have been / will be shelved in the future and why. Also notable is the wm-global-banning (see: [[META:List of globally banned users#Currently banned by the Wikimedia Foundation]]) of User-SlowKing (SK) after a series of unsuccessful wm-RFCs (Requests for Comments) to globally block/ban. SK was one of the most prolific contributors to the ws (WikiSource) wm-website and other such websites. To be continued? g2mfupjhksxxx2ygqjxwbuo651qzzpx 4673946 4673890 2026-10-03T21:34:59Z ~2026-40500-29 3615407 /* 2026-09-30 */ dump some more content, hopeully without incident? 4673946 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2024-02-27 == I've been looking around here since 15 January 2024 trying to see if there is anything I can contribute to this wiki. I still don't understand how this place works. On the surface it appears that the only users who will find this wiki useful are those who want to publish a complete book about a specific topic. I have looked around for a bit and found a lot of old undeveloped skeletons. The exception so far is the cookbook where, I assume, contributors who are not not the original author can add their own recipes. But there are a lot of old, most likely outdated technical half-finished books about proprietary ware with authours who are no longer active. Today I saw for the first time a banner (MediaWiki:Sitenotice) which shows up on all the pages that I visited: * "The Wikibooks community is developing a policy on the use of generative AI. Please view the [[Wikibooks:Artificial Intelligence|draft policy]] and provide feedback on its [[Wikibooks talk:Artificial Intelligence|talk page]]." which is a good sign for me because I rarely get to see such banners on other wiki-projects, even when others seem to see them. I wonder why this one does not also show up in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Bulletin Board]] Also today I discovered that the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] has had content in it sine 2024-02-05 that I did not see until today and I wonder why. I am pretty sure I have checked this page periodically since I started participating more frequently on 2024-01-15. == 2024-03-01 == When I first started editing here I tried to find a new book every day by clicking [[Special:RandomInCategory/Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Books|''Random book'']] (Navigation menu). Then I started finding books in the list of [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]]. I wish it was easier to locate books through [[Wikibooks:Card Catalog Office|Browse]]. Some interesting pages discovered by accident: # [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]] # [[Field Guide/Birds/Falco peregrinus]] # [[Horticulture/Chainsaws]] # [[Transwiki:Civics]] # [[Cookbook:Fried-brain Sandwich]] # [[Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook]] # [[How to Solve the Rubik's Cube]] One of the things I am trying out here is actively using my ''watchlist'', something I rarely do on other wikis. This wiki is different because it does not automatically add pages that I edit to my watchlist which, so far, is a pain. But we'll see how I feel about it as time goes on and I have accumulated lots of pages on m watchlist. '''note to self''': check if this is something controlled through my preferences. Another I do different here is use ''visual edit'' whenever I can (also a pain, but hopefully will get better when I get used to it). === ''visual stability'' === One of the things I really like about Wikibooks is its ''visual stability'' (I need to find a term for this). Knowing where things are helps when trying to go through foreign language wikis. The English wikipedia and others have moved on to a different looking page. When I log in at WB I see the same every time: * On my first horizontal line: [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] [[Special:Notifications|Alert (n1) Notices (n2)]] [[User talk:Ottawahitech|My discussion]] [[User:Ottawahitech/sandbox|Sandbox]] [[Special:Preferences|Preferences]] [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|Contributions]] Log out * My second horizontal line: [[User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|User page]] [[User talk:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Discussion]] [[User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Read]] Edit Edit source View history * on the vertical left bar I see: ==== Navigation menu ==== * [[Main Page]] * [[Help:Contents|Help]] * [[Wikibooks:Card Catalog Office|Browse]] * [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Cookbook]] * [[Wikijunior]] * [[Wikibooks:Featured books|Featured books]] * [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]] * Donations * [[Special:RandomInCategory/Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Books|Random book]] * [[Using Wikibooks]] ==== Community ==== * [[Wikibooks:Reading room|Reading room forum]] * [[Wikibooks:Community Portal|Community portal]] * [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Bulletin Board|Bulletin Board]] * [[Wikibooks:Maintenance|Help out!]] * [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|Policies and guidelines]] ==== [[Wikibooks:Contact us|Contact us]] ==== ==== Tools ==== * [[Special:WhatLinksHere/User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|What links here]] * [[Special:RecentChangesLinked/User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Related changes]] * [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|User contributions]] * [[Special:Log/Ottawahitech|Logs]] * [[Special:Mute/Ottawahitech|Mute preferences]] * [[Special:UserRights/Ottawahitech|View user groups]] * Upload file * [[Special:SpecialPages|Special pages]] * Page information * Get shortened URL * Download QR code ==== Sister projects ==== * Wikipedia * Wikiversity * Wiktionary * Wikiquote * Wikisource * Wikinews * Wikivoyage * Commons * Wikidata * MediaWiki * Meta-Wiki ==== Languages ==== If I ever decide to write a book (I really don't think so right now), what would I write about? One thing that comes to mind which is not properly covered in any of the wmf-wikis (I think?) is a comparison between wmf-wiki and [[User:Ottawahitech/WB: Yahoo Groups vs wikiland|Yahoo Groups administration]] == 2024-03-18 == I just discovered [[META:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)]] when I was following links posted by @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] on [[another wiki]] which led me to the VP at ENWQ where [[an announcement of this meta RFC had been posted on March 14]]. Just curious why the same announcement was not posted here == 2024-03-20 Happy birthday == Just received a happy birthday note from my calendar. Today is my fourth birthday at [https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiquote:Village_pump&oldid=2760053#Would_this_be_the_correct_page_to_ask_how_to_make_amends_for_any_harm_we've_caused_Wikiquote? the English Wikiquote], sigh... Note to self: fix the wiki link above ==2026-09-30== I have not participated much in the enwb community since I started this diary. So what has changed here since the last time I updated this page? Hmm, lets see… In the real world AI /SI (artificial intelligence) has become common in web-searches causing a drop in polularity for the Wikimedia (wm) websites. It is nice to see that content from wm as well as so-called-fake sources are being used as input into the AI-sausage thereby creating more balanced artificial-intelligence content available to the public. However the inevitable drop in popularity of these wiki websites may end up choking the free content contributions, number of willing contributors, and the amount of financial donation to the Wikimedia Movement. Many more language wiki websites continue to be added to Wikimedia, but at the same time some are being shelved. For example: all (I think?) language versions of wn (WikiNews) have been shelved. Interesting to note that the same wm-User (RIP) who controlled the development of enwn (English-WikiNews) also controlled the development of enwb (en-WikiBooks). I am wondering which other wm-websites have been / will be shelved in the future and why. Also notable is the wm-global-banning (see: [[META:List of globally banned users#Currently banned by the Wikimedia Foundation]]) of User-SlowKing (SK) after a series of unsuccessful wm-RFCs (Requests for Comments) to globally block/ban. SK was one of the most prolific contributors to the ws (WikiSource) wm-website and other such websites. enwb I still don’t understand what this wikimedia website does and what it does not do. I think it is supposed to publish oroginal research textbooks on pretty much any topic (?), but I still don’t understand the mechanics. a number of skeleton wikibooks are being revived when their original creators return after years of absence a number of skeleton wikibooks are being revived when new users join and start actively participating in enwb my experience at enwb I am afraid to amit that I nhave not made a lot of progress in using the Visual editor. the visual stability of enwb compared to other wm websites which I noted in X no longer applies, sigh… still lots of undeveloped skeletons (deletion policy) my experience at wikimeida websites outside of enwb my own window of wikimedia contributions is shrinking - no longer allowed to particiapte in enwq where I have spent most of my wikitime since I last updated this page. anonymous 2uj09io3y06kv8yzb70xw58fp4squlc 4673947 4673946 2026-10-03T21:40:44Z ~2026-40500-29 3615407 /* 2026-09-30 */ tr agai using Edit (visual) instead of Edit Source 4673947 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2024-02-27 == I've been looking around here since 15 January 2024 trying to see if there is anything I can contribute to this wiki. I still don't understand how this place works. On the surface it appears that the only users who will find this wiki useful are those who want to publish a complete book about a specific topic. I have looked around for a bit and found a lot of old undeveloped skeletons. The exception so far is the cookbook where, I assume, contributors who are not not the original author can add their own recipes. But there are a lot of old, most likely outdated technical half-finished books about proprietary ware with authours who are no longer active. Today I saw for the first time a banner (MediaWiki:Sitenotice) which shows up on all the pages that I visited: * "The Wikibooks community is developing a policy on the use of generative AI. Please view the [[Wikibooks:Artificial Intelligence|draft policy]] and provide feedback on its [[Wikibooks talk:Artificial Intelligence|talk page]]." which is a good sign for me because I rarely get to see such banners on other wiki-projects, even when others seem to see them. I wonder why this one does not also show up in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Bulletin Board]] Also today I discovered that the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] has had content in it sine 2024-02-05 that I did not see until today and I wonder why. I am pretty sure I have checked this page periodically since I started participating more frequently on 2024-01-15. == 2024-03-01 == When I first started editing here I tried to find a new book every day by clicking [[Special:RandomInCategory/Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Books|''Random book'']] (Navigation menu). Then I started finding books in the list of [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]]. I wish it was easier to locate books through [[Wikibooks:Card Catalog Office|Browse]]. Some interesting pages discovered by accident: # [[MediaWiki:Sitenotice]] # [[Field Guide/Birds/Falco peregrinus]] # [[Horticulture/Chainsaws]] # [[Transwiki:Civics]] # [[Cookbook:Fried-brain Sandwich]] # [[Diablo Canyon Nuclear Power Plant: The WikiBook]] # [[How to Solve the Rubik's Cube]] One of the things I am trying out here is actively using my ''watchlist'', something I rarely do on other wikis. This wiki is different because it does not automatically add pages that I edit to my watchlist which, so far, is a pain. But we'll see how I feel about it as time goes on and I have accumulated lots of pages on m watchlist. '''note to self''': check if this is something controlled through my preferences. Another I do different here is use ''visual edit'' whenever I can (also a pain, but hopefully will get better when I get used to it). === ''visual stability'' === One of the things I really like about Wikibooks is its ''visual stability'' (I need to find a term for this). Knowing where things are helps when trying to go through foreign language wikis. The English wikipedia and others have moved on to a different looking page. When I log in at WB I see the same every time: * On my first horizontal line: [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] [[Special:Notifications|Alert (n1) Notices (n2)]] [[User talk:Ottawahitech|My discussion]] [[User:Ottawahitech/sandbox|Sandbox]] [[Special:Preferences|Preferences]] [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|Contributions]] Log out * My second horizontal line: [[User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|User page]] [[User talk:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Discussion]] [[User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Read]] Edit Edit source View history * on the vertical left bar I see: ==== Navigation menu ==== * [[Main Page]] * [[Help:Contents|Help]] * [[Wikibooks:Card Catalog Office|Browse]] * [[Cookbook:Table of Contents|Cookbook]] * [[Wikijunior]] * [[Wikibooks:Featured books|Featured books]] * [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent changes]] * Donations * [[Special:RandomInCategory/Book:Wikibooks Stacks/Books|Random book]] * [[Using Wikibooks]] ==== Community ==== * [[Wikibooks:Reading room|Reading room forum]] * [[Wikibooks:Community Portal|Community portal]] * [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Bulletin Board|Bulletin Board]] * [[Wikibooks:Maintenance|Help out!]] * [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|Policies and guidelines]] ==== [[Wikibooks:Contact us|Contact us]] ==== ==== Tools ==== * [[Special:WhatLinksHere/User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|What links here]] * [[Special:RecentChangesLinked/User:Ottawahitech/wikibooks diary|Related changes]] * [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|User contributions]] * [[Special:Log/Ottawahitech|Logs]] * [[Special:Mute/Ottawahitech|Mute preferences]] * [[Special:UserRights/Ottawahitech|View user groups]] * Upload file * [[Special:SpecialPages|Special pages]] * Page information * Get shortened URL * Download QR code ==== Sister projects ==== * Wikipedia * Wikiversity * Wiktionary * Wikiquote * Wikisource * Wikinews * Wikivoyage * Commons * Wikidata * MediaWiki * Meta-Wiki ==== Languages ==== If I ever decide to write a book (I really don't think so right now), what would I write about? One thing that comes to mind which is not properly covered in any of the wmf-wikis (I think?) is a comparison between wmf-wiki and [[User:Ottawahitech/WB: Yahoo Groups vs wikiland|Yahoo Groups administration]] == 2024-03-18 == I just discovered [[META:Requests for comment/Global ban for Slowking4 (2)]] when I was following links posted by @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] on [[another wiki]] which led me to the VP at ENWQ where [[an announcement of this meta RFC had been posted on March 14]]. Just curious why the same announcement was not posted here == 2024-03-20 Happy birthday == Just received a happy birthday note from my calendar. Today is my fourth birthday at [https://en.wikiquote.org/w/index.php?title=Wikiquote:Village_pump&oldid=2760053#Would_this_be_the_correct_page_to_ask_how_to_make_amends_for_any_harm_we've_caused_Wikiquote? the English Wikiquote], sigh... Note to self: fix the wiki link above ==2026-09-30== I have not participated much in the enwb community since I started this diary. So what has changed here since the last time I updated this page? Hmm, lets see… In the real world AI /SI (artificial intelligence) has become common in web-searches causing a drop in polularity for the Wikimedia (wm) websites. It is nice to see that content from wm as well as so-called-fake sources are being used as input into the AI-sausage thereby creating more balanced artificial-intelligence content available to the public. However the inevitable drop in popularity of these wiki websites may end up choking the free content contributions, number of willing contributors, and the amount of financial donation to the Wikimedia Movement. Many more language wiki websites continue to be added to Wikimedia, but at the same time some are being shelved. For example: all (I think?) language versions of wn (WikiNews) have been shelved. Interesting to note that the same wm-User (RIP) who controlled the development of enwn (English-WikiNews) also controlled the development of enwb (en-WikiBooks). I am wondering which other wm-websites have been / will be shelved in the future and why. Also notable is the wm-global-banning (see: [[META:List of globally banned users#Currently banned by the Wikimedia Foundation]]) of User-SlowKing (SK) after a series of unsuccessful wm-RFCs (Requests for Comments) to globally block/ban. SK was one of the most prolific contributors to the ws (WikiSource) wm-website and other such websites. enwb I still don’t understand what this wikimedia website does and what it does not do. I think it is supposed to publish oroginal research textbooks on pretty much any topic (?), but I still don’t understand the mechanics. a number of skeleton wikibooks are being revived when their original creators return after years of absence a number of skeleton wikibooks are being revived when new users join and start actively participating in enwb my experience at enwb I am afraid to amit that I nhave not made a lot of progress in using the Visual editor. the visual stability of enwb compared to other wm websites which I noted in X no longer applies, sigh… still lots of undeveloped skeletons (deletion policy) my experience at wikimeida websites outside of enwb my own window of wikimedia contributions is shrinking - no longer allowed to particiapte in enwq where I have spent most of my wikitime since I last updated this page. anonymous enwb I still don’t understand what this wikimedia website does and what it does not do. I think it is supposed to publish oroginal research textbooks on pretty much any topic (?), but I still don’t understand the mechanics. a number of skeleton wikibooks are being revived when their original creators return after years of absence a number of skeleton wikibooks are being revived when new users join and start actively participating in enwb my experience at enwb I am afraid to amit that I nhave not made a lot of progress in using the Visual editor. the visual stability of enwb compared to other wm websites which I noted in X no longer applies, sigh… still lots of undeveloped skeletons (deletion policy) my experience at wikimeida websites outside of enwb my own window of wikimedia contributions is shrinking - no longer allowed to particiapte in enwq where I have spent most of my wikitime since I last updated this page. anonymous khj4ikfex97rfia423nfq9ts67io45h 0 474916 4673995 4656017 2026-10-04T09:13:30Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 /* 3...c6 */ 4673995 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |Czech Defense |parent=[[../|Pirc Defense]] }} =Czech Defense= == 3...c6 - Czech Defense == The Czech Defense is a flexible and multipurpose system within the Pirc family. The move 3...c6 serves several key functions: it supports control over critical squares b5 and d5, helping to prevent White’s knight or bishop from infiltrating there. Additionally, it opens up possibilities for Black’s queen to develop actively with ...Qa5 or ...Qb6. Black often follows with ...Qc7, ...Nbd7, and ...Be7, aiming for a solid but dynamic structure where ...e5 or ...d5 can be played at the right moment. While the setup may look somewhat restrained, it provides Black with flexible counterplay options, including queenside expansion or timely central breaks. It is considered a good counter-attack against openings such as the London System and can break the preparation of your opponent, and is a highly attacking opening. ==Theory table== :'''1. e4 d6 2. d4 Nf6 3. Nc3 c6''' {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{BCO2}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} kq83u7c2qgqwbkkhmch8ccjb7jfo4bx 0 477283 4673859 4669559 2026-10-03T13:02:59Z ~2026-53267-09 3627494 /* Properties and Applications: (The library) */ 4673859 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Denest}}{{New book}}<div style="text-align: center;"> ''Wikibooks Contributors Present:''<br /><big><big><big>'''Linear Algebra and the C Language'''</big></big></big> <div style="text-align: center;">''This book provides a library for real matrices in C language.''</div> </div> __NOTOC__ The aim of this book is to provide '''real matrices''' in '''C language''', to '''familiarize''' yourself with '''linear algebra'''. '''Start''' by '''downloading the library''' (2 Hours!). The next step is to study the properties and applications, '''once the entire library has been downloaded'''. ---- = Contents = * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0nc|Cover]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a000|Introduction]] {| class="wikitable" |+ |- | {{ambox |type=notice |style=float:right;margin-left:10px;margin-right:0px; |textstyle=padding:5px;font-size:120%;line-height:120%; |small=left |text=This book requires that you are familiar with [[C Programming]].}} || {{ambox |type=notice |style=float:right;margin-left:10px;margin-right:0px; |textstyle=padding:5px;font-size:120%;line-height:120%; |small=left |text=This book requires that you are familiar with [[Linear Algebra]].}} || {{ambox |type=notice |style=float:right;margin-left:10px;margin-right:0px; |textstyle=padding:5px;font-size:120%;line-height:120%; |small=left |text=This book requires that you are familiar with [[Octave Programming]].}} |} = Properties and Applications: ([[#The library|'''The library''']]) {{stage short|100%}} = : : : : {| class="wikitable" |+ This is wrong |- | ==== Utilities for the C language ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0e4|'''Utilities for the C language''']] {{Book search|float=left|style=image}} || ==== Utilities for Octave ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04c|'''Basic functions on matrices''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0od|'''Write some basic matrices functions.''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0no|'''Graphical utilities''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a03a|'''Examples of some applications''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04d|'''Write your mathematics functions''']] |- | ==== Working with matrices (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ef|'''Create''' a matrix]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0eq|'''Print''' a matrix]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0j0|'''Print''' a matrix to a '''file''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0j1|'''Print''' a matrix for '''Octave:''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ff|'''Copy''' a matrix]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fg|'''Random''' matrices]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0iq|'''Choose''' Your Values]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fr|'''Array''' of matrices]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fv|Print '''row vectors''':]] (M) ==== Basic operations on matrices (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a034|'''Basic operations''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fx|The '''trace''' function]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0nk|The '''transpose''' function]] (M) * . || ==== Mathematic Applications: (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0g4|'''Identity matrix''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0hz|'''Triangular matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ga|'''Commutative matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gm|'''Similar matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gn|'''Symmetric matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0i7|'''Skew-symmetric matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gz|'''Centrosymmetric matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0if|'''Positive-definite matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0il|'''Negative-definite matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0hd|'''Hankel matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0he|'''Toeplitz matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0hn|'''Taylor series: Exponential function''']] (M) : ==== Graphics Applications: (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0e9|The '''Transformation matrices [R2,C2]''']] (M) |- | === Determinant (Det) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a051|'''Determinant ''']] '''(Det)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04z|'''Elementary''' operations]] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a050|'''Intermediate''' functions]] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06x|Some '''properties''']] (Det) : ==== Graphics Applications: (Det) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a05y|The equation of a '''line''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a062|The equation of a '''plan''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a066|The equation of a '''parabola''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06a|The equation of a '''circle''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06c|The equation of a '''sphere''']] (Det) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (Det) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a008|The '''adjoint''' function]] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06m|The '''inverse''' with '''adjoint_mR();''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a002|The '''cross product''' function]] (Det) * . || [[File:Linear Algebra and the C Language.png|thumb| ]] |- | === Gauss-Jordan Total Pivoting (TP) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a074|'''Gauss-Jordan Total Pivoting''']] '''(TP)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0a1|'''The Inverse''']] (TP) : ==== Applications: (TP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a076|'''Network analysis''']] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a077|'''Analysis of an electrical circuit''']] (TP) : ==== Graphics Applications: (TP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a078|The '''coefficients''' of a '''polynomial''']] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a079|The '''coefficients''' of a '''conic''']] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a07a|The '''coefficients''' of a '''circle''']] (TP) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (TP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0k4| '''Nonlinear''' systems ]] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0kb| '''Choosing''' the '''solutions''' of the system]] (TP) || === Gauss-Jordan Partial Pivoting (PP) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a085|'''Gauss-Jordan Partial Pivoting''']] '''(PP)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a09s|'''Free Variables''']] (PP) : ==== Applications: (PP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a086|'''Balancing a chemical equation''']] (PP) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (PP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a08o|'''Find a basis for ...''']] (PP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a08z|'''Change of basis''']] (PP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ms| Matrix of a '''linear application''']] (PP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ll|'''Projection''' onto a vector subspace:]] (PP) * . * . * . * . |- | === Dot product (Dp) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ad|'''Dot product''']] '''(Dp)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0am| Some '''properties''']] (Dp) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ow| Compute '''orthogonal vectors''']] (Dp) : : === Orthonormal matrices (Q) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0bp|'''Orthonormal matrices''']] '''(Q)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0lg|Some '''properties''']] (Q) : : === QR Decomposition (QR) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0b2|'''QR Decomposition''']] '''(QR)''' : ==== Applications: (QR) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0b7|'''Network analysis''']] (QR) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c1|'''Analysis of an electrical circuit''']] (QR) : ==== Graphics Applications: (QR) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c2|The '''coefficients''' of a '''polynomial''']] (QR) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c3|The '''coefficients''' of a '''conic''']] (QR) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c4|The '''coefficients''' of a '''circle''']] (QR) * . || === Eigenvalues Eigenvector (eigen) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0d1|'''Eigenvalues Eigenvector''']] '''(eigen)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0dh| Some '''properties''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0lz| Eigenvalues with '''multiplicity''']] (eigen) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (eigen) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0o8|'''Condition number''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ch|'''Matrix functions''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0pj|'''Linear discrete dynamical system''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0n8|'''The spectral decomposition''']] (eigen) : ==== Graphics Applications: (eigen) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cr|The '''Quadratic forms: M[R2,C2]''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cp|The '''Quadratic forms: M[R3,C3]''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ox|'''Choose''' your eigenvalues]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cl|The '''Projection of a plane ''' (1)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0p2|The '''Projection of a plane ''' (2)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cv|The '''Projection of a space ''' (1)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0p7|The '''Projection of a space ''' (2)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0d0|The '''Projection of an hyperspace ''' (1)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0pe|The '''Projection of an hyperspace ''' (2)]] (eigen) |- | === The singular values (SVD) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0mn|'''The singular values''']] (SVD) : : === SVD: Rn ≥ Cn === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0dt|'''SVD: Rn ≥ Cn''']] (SVD) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0o3| Some '''properties''']] (SVD) : : === SVD: Cn > Rn === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0e1|'''SVD: Cn > Rn''']] (SVD) * . || === Pseudo-Inverse === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a03k|'''Pseudo-Inverse''']] : ==== Applications: (Pseudo-Inverse) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04e|'''Network analysis''']] (Left inverse) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04r|'''Analysis of an electrical circuit''']] (Left inverse) : ==== Graphics Applications: (Pseudo-Inverse) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a041|The '''coefficients''' of a '''polynomial''']] (Left inverse) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a046|The '''coefficients''' of a '''conic''']] (Left inverse) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a047|The '''coefficients''' of a '''circle''']] (Left inverse) |} : : = The library {{stage short|100%}} = The library's construction is '''not standard'''. You can '''compile''' the C file '''directly'''. The '''functions''' are in '''the h files'''. * To access to the library, be sure to '''use''' <code>#include "v_a.h"</code> '''in the C source files'''. {| class="wikitable" |+ |- | === Utilities === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a005|Utilities]] === Matrices === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00f|Creation of matrices]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00g|Print matrices]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00h|Random matrices. Copy matrices.]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00i|Basic operations on matrices]] === Determinant === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a007|Determinant]] * . || === Gauss-Jordan === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01j|Total Pivoting (TP)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01k|Partial Pivoting (PP)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01l|Total Pivoting (TP) (Free variables)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01w|Partial Pivoting (PP) (Free variables)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01n|L'inverse with GaussJordan]] === Dot product === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02e|QR. Eigenvalue. Singular value]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02f|Eigenvector]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02g|SVD : Matrices with more rows than columns ]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02h|SVD : Matrices with more columns than rows]] |} : : == Gnuplot == * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gf|Gnuplot]] : :{{alphabetical|L}} {{status|100%}} {{Shelves|Algebra|University level mathematics books|C programming language}} {{BookCat}} fuj0cezpwvc8b2argzuxgazmsmmc1z3 4673860 4673859 2026-10-03T13:05:14Z Codename Noreste 3441010 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-53267-09|~2026-53267-09]] ([[User talk:~2026-53267-09|talk]]) to last version by Xhungab 4669559 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Denest}}{{New book}}<div style="text-align: center;"> ''Wikibooks Contributors Present:''<br /><big><big><big>'''Linear Algebra and the C Language'''</big></big></big> <div style="text-align: center;">''This book provides a library for real matrices in C language.''</div> </div> __NOTOC__ The aim of this book is to provide '''real matrices''' in '''C language''', to '''familiarize''' yourself with '''linear algebra'''. '''Start''' by '''downloading the library''' (2 Hours!). The next step is to study the properties and applications, '''once the entire library has been downloaded'''. ---- = Contents = * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0nc|Cover]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a000|Introduction]] {| class="wikitable" |+ |- | {{ambox |type=notice |style=float:right;margin-left:10px;margin-right:0px; |textstyle=padding:5px;font-size:120%;line-height:120%; |small=left |text=This book requires that you are familiar with [[C Programming]].}} || {{ambox |type=notice |style=float:right;margin-left:10px;margin-right:0px; |textstyle=padding:5px;font-size:120%;line-height:120%; |small=left |text=This book requires that you are familiar with [[Linear Algebra]].}} || {{ambox |type=notice |style=float:right;margin-left:10px;margin-right:0px; |textstyle=padding:5px;font-size:120%;line-height:120%; |small=left |text=This book requires that you are familiar with [[Octave Programming]].}} |} = Properties and Applications: ([[#The library|'''The library''']]) {{stage short|100%}} = : : : : {| class="wikitable" |+ |- | ==== Utilities for the C language ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0e4|'''Utilities for the C language''']] {{Book search|float=left|style=image}} || ==== Utilities for Octave ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04c|'''Basic functions on matrices''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0od|'''Write some basic matrices functions.''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0no|'''Graphical utilities''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a03a|'''Examples of some applications''']] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04d|'''Write your mathematics functions''']] |- | ==== Working with matrices (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ef|'''Create''' a matrix]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0eq|'''Print''' a matrix]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0j0|'''Print''' a matrix to a '''file''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0j1|'''Print''' a matrix for '''Octave:''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ff|'''Copy''' a matrix]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fg|'''Random''' matrices]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0iq|'''Choose''' Your Values]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fr|'''Array''' of matrices]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fv|Print '''row vectors''':]] (M) ==== Basic operations on matrices (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a034|'''Basic operations''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0fx|The '''trace''' function]] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0nk|The '''transpose''' function]] (M) * . || ==== Mathematic Applications: (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0g4|'''Identity matrix''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0hz|'''Triangular matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ga|'''Commutative matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gm|'''Similar matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gn|'''Symmetric matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0i7|'''Skew-symmetric matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gz|'''Centrosymmetric matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0if|'''Positive-definite matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0il|'''Negative-definite matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0hd|'''Hankel matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0he|'''Toeplitz matrices''']] (M) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0hn|'''Taylor series: Exponential function''']] (M) : ==== Graphics Applications: (M) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0e9|The '''Transformation matrices [R2,C2]''']] (M) |- | === Determinant (Det) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a051|'''Determinant ''']] '''(Det)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04z|'''Elementary''' operations]] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a050|'''Intermediate''' functions]] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06x|Some '''properties''']] (Det) : ==== Graphics Applications: (Det) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a05y|The equation of a '''line''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a062|The equation of a '''plan''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a066|The equation of a '''parabola''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06a|The equation of a '''circle''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06c|The equation of a '''sphere''']] (Det) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (Det) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a008|The '''adjoint''' function]] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a06m|The '''inverse''' with '''adjoint_mR();''']] (Det) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a002|The '''cross product''' function]] (Det) * . || [[File:Linear Algebra and the C Language.png|thumb| ]] |- | === Gauss-Jordan Total Pivoting (TP) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a074|'''Gauss-Jordan Total Pivoting''']] '''(TP)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0a1|'''The Inverse''']] (TP) : ==== Applications: (TP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a076|'''Network analysis''']] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a077|'''Analysis of an electrical circuit''']] (TP) : ==== Graphics Applications: (TP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a078|The '''coefficients''' of a '''polynomial''']] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a079|The '''coefficients''' of a '''conic''']] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a07a|The '''coefficients''' of a '''circle''']] (TP) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (TP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0k4| '''Nonlinear''' systems ]] (TP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0kb| '''Choosing''' the '''solutions''' of the system]] (TP) || === Gauss-Jordan Partial Pivoting (PP) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a085|'''Gauss-Jordan Partial Pivoting''']] '''(PP)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a09s|'''Free Variables''']] (PP) : ==== Applications: (PP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a086|'''Balancing a chemical equation''']] (PP) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (PP) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a08o|'''Find a basis for ...''']] (PP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a08z|'''Change of basis''']] (PP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ms| Matrix of a '''linear application''']] (PP) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ll|'''Projection''' onto a vector subspace:]] (PP) * . * . * . * . |- | === Dot product (Dp) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ad|'''Dot product''']] '''(Dp)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0am| Some '''properties''']] (Dp) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ow| Compute '''orthogonal vectors''']] (Dp) : : === Orthonormal matrices (Q) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0bp|'''Orthonormal matrices''']] '''(Q)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0lg|Some '''properties''']] (Q) : : === QR Decomposition (QR) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0b2|'''QR Decomposition''']] '''(QR)''' : ==== Applications: (QR) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0b7|'''Network analysis''']] (QR) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c1|'''Analysis of an electrical circuit''']] (QR) : ==== Graphics Applications: (QR) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c2|The '''coefficients''' of a '''polynomial''']] (QR) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c3|The '''coefficients''' of a '''conic''']] (QR) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0c4|The '''coefficients''' of a '''circle''']] (QR) * . || === Eigenvalues Eigenvector (eigen) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0d1|'''Eigenvalues Eigenvector''']] '''(eigen)''' * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0dh| Some '''properties''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0lz| Eigenvalues with '''multiplicity''']] (eigen) : ==== Mathematic Applications: (eigen) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0o8|'''Condition number''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ch|'''Matrix functions''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0pj|'''Linear discrete dynamical system''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0n8|'''The spectral decomposition''']] (eigen) : ==== Graphics Applications: (eigen) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cr|The '''Quadratic forms: M[R2,C2]''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cp|The '''Quadratic forms: M[R3,C3]''']] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0ox|'''Choose''' your eigenvalues]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cl|The '''Projection of a plane ''' (1)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0p2|The '''Projection of a plane ''' (2)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0cv|The '''Projection of a space ''' (1)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0p7|The '''Projection of a space ''' (2)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0d0|The '''Projection of an hyperspace ''' (1)]] (eigen) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0pe|The '''Projection of an hyperspace ''' (2)]] (eigen) |- | === The singular values (SVD) === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0mn|'''The singular values''']] (SVD) : : === SVD: Rn ≥ Cn === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0dt|'''SVD: Rn ≥ Cn''']] (SVD) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0o3| Some '''properties''']] (SVD) : : === SVD: Cn > Rn === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0e1|'''SVD: Cn > Rn''']] (SVD) * . || === Pseudo-Inverse === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a03k|'''Pseudo-Inverse''']] : ==== Applications: (Pseudo-Inverse) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04e|'''Network analysis''']] (Left inverse) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a04r|'''Analysis of an electrical circuit''']] (Left inverse) : ==== Graphics Applications: (Pseudo-Inverse) ==== * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a041|The '''coefficients''' of a '''polynomial''']] (Left inverse) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a046|The '''coefficients''' of a '''conic''']] (Left inverse) * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a047|The '''coefficients''' of a '''circle''']] (Left inverse) |} : : = The library {{stage short|100%}} = The library's construction is '''not standard'''. You can '''compile''' the C file '''directly'''. The '''functions''' are in '''the h files'''. * To access to the library, be sure to '''use''' <code>#include "v_a.h"</code> '''in the C source files'''. {| class="wikitable" |+ |- | === Utilities === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a005|Utilities]] === Matrices === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00f|Creation of matrices]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00g|Print matrices]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00h|Random matrices. Copy matrices.]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a00i|Basic operations on matrices]] === Determinant === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a007|Determinant]] * . || === Gauss-Jordan === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01j|Total Pivoting (TP)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01k|Partial Pivoting (PP)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01l|Total Pivoting (TP) (Free variables)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01w|Partial Pivoting (PP) (Free variables)]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a01n|L'inverse with GaussJordan]] === Dot product === * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02e|QR. Eigenvalue. Singular value]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02f|Eigenvector]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02g|SVD : Matrices with more rows than columns ]] * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a02h|SVD : Matrices with more columns than rows]] |} : : == Gnuplot == * [[Linear Algebra and the C Language/a0gf|Gnuplot]] : :{{alphabetical|L}} {{status|100%}} {{Shelves|Algebra|University level mathematics books|C programming language}} {{BookCat}} s4qti84v050pljc8rvinccuy7pumslt 2 480750 4673974 4673663 2026-10-04T06:40:56Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Step 2 */ typo 4673974 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Morse theory tells us that the topology of M only changes at its critical points. The "Morse data" tells us the topology at each critical point. Attaching this Morse data together gives us a space which is homopotically eqivalent to M. This space is a "cell complex", which has an easy to calculate homology. Theorem: Our domain of convergence is homotopic to a cell complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>This is theorem D.23 in Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546. Also theorem in section 1.2*/5.2* in SMT pp. 200.</ref> Proof: # <math display="inline">X</math> is our entire domain, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> our variety # Project our entire domain to complex projective space <math display="inline">Z = \pi(X) \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n - H</math> [define H] # Define a linear subspace <math display="inline">G \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d - 1</math> # Define a Morse function on <math display="inline">f: \C\mathbb{P}^n \to \R</math> which approximates the distance from <math display="inline">G</math> and such that <math display="inline">f^{-1}(0) = G</math> and <math display="inline">f^{-1}(1) = H</math> # We "build" <math display="inline">X - \mathcal{V}</math> from <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(G \cap Z) \cap (X - \mathcal{V})</math> by attaching CW complexes at critical points which are of at most dimension <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # At a critical point, the normal Morse data is <math display="inline">(J, K) = \coprod_x (J_x, K_x)</math> and the relative complex link is <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}^\pi = \coprod_x \mathcal{L}_x</math> # We show that the quotient <math display="inline">J_x/K_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension <math display="inline">\leq 2n - d - 1</math> # The neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> in <math display="inline">J_x</math> is homeomorphic to the cone in <math display="inline">L_x(X - \mathcal{V})</math>, and removing the point <math display="inline">x</math> increases the homotopy dimension to at most the homotopy dimension of <math display="inline">L_x</math> # <math display="inline">(J_x \cup \{x\}, K_x)</math> is homotopic to <math display="inline">(\text{cone}(\mathcal{L}_x), \mathcal{L}_x)</math> # <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # The tangential Morse data at the critical point is homotopic to the pair <math display="inline">(D^\lambda, \partial D^\lambda)</math> # Therefore, at each critical point a space has been added homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>. Theorem: If <math display="inline">X</math> is the complement in <math display="inline">\C^n</math> of a complex variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d</math> then <math display="inline">X</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546.</ref> Proof: # We build <math display="inline">X</math> by attaching cells of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> at each critical point. ## Prove that we can do this without changing the homotopy(?) ## We use Thom's Isotopy Lemma to prove that there is a strong deformation retraction, stopping only at critical points. # Prove these cells are a product of the normal and tangential Morse data. ## Normal data: <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}(S), \partial \mathcal{L}(S)) \times (D^1, \partial D^1)</math> [GM pp. 18] ## Tangential data: <math display="inline">(B_\delta \cap f^{-1}[v - \epsilon, v + \epsilon], B_\delta \cap f^{-1}(v - \epsilon))</math> for <math display="inline">f</math> restricted to <math display="inline">X</math> (or <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>?) [GM pp. 63-64] # If <math display="inline">k</math> is the dimension of the strata, then ## If <math display="inline">k = d</math> then it is a smooth point and the cell is the product of <math display="inline">S^{2(n-d)-1}</math> and the tangential data is dimension at most <math display="inline">d</math>. ## If <math display="inline">k < d</math>, ... <ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 547.</ref> == Example in one dimension == Domain with singularities v_1, v_2, ..., v_i Define our height function f... Start with our entire domain X Reduce from X to X_i+ by using Thom's Isotopy lemma to do a strong deformation retract == Thom's isotopy lemma == We present a modified version of Thom's (first) isotopy lemma, less general than the original but more obviously relevant to our situation. Theorem: Suppose <math display="inline">Z</math> is a closed subset of a smooth manifold <math display="inline">M</math> which admits a Whitney stratification and <math display="inline">h : M \to \R</math> is a proper Morse function which has no critical values on <math display="inline">Z</math>. Then, the level sets of <math display="inline">Z</math> are homeomorphic by a homeomorphism that preserves the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>For various versions of the full statement of the theorem, see Mather 2012, pp. 499, Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 41, or Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 541.</ref> Proof: # Construct control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. ## [Prop 7.1] If <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an abstract stratified set and <math display="inline">f</math> a controlled submersion. # A controlled submersion has, for any smooth vector field on <math display="inline">\R</math>, a controlled vector field on <math display="inline">Z</math> (a "lift"?)<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> # A controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">h</math> a locally trivial fibration. [Prop 10.2]<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 499.</ref> Control data: A system of '''control data''' for <math display="inline">Z</math> consists of, for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, * a '''tubular neighbourhood''' <math display="inline">T_X</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> * a '''tubular projection function''' <math display="inline">\pi_X: T_X \to X</math>, and * a '''tubular distance function''' <math display="inline">\rho_X: T_X \to \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho_X^{-1}(0) = X</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 42.</ref> [illustration] such that if <math display="inline">X < Y</math> are strata in <math display="inline">Z</math>, then <math display="block">\pi_X \pi_Y(m) = \pi_X(m),</math> <math display="block">\rho_X \pi_Y(m) = \rho_X(m)</math> for all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X| \cap |T_Y|</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi_Y(m) \in |T_X|</math>. If, for all strata <math display="inline">X</math> and all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X|</math>, we have <math display="inline">h \pi_X(m) = h(m)</math>, then this control data will be said to be compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488, prop 7.1.</ref> Let <math display="inline">Z_k</math> be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. We prove by induction on <math display="inline">k</math>. To construct the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_X</math> of a stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. For <math display="inline">l \leq k</math>, let <math display="inline">U_l</math> denote the union of all <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> for <math display="inline">Y < X</math> and <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l</math>. Let <math display="inline">X_l = U_l \cap X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> For <math display="inline">l = k</math>, <math display="inline">X_k = \empty</math>. Assume by induction that <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> has been constructed and that if <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l + 1</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{l+1} = \pi_{T_{l+1}}</math>) then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489-490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We wish to construct a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> of <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X</math> whose restriction to <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X_{l+1}</math> is isomorphic to the restriction of <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> such that if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{X,Y}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y} = \pi_{T_{X,Y}}</math>) then <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> By shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> if necessary, this relation is already satisfied if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> with <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}</math>. By the definition, if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}|</math> then there exists <math display="inline">Z < X</math> with <math display="inline">\dim Z > l</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Z|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Z|</math>. We have that <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y| \cap |T_Z|</math> and therefore <math display="inline">Y < Z</math>. Therefore<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We can prove that, by shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math>, <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X \to \R \times Y</math> is a submersion [prop 7.3?] and that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y) \pi_{X,Y}(m) = (\rho_Y, \pi_Y)(m)</math>(?). To prove it is a submersion, for the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T = (E, \epsilon, \psi)</math> there exists a smooth positive function <math display="inline">\epsilon'</math> such that <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): Y \cap |T|_{\epsilon'}^0 \to \R \times X,</math> where <math display="inline">|T|_{\epsilon'}^0 = \psi(B_\epsilon \cap B_{\epsilon'})</math>, is a submersion. If <math display="inline">\Sigma</math> is the set <math display="inline">y \in |T|</math> such that the rank of <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): T \cap |T| \to \R \times X</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is less than <math display="inline">\dim(\R \times X)</math>. We need to prove that for any <math display="inline">x \in X</math> there exists a neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> which does not intersect with <math display="inline">\Sigma</math>, i.e. the map is not a submersion in this neighbourhood. It follows from [lemma 7.2] that it is enough to prove for <math display="inline">M = \R^m</math>, <math display="inline">X = \R^{m-c} \times 0_c</math> and <math display="inline">T</math> is the '''standard tubular neighbourhood'''.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> By standard tubular neighbourhood, we mean the trivial bundle with base <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math> and fibre <math display="inline">\R^c</math> where <math display="inline">\pi: \R^m \to \R^{m-c}</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> For <math display="inline">y \in |T| - \R^{m-c}</math>, the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is the orthogonal complement of <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> in <math display="inline">\R^m</math>. By the Whitney conditions, we have that for <math display="inline">y</math> near <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> is close to the set of <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> planes in <math display="inline">m-</math>space to an <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> plane in <math display="inline">TY_y</math>. Therefore, for <math display="inline">y</math> near enough to <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">TY_y</math> is transverse to the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> and, therefore, is a submersion when restricted to <math display="inline">Y</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> To prove that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> Therefore, there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_0</math> of <math display="inline">X_0</math> satisfying <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_0(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_0(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> From this we can prove that <math display="inline">T_0</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. Replacing <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a smaller tubular neighbourhood if necessary we can assume <math display="inline">m \in |T_0|</math> such that for some <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_0(m) \in |T_Y|</math>, then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">h \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y(m) = h(m).</math> By the generalised tubular neighourhood theorem [prop 7.2?], we can replace <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. This completes the construction of <math display="inline">T_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491.</ref> This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an '''abstract stratified set''' with axioms...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491-492.</ref> This also makes <math display="inline">h</math> a '''controlled submersion''' because # <math display="inline">h|X: X \to \R</math> is a smooth submersion on each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, and # for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> there is a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_X</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_X(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in T'_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> The core of this is the concept of a '''vector field'''. A vector field is a function which assigns, for each point <math display="inline">p</math> in a space, a '''vector''', which can be represented by an arrow whose tail starts at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 33.</ref> [picture] Imagine we have a vector field <math display="inline">v(x)</math> defined in a space and draw a line through our space. At each point along this line the vector field assigns a vector. If we move each point in this line along the arrow defined by this vector in the direction of the arrow head. This "flows" the entire line along the vectors. [picture] We define a '''stratified vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a family of smooth vector fields <math display="inline">\eta_X</math>, one for each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> We define a '''controlled vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a stratified vector field such that for any strata <math display="inline">Y</math> there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_Y</math> such that for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and any <math display="inline">v \in T'_X \cap X</math><ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> <math display="block">\eta_X \rho_{Y,X}(v) = 0,</math> <math display="block">(\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) = \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)).</math> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is a controlled submersion then, for any smooth vector field <math display="inline">\zeta</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math> there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> such that <math display="inline">h_* \eta(v) = \zeta(h(v))</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> Proceeding by induction on the maximum dimension of the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we define <math display="inline">Z_k</math> to be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>. The tubular neighbourhood of <math display="inline">Z_k</math> is the intersection of the tubular neighbourhoods of each strata in <math display="inline">Z_k</math> with <math display="inline">Z</math>. The projection and distance functions are the restrictions of the respective functions of <math display="inline">Z</math>. It is trivially true when the maximum dimension of strata in <math display="inline">Z</math> is zero. Assume it is true for <math display="inline">k</math> and construct each <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> separately for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension <math display="inline">k + 1</math>. By the assumption that we have controlled vector fields for all strata <math display="inline">Y</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>, we have the two control conditions defined above for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and that there is a neighbourhood <math display="inline">T^1_Y</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_Y(v)</math> for <math display="inline">v \in T^1_Y</math>. We want to prove that for all <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, the control conditions are satisfied for all <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math> and that <math display="inline">h_*\eta_X(v) = \zeta(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in X</math>. Take a point <math display="inline">x \in X</math> and define the set <math display="inline">S_v</math> of strata <math display="inline">Y < X</math> such that <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math>. <math display="inline">S_v</math> is totally ordered since if <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_2</math> are not comparable then <math display="inline">T^2_{Y_1} \cap T^2_{Y_2} = \empty</math>. Therefore, there is a largest member <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Assume the control conditions hold for <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Then they hold for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. For, either <math display="inline">Y_i = Y</math> or <math display="inline">Y_i < Y</math>. In the latter case, <math display="inline">\pi_Y(v) \in T^1_{Y_i}</math> (by the choice of <math display="inline">T^2_Y</math>'s [is this why?]. Then <math display="block">\begin{align} \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,X}(v) &= \eta_X \rho_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= \eta_Y(\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= 0 \end{align}</math> and <math display="block">\begin{align} (\pi_{Y_i,X})_* \eta_X(v) &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* \eta_Y(v) (\pi_{Y,X}) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,X}(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, condition holds for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. Also, <math display="block">\begin{align} h_* \eta_X(v) &= (h \circ \pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= h_* \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \zeta(f(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, the conclusion of the theorem holds at <math display="inline">v</math>. This shows we can construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> satisfying the control conditions when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is non-empty and satisfying the theorem when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is empty. The set of vectors satisfying these conditions is convex in <math display="inline">TX_v</math>, and so we construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> globally via a partition of unity.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493-495.</ref> Finally, we prove that a controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, this combines Proposition 10.1 and Corollary 10.2 on pp. 496 and 497, respectively.</ref> For each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> generates a unique smooth local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> of diffeomorphisms of <math display="inline">X</math> (by standard results of differential geometry), such that <math display="inline">\frac{d}{dt} \alpha(t, v)|_{t=0} = \eta_X(v)</math>, <math display="inline">J_X</math> is an open subset of <math display="inline">\R \times Z</math>, ... If we define <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> by <math display="block">J = \bigcup_{X \in S} J_X</math> <math display="block">\alpha = \bigcup_{X \in S} \alpha_X</math> we can prove that this is a local one-parameter family of homeomorphisms.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> Firstly, it is clear that # <math display="inline">0 \times Z \subseteq J</math> and <math display="inline">\alpha(0, v) = v</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> then <math display="inline">J_v = J \cap (\R \times v) \subseteq \R</math> is an open interval <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math>, possibly infinite at one or both ends. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and <math display="inline">t, s, t + s</math> are in <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> then <math display="inline">\alpha(t + s, v) = \alpha(t, \alpha(s, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> Secondly, it is clear that <math display="inline">\eta</math> generates <math display="inline">\alpha</math> because # Each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math> is invariant under <math display="inline">\alpha</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\alpha[J \cap (\R \times X)] \subseteq X</math>. # For each <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>, the map <math display="inline">t \to \alpha(t, v)</math> of <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> into the stratum which contains <math display="inline">v</math> is <math display="inline">C^1</math>. # For any <math display="inline">(t, v) \in Z</math>(?) we have <math display="inline">d/dt \alpha(t, v) = \eta(\alpha(t, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> It is unique because each <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> is unique. We just need to prove that <math display="inline">J</math> is open, <math display="inline">\alpha</math> is continuous, and for any <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and any compact set <math display="inline">K \subseteq Z</math> there exists <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> such that <math display="inline">\alpha(t, v) \notin K</math> if <math display="inline">t \in (a_v, a_v + \epsilon) \cup (b_v - \epsilon, b_v)</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> For the latter-most condition, if it did not hold then there exists...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496-497.</ref> We prove there is a homeomorphism <math display="inline">f: Z \to h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>, where <math display="inline">\pi: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to \R</math> is projection to the second factor. For the coordinate vector field <math display="inline">\partial</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math>, by [prop 9.1] there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> such that <math display="inline">f_* \tilde\partial(v) = \partial(h(v))</math> for <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. By [prop 10.1], <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> generates a local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> such that <math display="block">h(\alpha(t,v)) = h(v) + t</math> <math display="inline">h</math> is proper and [d] holds, so <math display="inline">J = \R \times Z</math>. If we define <math display="inline">f</math> as <math display="block">f(v) = (\alpha(-t, v), h(v))</math> then <math display="inline">f</math> maps <math display="inline">Z</math> into <math display="inline">h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> and <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>. If we define <math display="inline">\bar f: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to Z</math> as <math display="block">\bar f(v, t) = \alpha(t, v)</math> then <math display="inline">f \bar f = \bar f f = Id</math> and <math display="inline">f</math> is a homeomorphism.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 497.</ref> == Topology at critical points == Theorem: If there is a critical point <math display="inline">p</math> in the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> with critical value <math display="inline">v \in (a, b)</math> then the space <math display="inline">X_{\leq b}</math> is homotopic to<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> <math display="block">X_{\leq a} \cup [(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)].</math> Proof:<ref>Proof outline comes from Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> # <math display="inline">(X_{\leq b}, X_{\leq a})</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(X_{\leq v + \epsilon}, X_{\leq v -\epsilon})</math>. We can prove this by "moving wall" or Thom's Isotopy Lemma.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 90-91, 120.</ref> # <math display="inline">X_{\leq v + \epsilon}</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">X_{\leq v - \epsilon} \cup (J, K)</math>, where the latter is the local Morse data for <math display="inline">h</math> at <math display="inline">p</math>. We do this by moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96, 120-121.</ref> # <math display="inline">(J, K)</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math> (tangential data, normal data). Again, moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65-66, chapter 8, 121.</ref> # The normal Morse data depends only on the differential <math display="inline">df(p)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 93.</ref> # The normal Morse data has the homotopy type of <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 169.</ref> === Step 1 === We get this immediately(?) by Thom's Isotopy Lemma. === Step 2 === <ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, complex case on pp. 120-121 is extension of real case on pp. 95-96.</ref> Step 1 works because <math display="inline">h</math> is a submersion at each point of the regions we are homeomorphing. This is not the case at critical points. We need some way by which a homeomorphism can pass through a critical point. To prove a homeomorphism between two subsets <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we project <math display="inline">Z</math> to some other space <math display="inline">N</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\R^n</math>) using some function <math display="inline">F</math>. We take subsets <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> of <math display="inline">N</math> such that <math display="inline">A = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_0)</math> and <math display="inline">B = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_1)</math>. We need to prove <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> are connected by a one-parameter family of regions <math display="inline">Y_t</math> [explain one-parameter family]. The criterion for such a family to exist is that the '''characteristic covectors''' of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 70.</ref> At each point <math display="inline">x \in M</math> and <math display="inline">y \in N</math> there are '''tangent spaces''' <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and <math display="inline">T_yN</math>, a vector space whose zero is at the point <math display="inline">x</math> or <math display="inline">y</math> (resp.) [picture of various tangent spaces] In the case the <math display="inline">N = \R</math>, the tangent space <math display="inline">T_x\R</math> is just <math display="inline">\R</math> but whose origin is at <math display="inline">x</math>. [picture of T_x\R] Say <math display="inline">F(x) = y</math>, then the differential of the map <math display="inline">F</math> can be seen as a function whose input is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and whose output is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_yM</math>. [If I move this far on the tangent space of M how do I move in the tangent space of N?] [picture] [example for M = \R and N = \R?] A function which takes as input a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> (say) and outputs a scalar (usually <math display="inline">\R</math>) is called a '''covector'''. The set of all covectors on <math display="inline">T_xM</math> is called the dual space of <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and is denoted <math display="inline">T^*_xM</math>. There are only a limited number of ways to express a covectors. For example, if our tangent space is two-dimensional then all covectors are of the form <math display="inline">ax + by</math> where <math display="inline">(x, y) \in T_xM</math>. We take our space <math display="inline">M</math> and map it onto <math display="inline">\R^2</math> with the map <math display="inline">F(z) = (r(z), h(z))</math>, where <math display="inline">z \in M</math> and <math display="inline">r</math> is the square of the distance of <math display="inline">z</math> to the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. [graph of mapping] In this case, the covectors on the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> are of the form <math display="inline">adf(x) + bdr(x)</math> (in this case <math display="inline">df</math> and <math display="inline">dr</math> are maps to <math display="inline">\R</math>) and on <math display="inline">T_y\R^2</math> are of the form <math display="inline">cu + dv</math> (for <math display="inline">(u, v) \in \R^2</math>). A covector <math display="inline">cu + dv \in T^*_{(u, v)}\R^2</math> is called '''characteristic''' if <math display="inline">F(x) = (u, v)</math> and <math display="inline">cdf(x) + ddr(x) = 0</math> for all vectors in the tangent space of the stratum containing <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> [explain adf(x) + bdr(x) in terms of this being a function which takes a vector input] What we want is a homeomorphism in <math display="inline">M</math> between the space <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon}</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B</math>, where <math display="inline">B</math> is a small region of the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. The '''local Morse data''' is <math display="block">((B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}[v-\epsilon, v+\epsilon], (B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}(v-\epsilon))</math> where <math display="inline">B_\delta</math> is a closed disc in <math display="inline">M</math> of radius <math display="inline">\delta</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 63-64.</ref> Observe that this is the pair <math display="inline">(F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon)), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon)))</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 91.</ref> [explain Box, Bottom, etc.] [picture of the two subspaces of Z in M] We use our map <math display="inline">F</math> to convert these two subspaces to subspaces of <math display="inline">\R^2</math> which are of the form <math display="inline">Y_1 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq \epsilon\}</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq -\epsilon\} \cup \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | x \leq \delta, y \leq \epsilon\}</math>, such that <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} = F^{-1}(Y_1)</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B = F^{-1}(Y_0)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96.</ref> We use a homeomorphism between <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0</math> using the technique of "moving the wall" and Thom's Isotopy Lemma.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, chapter 4, particularly pp. 71-72.</ref> For the composition <math display="block">Z \times \R \subset M \times \R \to_{F \times I} Y \subset \R^2 \times \R \to_{\pi} \R</math> where <math display="inline">Y(t, z) = Y_t(z)</math>, <math display="inline">I</math> is the identity and <math display="inline">\pi</math> is projection to the second factor. <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(F \times I)^{-1}(Y)</math>... The composition <math display="inline">\pi \circ (F \times I): Z \times \R \cap (F \times I)^{-1}(Y) \to \R</math> is a stratified submersion... Therefore, we can apply Thom's Isotopy Lemma which says there is a homeomorphism between the level sets of <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math>...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 72.</ref> === Step 3 === We prove there is a stratum preserving homeomorphism between<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65.</ref> <math display="block">\text{Local Morse Data} \cong (\text{Tangential Morse Data}) \times (\text{Normal Morse Data})</math> We first prove that there is a homeomorphism between the product of the normal and tangential Morse data and the '''realisation''' of the following diagram [diagram from pp. 102] where realisation means <math display="block">Z \cap (g_1, h_1)^{-1}(P_a) \cap (g_2, h_2)^{-1}(P_b)</math> where all the intersections of strata (of <math display="inline">Z</math>?) are transverse.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-102.</ref> The realisation of the above diagram is equal to <math display="block">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2) = (V_1 \cap W_1, V_1 \cap W_2 \cup V_2 \cap W_1)</math> where <math display="block">V_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f(z) - f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">V_2 = \{ z \in Z : f(z) - f\pi(z) = -\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f\pi(z)| \leq 3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : f\pi(z) = -3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> where <math display="inline">\pi</math> is the projection from the tubular neighbourhood to <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">r(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> and <math display="inline">\rho(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and <math display="inline">\pi(z)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-101.</ref> <math display="inline">\epsilon \ll \delta</math> are chosen so that <math display="inline">(\delta, \epsilon)</math> is in the set <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> which consists of <math display="inline">A_6 \subset \R^+ \times \R^+</math> with the properties that for <math display="inline">(\epsilon, \delta) \in A_6</math> and <math display="inline">z</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">r\pi(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">|f(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> and <math display="inline">|f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> then the covectors <math display="inline">d\rho(z)</math>, <math display="inline">dr\pi(z)</math>, <math display="inline">df(z)</math> and <math display="inline">df\pi(z)</math> are linearly independent when restricted to <math display="inline">T_zY</math> (where <math display="inline">Y</math> is the stratum containing <math display="inline">z</math>). We can prove such a set exists.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 89.</ref> <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> is this plus its reflection about the <math display="inline">x</math> axis.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> Let <math display="inline">D = \{ x \in X | r(x) \leq \delta \}</math> for stratum <math display="inline">X</math>. We will show there is a local trivial fibration of the configuration: <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math> fibres over <math display="inline">D</math> and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">D \times (\text{normal Morse data})</math> (V_1, V_2) -> D \times (normal Morse data) | / --> D <--- and that <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2)</math> fibres over the tangential Morse data and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(\text{tangential Morse data}) \times (\text{normal slice})</math>. For <math display="inline">Z_1 = \{ z \in Z : r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math>, the map <math display="inline">F(z): Z_1 \to \R^2 = (\rho(z), f(z) - f\pi(z))</math> is transverse to each stratum of <math display="inline">\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)</math>, [list], [by lemma 6.5]. <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) = F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math>. For each stratum <math display="inline">S</math> of Box and each <math display="inline">x \in D</math>, we have transverse intersection <math display="inline">F^{-1}(S) \pitchfork \pi^{-1}(x)</math>. Therefore, <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(S)</math> is a submersion and by Thom's isotopy lemma the projection <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4): F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)) \to X</math> is a stratified fibre bundle over <math display="inline">D</math>. The fibre over the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> is <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(p) \cap (F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> and is equal to the normal Morse data...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101.</ref> Take <math display="inline">G: X \to \R^2 = (r(x), f(x))</math>. <math display="inline">\delta</math> and <math display="inline">\epsilon</math> have been chosen so that <math display="inline">(G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), G^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is the tangential Morse data for <math display="inline">f</math> and is contained in the region <math display="inline">D</math> over which <math display="inline">\pi|(V_1, V_2)</math> is a stratified fibre bundle. Therefore, <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2) = \pi^{-1} G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101-102.</ref> Finally, this means that <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2)</math> is homeomorphic (by stratum preserving homeomorphism) to <math display="inline">(\pi^{-1}(p), \cap (V_1, V_2)) \times \pi(W_1, W_2)</math>, the product of normal and tangential Morse data.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 102.</ref> We use a succession of such diagrams to interpolate between the box diagram which defines local Morse data [explain] and the above diagram whose realisation we have just proven is <math display="inline">(\text{normal Morse data}) \times (\text{tangential Morse data})</math>. [diagram_d0.py] The realisation is the local Morse data. This is equal to the realisation of the diagram below.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 103, 106.</ref> [diagram_d11.py] == Morse theory == Steps(?) * Explain topology * Every point of a stratum is locally like a product structure (proved by Thom's Isotopy Lemma) [GM pp. 41-42] ** Including those around critical points, which are the product of normal and tangential Morse data (these are our quasi-local cycles?) * Thom's Isotopy Lemma proves a strong deformation retraction (which only stops at critical points) [PWM pp. 541-542] === Homotopy === We want to replace our domain of convergence <math display="inline">M</math>, which is the complement of our singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, with an "equivalent" space <math display="inline">M'</math> which has better understood properties. We say "equivalent" because there are several different things we could mean by "equivalent" in this context. The equivalence we are referring to in this section is called '''homotopy'''. Imagine two subspaces <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> of a space <math display="inline">Y</math> which are defined respectively by smooth functions <math display="inline">f, g: X \to Y</math>. If there exists a smooth function <math display="inline">h_s: X \times [0, 1] \to Y</math>, called a homotopy, such that <math display="inline">h_0 = f</math>, <math display="inline">h_1 = g</math> and for any <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> there exists a <math display="inline">\delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">\delta_b</math> such that when <math display="inline">|s - s_0| < \delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">|x - x_0| < \delta_b</math> we have <math display="inline">|h_s(x) - h_{s_0}(x_0)| < \epsilon</math>, then we say <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are '''homotopic'''.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 251-252.</ref> Below is an example where <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are one-dimensional curves and <math display="inline">H(t, s) = h_s(t)</math>. [[File:Homotopy_curves.png|300px]] In [[#Homotopy_equivalence|Appendix A]], we formally prove that we can construct an equivalent space <math display="inline">M'</math>. We provide only an example to give some intuition before describing how to construct the space <math display="inline">M'</math> in terms of local cycles around critical points. === Motivating example === Imagine a torus and a height function which is just the z value of the point. [[File:3D-Leveltorus.png|200px]] It has four critical points: two at the top and bottom of the outer circle (<math display="inline">p_1, p_4</math>) and two at the top and bottom of the inner circle (<math display="inline">p_2, p_3</math>). [picture] When the height is between the <math display="inline">p_1</math> and <math display="inline">p_2</math>, the space is a two-cell, which can be retracted to a point. [picture] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_2</math> and <math display="inline">p_3</math>, the space is a cylinder, which can be retracted to a two-cell with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_and_disk_with_handle.png|200px]] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_3</math> and <math display="inline">p_4</math>, the space is a torus with a disc removed, which can be retracted to a cylinder with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_with_handle_and_torus_with_hole.png|200px]] When the height is greater than <math display="inline">p_4</math>, then the full torus is constructed by attaching a two-cell. [Explain in terms of Morse data and Morse index?] === Morse data and quasi-local cycles === As in the above example, we start at the "bottom" of <math display="inline">M</math> and build upwards until just before we reach our first critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. ;Smooth points :This is a tube around a <math display="inline">(d-1)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> where the height function <math display="inline">h</math> is maximised at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223.</ref> :For example, if <math display="inline">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math> then <math display="inline">\lambda = 1</math> and <math display="inline">B^\lambda</math> is an arc reaching its highest point at <math display="inline">p</math>. :The normal plane <math display="inline">N</math> at <math display="inline">p</math> is a plane orthogonal to <math display="inline">B^1</math>(?). :Its normal link <math display="inline">L(S)</math> is a circle with two points missing where it intersects <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. :We make our quasi-local cycle out of the product of the arc and circle joined to <math display="inline">M_-</math> at points below <math display="inline">M_-</math>. :With the exception of degenerate points, such as monkey saddles...<ref>e.g. Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 211.</ref> ;Transverse multiple points :This is the product of a <math display="inline">k</math>-torus and a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math>. The torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in the complex normal space to each strata which intersects <math display="inline">p</math>. The chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> is supported in the stratum which is the common intersection of the varieties defined by the factors vanishing at <math display="inline">p</math>, and achieves its maximum height at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223-224.</ref> ;Arrangement multiple point :This is the product of a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> and several <math display="inline">k</math>-tori, one for each pair of sheets which intersect transversely, where the torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in each sheet.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 226.</ref> ;Cone point :A cone point is zero-dimensional so there is no <math display="inline">\gamma</math>, just a <math display="inline">d</math>-torus about <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 227.</ref> == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last1=Goresky | first1=Mark | last2=MacPherson | first2=Robert | title=Stratified Morse Theory | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1988 | url=https://www.math.ias.edu/~goresky/pdf/SMT.djvu }} * {{cite book | last=Henle | first1=Michael | title=A Combinatorial Introduction to Topology | publisher=Dover Publications Inc. New York | year=1979 }} * {{citation | last=Mather | first=John | title=Notes on Topological Stability | year=2012 | journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society | volume=49 | number=4 | pages=475-506 | url=https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2012-49-04/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6.pdf }}. * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} ne1v9nis55c05u2m76ezlnm2emazqon 4673975 4673974 2026-10-04T06:52:50Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Step 2 */ 4673975 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Morse theory tells us that the topology of M only changes at its critical points. The "Morse data" tells us the topology at each critical point. Attaching this Morse data together gives us a space which is homopotically eqivalent to M. This space is a "cell complex", which has an easy to calculate homology. Theorem: Our domain of convergence is homotopic to a cell complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>This is theorem D.23 in Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546. Also theorem in section 1.2*/5.2* in SMT pp. 200.</ref> Proof: # <math display="inline">X</math> is our entire domain, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> our variety # Project our entire domain to complex projective space <math display="inline">Z = \pi(X) \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n - H</math> [define H] # Define a linear subspace <math display="inline">G \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d - 1</math> # Define a Morse function on <math display="inline">f: \C\mathbb{P}^n \to \R</math> which approximates the distance from <math display="inline">G</math> and such that <math display="inline">f^{-1}(0) = G</math> and <math display="inline">f^{-1}(1) = H</math> # We "build" <math display="inline">X - \mathcal{V}</math> from <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(G \cap Z) \cap (X - \mathcal{V})</math> by attaching CW complexes at critical points which are of at most dimension <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # At a critical point, the normal Morse data is <math display="inline">(J, K) = \coprod_x (J_x, K_x)</math> and the relative complex link is <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}^\pi = \coprod_x \mathcal{L}_x</math> # We show that the quotient <math display="inline">J_x/K_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension <math display="inline">\leq 2n - d - 1</math> # The neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> in <math display="inline">J_x</math> is homeomorphic to the cone in <math display="inline">L_x(X - \mathcal{V})</math>, and removing the point <math display="inline">x</math> increases the homotopy dimension to at most the homotopy dimension of <math display="inline">L_x</math> # <math display="inline">(J_x \cup \{x\}, K_x)</math> is homotopic to <math display="inline">(\text{cone}(\mathcal{L}_x), \mathcal{L}_x)</math> # <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # The tangential Morse data at the critical point is homotopic to the pair <math display="inline">(D^\lambda, \partial D^\lambda)</math> # Therefore, at each critical point a space has been added homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>. Theorem: If <math display="inline">X</math> is the complement in <math display="inline">\C^n</math> of a complex variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d</math> then <math display="inline">X</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546.</ref> Proof: # We build <math display="inline">X</math> by attaching cells of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> at each critical point. ## Prove that we can do this without changing the homotopy(?) ## We use Thom's Isotopy Lemma to prove that there is a strong deformation retraction, stopping only at critical points. # Prove these cells are a product of the normal and tangential Morse data. ## Normal data: <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}(S), \partial \mathcal{L}(S)) \times (D^1, \partial D^1)</math> [GM pp. 18] ## Tangential data: <math display="inline">(B_\delta \cap f^{-1}[v - \epsilon, v + \epsilon], B_\delta \cap f^{-1}(v - \epsilon))</math> for <math display="inline">f</math> restricted to <math display="inline">X</math> (or <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>?) [GM pp. 63-64] # If <math display="inline">k</math> is the dimension of the strata, then ## If <math display="inline">k = d</math> then it is a smooth point and the cell is the product of <math display="inline">S^{2(n-d)-1}</math> and the tangential data is dimension at most <math display="inline">d</math>. ## If <math display="inline">k < d</math>, ... <ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 547.</ref> == Example in one dimension == Domain with singularities v_1, v_2, ..., v_i Define our height function f... Start with our entire domain X Reduce from X to X_i+ by using Thom's Isotopy lemma to do a strong deformation retract == Thom's isotopy lemma == We present a modified version of Thom's (first) isotopy lemma, less general than the original but more obviously relevant to our situation. Theorem: Suppose <math display="inline">Z</math> is a closed subset of a smooth manifold <math display="inline">M</math> which admits a Whitney stratification and <math display="inline">h : M \to \R</math> is a proper Morse function which has no critical values on <math display="inline">Z</math>. Then, the level sets of <math display="inline">Z</math> are homeomorphic by a homeomorphism that preserves the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>For various versions of the full statement of the theorem, see Mather 2012, pp. 499, Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 41, or Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 541.</ref> Proof: # Construct control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. ## [Prop 7.1] If <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an abstract stratified set and <math display="inline">f</math> a controlled submersion. # A controlled submersion has, for any smooth vector field on <math display="inline">\R</math>, a controlled vector field on <math display="inline">Z</math> (a "lift"?)<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> # A controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">h</math> a locally trivial fibration. [Prop 10.2]<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 499.</ref> Control data: A system of '''control data''' for <math display="inline">Z</math> consists of, for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, * a '''tubular neighbourhood''' <math display="inline">T_X</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> * a '''tubular projection function''' <math display="inline">\pi_X: T_X \to X</math>, and * a '''tubular distance function''' <math display="inline">\rho_X: T_X \to \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho_X^{-1}(0) = X</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 42.</ref> [illustration] such that if <math display="inline">X < Y</math> are strata in <math display="inline">Z</math>, then <math display="block">\pi_X \pi_Y(m) = \pi_X(m),</math> <math display="block">\rho_X \pi_Y(m) = \rho_X(m)</math> for all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X| \cap |T_Y|</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi_Y(m) \in |T_X|</math>. If, for all strata <math display="inline">X</math> and all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X|</math>, we have <math display="inline">h \pi_X(m) = h(m)</math>, then this control data will be said to be compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488, prop 7.1.</ref> Let <math display="inline">Z_k</math> be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. We prove by induction on <math display="inline">k</math>. To construct the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_X</math> of a stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. For <math display="inline">l \leq k</math>, let <math display="inline">U_l</math> denote the union of all <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> for <math display="inline">Y < X</math> and <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l</math>. Let <math display="inline">X_l = U_l \cap X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> For <math display="inline">l = k</math>, <math display="inline">X_k = \empty</math>. Assume by induction that <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> has been constructed and that if <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l + 1</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{l+1} = \pi_{T_{l+1}}</math>) then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489-490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We wish to construct a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> of <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X</math> whose restriction to <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X_{l+1}</math> is isomorphic to the restriction of <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> such that if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{X,Y}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y} = \pi_{T_{X,Y}}</math>) then <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> By shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> if necessary, this relation is already satisfied if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> with <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}</math>. By the definition, if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}|</math> then there exists <math display="inline">Z < X</math> with <math display="inline">\dim Z > l</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Z|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Z|</math>. We have that <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y| \cap |T_Z|</math> and therefore <math display="inline">Y < Z</math>. Therefore<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We can prove that, by shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math>, <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X \to \R \times Y</math> is a submersion [prop 7.3?] and that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y) \pi_{X,Y}(m) = (\rho_Y, \pi_Y)(m)</math>(?). To prove it is a submersion, for the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T = (E, \epsilon, \psi)</math> there exists a smooth positive function <math display="inline">\epsilon'</math> such that <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): Y \cap |T|_{\epsilon'}^0 \to \R \times X,</math> where <math display="inline">|T|_{\epsilon'}^0 = \psi(B_\epsilon \cap B_{\epsilon'})</math>, is a submersion. If <math display="inline">\Sigma</math> is the set <math display="inline">y \in |T|</math> such that the rank of <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): T \cap |T| \to \R \times X</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is less than <math display="inline">\dim(\R \times X)</math>. We need to prove that for any <math display="inline">x \in X</math> there exists a neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> which does not intersect with <math display="inline">\Sigma</math>, i.e. the map is not a submersion in this neighbourhood. It follows from [lemma 7.2] that it is enough to prove for <math display="inline">M = \R^m</math>, <math display="inline">X = \R^{m-c} \times 0_c</math> and <math display="inline">T</math> is the '''standard tubular neighbourhood'''.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> By standard tubular neighbourhood, we mean the trivial bundle with base <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math> and fibre <math display="inline">\R^c</math> where <math display="inline">\pi: \R^m \to \R^{m-c}</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> For <math display="inline">y \in |T| - \R^{m-c}</math>, the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is the orthogonal complement of <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> in <math display="inline">\R^m</math>. By the Whitney conditions, we have that for <math display="inline">y</math> near <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> is close to the set of <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> planes in <math display="inline">m-</math>space to an <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> plane in <math display="inline">TY_y</math>. Therefore, for <math display="inline">y</math> near enough to <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">TY_y</math> is transverse to the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> and, therefore, is a submersion when restricted to <math display="inline">Y</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> To prove that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> Therefore, there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_0</math> of <math display="inline">X_0</math> satisfying <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_0(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_0(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> From this we can prove that <math display="inline">T_0</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. Replacing <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a smaller tubular neighbourhood if necessary we can assume <math display="inline">m \in |T_0|</math> such that for some <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_0(m) \in |T_Y|</math>, then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">h \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y(m) = h(m).</math> By the generalised tubular neighourhood theorem [prop 7.2?], we can replace <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. This completes the construction of <math display="inline">T_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491.</ref> This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an '''abstract stratified set''' with axioms...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491-492.</ref> This also makes <math display="inline">h</math> a '''controlled submersion''' because # <math display="inline">h|X: X \to \R</math> is a smooth submersion on each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, and # for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> there is a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_X</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_X(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in T'_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> The core of this is the concept of a '''vector field'''. A vector field is a function which assigns, for each point <math display="inline">p</math> in a space, a '''vector''', which can be represented by an arrow whose tail starts at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 33.</ref> [picture] Imagine we have a vector field <math display="inline">v(x)</math> defined in a space and draw a line through our space. At each point along this line the vector field assigns a vector. If we move each point in this line along the arrow defined by this vector in the direction of the arrow head. This "flows" the entire line along the vectors. [picture] We define a '''stratified vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a family of smooth vector fields <math display="inline">\eta_X</math>, one for each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> We define a '''controlled vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a stratified vector field such that for any strata <math display="inline">Y</math> there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_Y</math> such that for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and any <math display="inline">v \in T'_X \cap X</math><ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> <math display="block">\eta_X \rho_{Y,X}(v) = 0,</math> <math display="block">(\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) = \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)).</math> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is a controlled submersion then, for any smooth vector field <math display="inline">\zeta</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math> there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> such that <math display="inline">h_* \eta(v) = \zeta(h(v))</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> Proceeding by induction on the maximum dimension of the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we define <math display="inline">Z_k</math> to be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>. The tubular neighbourhood of <math display="inline">Z_k</math> is the intersection of the tubular neighbourhoods of each strata in <math display="inline">Z_k</math> with <math display="inline">Z</math>. The projection and distance functions are the restrictions of the respective functions of <math display="inline">Z</math>. It is trivially true when the maximum dimension of strata in <math display="inline">Z</math> is zero. Assume it is true for <math display="inline">k</math> and construct each <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> separately for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension <math display="inline">k + 1</math>. By the assumption that we have controlled vector fields for all strata <math display="inline">Y</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>, we have the two control conditions defined above for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and that there is a neighbourhood <math display="inline">T^1_Y</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_Y(v)</math> for <math display="inline">v \in T^1_Y</math>. We want to prove that for all <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, the control conditions are satisfied for all <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math> and that <math display="inline">h_*\eta_X(v) = \zeta(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in X</math>. Take a point <math display="inline">x \in X</math> and define the set <math display="inline">S_v</math> of strata <math display="inline">Y < X</math> such that <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math>. <math display="inline">S_v</math> is totally ordered since if <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_2</math> are not comparable then <math display="inline">T^2_{Y_1} \cap T^2_{Y_2} = \empty</math>. Therefore, there is a largest member <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Assume the control conditions hold for <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Then they hold for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. For, either <math display="inline">Y_i = Y</math> or <math display="inline">Y_i < Y</math>. In the latter case, <math display="inline">\pi_Y(v) \in T^1_{Y_i}</math> (by the choice of <math display="inline">T^2_Y</math>'s [is this why?]. Then <math display="block">\begin{align} \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,X}(v) &= \eta_X \rho_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= \eta_Y(\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= 0 \end{align}</math> and <math display="block">\begin{align} (\pi_{Y_i,X})_* \eta_X(v) &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* \eta_Y(v) (\pi_{Y,X}) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,X}(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, condition holds for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. Also, <math display="block">\begin{align} h_* \eta_X(v) &= (h \circ \pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= h_* \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \zeta(f(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, the conclusion of the theorem holds at <math display="inline">v</math>. This shows we can construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> satisfying the control conditions when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is non-empty and satisfying the theorem when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is empty. The set of vectors satisfying these conditions is convex in <math display="inline">TX_v</math>, and so we construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> globally via a partition of unity.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493-495.</ref> Finally, we prove that a controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, this combines Proposition 10.1 and Corollary 10.2 on pp. 496 and 497, respectively.</ref> For each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> generates a unique smooth local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> of diffeomorphisms of <math display="inline">X</math> (by standard results of differential geometry), such that <math display="inline">\frac{d}{dt} \alpha(t, v)|_{t=0} = \eta_X(v)</math>, <math display="inline">J_X</math> is an open subset of <math display="inline">\R \times Z</math>, ... If we define <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> by <math display="block">J = \bigcup_{X \in S} J_X</math> <math display="block">\alpha = \bigcup_{X \in S} \alpha_X</math> we can prove that this is a local one-parameter family of homeomorphisms.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> Firstly, it is clear that # <math display="inline">0 \times Z \subseteq J</math> and <math display="inline">\alpha(0, v) = v</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> then <math display="inline">J_v = J \cap (\R \times v) \subseteq \R</math> is an open interval <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math>, possibly infinite at one or both ends. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and <math display="inline">t, s, t + s</math> are in <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> then <math display="inline">\alpha(t + s, v) = \alpha(t, \alpha(s, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> Secondly, it is clear that <math display="inline">\eta</math> generates <math display="inline">\alpha</math> because # Each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math> is invariant under <math display="inline">\alpha</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\alpha[J \cap (\R \times X)] \subseteq X</math>. # For each <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>, the map <math display="inline">t \to \alpha(t, v)</math> of <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> into the stratum which contains <math display="inline">v</math> is <math display="inline">C^1</math>. # For any <math display="inline">(t, v) \in Z</math>(?) we have <math display="inline">d/dt \alpha(t, v) = \eta(\alpha(t, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> It is unique because each <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> is unique. We just need to prove that <math display="inline">J</math> is open, <math display="inline">\alpha</math> is continuous, and for any <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and any compact set <math display="inline">K \subseteq Z</math> there exists <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> such that <math display="inline">\alpha(t, v) \notin K</math> if <math display="inline">t \in (a_v, a_v + \epsilon) \cup (b_v - \epsilon, b_v)</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> For the latter-most condition, if it did not hold then there exists...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496-497.</ref> We prove there is a homeomorphism <math display="inline">f: Z \to h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>, where <math display="inline">\pi: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to \R</math> is projection to the second factor. For the coordinate vector field <math display="inline">\partial</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math>, by [prop 9.1] there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> such that <math display="inline">f_* \tilde\partial(v) = \partial(h(v))</math> for <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. By [prop 10.1], <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> generates a local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> such that <math display="block">h(\alpha(t,v)) = h(v) + t</math> <math display="inline">h</math> is proper and [d] holds, so <math display="inline">J = \R \times Z</math>. If we define <math display="inline">f</math> as <math display="block">f(v) = (\alpha(-t, v), h(v))</math> then <math display="inline">f</math> maps <math display="inline">Z</math> into <math display="inline">h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> and <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>. If we define <math display="inline">\bar f: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to Z</math> as <math display="block">\bar f(v, t) = \alpha(t, v)</math> then <math display="inline">f \bar f = \bar f f = Id</math> and <math display="inline">f</math> is a homeomorphism.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 497.</ref> == Topology at critical points == Theorem: If there is a critical point <math display="inline">p</math> in the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> with critical value <math display="inline">v \in (a, b)</math> then the space <math display="inline">X_{\leq b}</math> is homotopic to<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> <math display="block">X_{\leq a} \cup [(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)].</math> Proof:<ref>Proof outline comes from Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> # <math display="inline">(X_{\leq b}, X_{\leq a})</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(X_{\leq v + \epsilon}, X_{\leq v -\epsilon})</math>. We can prove this by "moving wall" or Thom's Isotopy Lemma.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 90-91, 120.</ref> # <math display="inline">X_{\leq v + \epsilon}</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">X_{\leq v - \epsilon} \cup (J, K)</math>, where the latter is the local Morse data for <math display="inline">h</math> at <math display="inline">p</math>. We do this by moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96, 120-121.</ref> # <math display="inline">(J, K)</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math> (tangential data, normal data). Again, moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65-66, chapter 8, 121.</ref> # The normal Morse data depends only on the differential <math display="inline">df(p)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 93.</ref> # The normal Morse data has the homotopy type of <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 169.</ref> === Step 1 === We get this immediately(?) by Thom's Isotopy Lemma. === Step 2 === <ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, complex case on pp. 120-121 is extension of real case on pp. 95-96.</ref> Step 1 works because <math display="inline">h</math> is a submersion at each point of the regions we are homeomorphing. This is not the case at critical points. We need some way by which a homeomorphism can pass through a critical point. To prove a homeomorphism between two subsets <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we project <math display="inline">Z</math> to some other space <math display="inline">N</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\R^n</math>) using some function <math display="inline">F</math>. We take subsets <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> of <math display="inline">N</math> such that <math display="inline">A = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_0)</math> and <math display="inline">B = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_1)</math>. We need to prove <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> are connected by a one-parameter family of regions <math display="inline">Y_t</math> [explain one-parameter family]. The criterion for such a family to exist is that the '''characteristic covectors''' of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 70.</ref> At each point <math display="inline">x \in M</math> and <math display="inline">y \in N</math> there are '''tangent spaces''' <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and <math display="inline">T_yN</math>, a vector space whose zero is at the point <math display="inline">x</math> or <math display="inline">y</math> (resp.) [picture of various tangent spaces] In the case the <math display="inline">N = \R</math>, the tangent space <math display="inline">T_x\R</math> is just <math display="inline">\R</math> but whose origin is at <math display="inline">x</math>. [picture of T_x\R] Say <math display="inline">F(x) = y</math>, then the differential of the map <math display="inline">F</math> can be seen as a function whose input is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and whose output is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_yM</math>. [If I move this far on the tangent space of M how do I move in the tangent space of N?] [picture] [example for M = \R and N = \R?] A function which takes as input a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> (say) and outputs a scalar (usually <math display="inline">\R</math>) is called a '''covector'''. The set of all covectors on <math display="inline">T_xM</math> is called the dual space of <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and is denoted <math display="inline">T^*_xM</math>. There are only a limited number of ways to express a covectors. For example, if our tangent space is two-dimensional then all covectors are of the form <math display="inline">ax + by</math> where <math display="inline">(x, y) \in T_xM</math>. We take our space <math display="inline">M</math> and map it onto <math display="inline">\R^2</math> with the map <math display="inline">F(z) = (r(z), h(z))</math>, where <math display="inline">z \in M</math> and <math display="inline">r</math> is the square of the distance of <math display="inline">z</math> to the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. [graph of mapping] In this case, the covectors on the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> are of the form <math display="inline">adf(x) + bdr(x)</math> (in this case <math display="inline">df</math> and <math display="inline">dr</math> are maps to <math display="inline">\R</math>) and on <math display="inline">T_y\R^2</math> are of the form <math display="inline">cu + dv</math> (for <math display="inline">(u, v) \in \R^2</math>). A covector <math display="inline">cu + dv \in T^*_{(u, v)}\R^2</math> is called a '''characteristic covector''' of <math display="inline">F</math> if <math display="inline">F(x) = (u, v)</math> and <math display="inline">cdf(x) + ddr(x) = 0</math> for all vectors in the tangent space of the stratum containing <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> [explain adf(x) + bdr(x) in terms of this being a function which takes a vector input] [example of where covectors do and do not vanish on a stratified space, pp. 71?] What we want is a homeomorphism in <math display="inline">M</math> between the space <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon}</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B</math>, where <math display="inline">B</math> is a small region of the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. The '''local Morse data''' is <math display="block">((B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}[v-\epsilon, v+\epsilon], (B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}(v-\epsilon))</math> where <math display="inline">B_\delta</math> is a closed disc in <math display="inline">M</math> of radius <math display="inline">\delta</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 63-64.</ref> Observe that this is the pair <math display="inline">(F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon)), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon)))</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 91.</ref> [explain Box, Bottom, etc.] [picture of the two subspaces of Z in M] We use our map <math display="inline">F</math> to convert these two subspaces to subspaces of <math display="inline">\R^2</math> which are of the form <math display="inline">Y_1 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq \epsilon\}</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq -\epsilon\} \cup \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | x \leq \delta, y \leq \epsilon\}</math>, such that <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} = F^{-1}(Y_1)</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B = F^{-1}(Y_0)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96.</ref> We use a homeomorphism between <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0</math> using the technique of "moving the wall" and Thom's Isotopy Lemma. Such a homeomorphism exists when the characteristic covectors of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, chapter 4, particularly pp. 71-72.</ref> For the composition <math display="block">Z \times \R \subset M \times \R \to_{F \times I} Y \subset \R^2 \times \R \to_{\pi} \R</math> where <math display="inline">Y(t, z) = Y_t(z)</math>, <math display="inline">I</math> is the identity and <math display="inline">\pi</math> is projection to the second factor. <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(F \times I)^{-1}(Y)</math>... The composition <math display="inline">\pi \circ (F \times I): Z \times \R \cap (F \times I)^{-1}(Y) \to \R</math> is a stratified submersion... Therefore, we can apply Thom's Isotopy Lemma which says there is a homeomorphism between the level sets of <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math>...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 72.</ref> === Step 3 === We prove there is a stratum preserving homeomorphism between<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65.</ref> <math display="block">\text{Local Morse Data} \cong (\text{Tangential Morse Data}) \times (\text{Normal Morse Data})</math> We first prove that there is a homeomorphism between the product of the normal and tangential Morse data and the '''realisation''' of the following diagram [diagram from pp. 102] where realisation means <math display="block">Z \cap (g_1, h_1)^{-1}(P_a) \cap (g_2, h_2)^{-1}(P_b)</math> where all the intersections of strata (of <math display="inline">Z</math>?) are transverse.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-102.</ref> The realisation of the above diagram is equal to <math display="block">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2) = (V_1 \cap W_1, V_1 \cap W_2 \cup V_2 \cap W_1)</math> where <math display="block">V_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f(z) - f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">V_2 = \{ z \in Z : f(z) - f\pi(z) = -\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f\pi(z)| \leq 3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : f\pi(z) = -3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> where <math display="inline">\pi</math> is the projection from the tubular neighbourhood to <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">r(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> and <math display="inline">\rho(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and <math display="inline">\pi(z)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-101.</ref> <math display="inline">\epsilon \ll \delta</math> are chosen so that <math display="inline">(\delta, \epsilon)</math> is in the set <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> which consists of <math display="inline">A_6 \subset \R^+ \times \R^+</math> with the properties that for <math display="inline">(\epsilon, \delta) \in A_6</math> and <math display="inline">z</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">r\pi(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">|f(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> and <math display="inline">|f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> then the covectors <math display="inline">d\rho(z)</math>, <math display="inline">dr\pi(z)</math>, <math display="inline">df(z)</math> and <math display="inline">df\pi(z)</math> are linearly independent when restricted to <math display="inline">T_zY</math> (where <math display="inline">Y</math> is the stratum containing <math display="inline">z</math>). We can prove such a set exists.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 89.</ref> <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> is this plus its reflection about the <math display="inline">x</math> axis.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> Let <math display="inline">D = \{ x \in X | r(x) \leq \delta \}</math> for stratum <math display="inline">X</math>. We will show there is a local trivial fibration of the configuration: <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math> fibres over <math display="inline">D</math> and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">D \times (\text{normal Morse data})</math> (V_1, V_2) -> D \times (normal Morse data) | / --> D <--- and that <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2)</math> fibres over the tangential Morse data and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(\text{tangential Morse data}) \times (\text{normal slice})</math>. For <math display="inline">Z_1 = \{ z \in Z : r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math>, the map <math display="inline">F(z): Z_1 \to \R^2 = (\rho(z), f(z) - f\pi(z))</math> is transverse to each stratum of <math display="inline">\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)</math>, [list], [by lemma 6.5]. <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) = F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math>. For each stratum <math display="inline">S</math> of Box and each <math display="inline">x \in D</math>, we have transverse intersection <math display="inline">F^{-1}(S) \pitchfork \pi^{-1}(x)</math>. Therefore, <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(S)</math> is a submersion and by Thom's isotopy lemma the projection <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4): F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)) \to X</math> is a stratified fibre bundle over <math display="inline">D</math>. The fibre over the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> is <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(p) \cap (F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> and is equal to the normal Morse data...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101.</ref> Take <math display="inline">G: X \to \R^2 = (r(x), f(x))</math>. <math display="inline">\delta</math> and <math display="inline">\epsilon</math> have been chosen so that <math display="inline">(G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), G^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is the tangential Morse data for <math display="inline">f</math> and is contained in the region <math display="inline">D</math> over which <math display="inline">\pi|(V_1, V_2)</math> is a stratified fibre bundle. Therefore, <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2) = \pi^{-1} G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101-102.</ref> Finally, this means that <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2)</math> is homeomorphic (by stratum preserving homeomorphism) to <math display="inline">(\pi^{-1}(p), \cap (V_1, V_2)) \times \pi(W_1, W_2)</math>, the product of normal and tangential Morse data.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 102.</ref> We use a succession of such diagrams to interpolate between the box diagram which defines local Morse data [explain] and the above diagram whose realisation we have just proven is <math display="inline">(\text{normal Morse data}) \times (\text{tangential Morse data})</math>. [diagram_d0.py] The realisation is the local Morse data. This is equal to the realisation of the diagram below.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 103, 106.</ref> [diagram_d11.py] == Morse theory == Steps(?) * Explain topology * Every point of a stratum is locally like a product structure (proved by Thom's Isotopy Lemma) [GM pp. 41-42] ** Including those around critical points, which are the product of normal and tangential Morse data (these are our quasi-local cycles?) * Thom's Isotopy Lemma proves a strong deformation retraction (which only stops at critical points) [PWM pp. 541-542] === Homotopy === We want to replace our domain of convergence <math display="inline">M</math>, which is the complement of our singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, with an "equivalent" space <math display="inline">M'</math> which has better understood properties. We say "equivalent" because there are several different things we could mean by "equivalent" in this context. The equivalence we are referring to in this section is called '''homotopy'''. Imagine two subspaces <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> of a space <math display="inline">Y</math> which are defined respectively by smooth functions <math display="inline">f, g: X \to Y</math>. If there exists a smooth function <math display="inline">h_s: X \times [0, 1] \to Y</math>, called a homotopy, such that <math display="inline">h_0 = f</math>, <math display="inline">h_1 = g</math> and for any <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> there exists a <math display="inline">\delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">\delta_b</math> such that when <math display="inline">|s - s_0| < \delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">|x - x_0| < \delta_b</math> we have <math display="inline">|h_s(x) - h_{s_0}(x_0)| < \epsilon</math>, then we say <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are '''homotopic'''.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 251-252.</ref> Below is an example where <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are one-dimensional curves and <math display="inline">H(t, s) = h_s(t)</math>. [[File:Homotopy_curves.png|300px]] In [[#Homotopy_equivalence|Appendix A]], we formally prove that we can construct an equivalent space <math display="inline">M'</math>. We provide only an example to give some intuition before describing how to construct the space <math display="inline">M'</math> in terms of local cycles around critical points. === Motivating example === Imagine a torus and a height function which is just the z value of the point. [[File:3D-Leveltorus.png|200px]] It has four critical points: two at the top and bottom of the outer circle (<math display="inline">p_1, p_4</math>) and two at the top and bottom of the inner circle (<math display="inline">p_2, p_3</math>). [picture] When the height is between the <math display="inline">p_1</math> and <math display="inline">p_2</math>, the space is a two-cell, which can be retracted to a point. [picture] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_2</math> and <math display="inline">p_3</math>, the space is a cylinder, which can be retracted to a two-cell with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_and_disk_with_handle.png|200px]] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_3</math> and <math display="inline">p_4</math>, the space is a torus with a disc removed, which can be retracted to a cylinder with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_with_handle_and_torus_with_hole.png|200px]] When the height is greater than <math display="inline">p_4</math>, then the full torus is constructed by attaching a two-cell. [Explain in terms of Morse data and Morse index?] === Morse data and quasi-local cycles === As in the above example, we start at the "bottom" of <math display="inline">M</math> and build upwards until just before we reach our first critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. ;Smooth points :This is a tube around a <math display="inline">(d-1)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> where the height function <math display="inline">h</math> is maximised at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223.</ref> :For example, if <math display="inline">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math> then <math display="inline">\lambda = 1</math> and <math display="inline">B^\lambda</math> is an arc reaching its highest point at <math display="inline">p</math>. :The normal plane <math display="inline">N</math> at <math display="inline">p</math> is a plane orthogonal to <math display="inline">B^1</math>(?). :Its normal link <math display="inline">L(S)</math> is a circle with two points missing where it intersects <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. :We make our quasi-local cycle out of the product of the arc and circle joined to <math display="inline">M_-</math> at points below <math display="inline">M_-</math>. :With the exception of degenerate points, such as monkey saddles...<ref>e.g. Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 211.</ref> ;Transverse multiple points :This is the product of a <math display="inline">k</math>-torus and a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math>. The torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in the complex normal space to each strata which intersects <math display="inline">p</math>. The chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> is supported in the stratum which is the common intersection of the varieties defined by the factors vanishing at <math display="inline">p</math>, and achieves its maximum height at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223-224.</ref> ;Arrangement multiple point :This is the product of a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> and several <math display="inline">k</math>-tori, one for each pair of sheets which intersect transversely, where the torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in each sheet.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 226.</ref> ;Cone point :A cone point is zero-dimensional so there is no <math display="inline">\gamma</math>, just a <math display="inline">d</math>-torus about <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 227.</ref> == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last1=Goresky | first1=Mark | last2=MacPherson | first2=Robert | title=Stratified Morse Theory | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1988 | url=https://www.math.ias.edu/~goresky/pdf/SMT.djvu }} * {{cite book | last=Henle | first1=Michael | title=A Combinatorial Introduction to Topology | publisher=Dover Publications Inc. New York | year=1979 }} * {{citation | last=Mather | first=John | title=Notes on Topological Stability | year=2012 | journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society | volume=49 | number=4 | pages=475-506 | url=https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2012-49-04/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6.pdf }}. * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} 1q58lroce95yl666r1b8d3r9t2pjhd2 4673991 4673975 2026-10-04T07:38:29Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Step 2 */ setup for the proof 4673991 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Morse theory tells us that the topology of M only changes at its critical points. The "Morse data" tells us the topology at each critical point. Attaching this Morse data together gives us a space which is homopotically eqivalent to M. This space is a "cell complex", which has an easy to calculate homology. Theorem: Our domain of convergence is homotopic to a cell complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>This is theorem D.23 in Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546. Also theorem in section 1.2*/5.2* in SMT pp. 200.</ref> Proof: # <math display="inline">X</math> is our entire domain, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> our variety # Project our entire domain to complex projective space <math display="inline">Z = \pi(X) \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n - H</math> [define H] # Define a linear subspace <math display="inline">G \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d - 1</math> # Define a Morse function on <math display="inline">f: \C\mathbb{P}^n \to \R</math> which approximates the distance from <math display="inline">G</math> and such that <math display="inline">f^{-1}(0) = G</math> and <math display="inline">f^{-1}(1) = H</math> # We "build" <math display="inline">X - \mathcal{V}</math> from <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(G \cap Z) \cap (X - \mathcal{V})</math> by attaching CW complexes at critical points which are of at most dimension <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # At a critical point, the normal Morse data is <math display="inline">(J, K) = \coprod_x (J_x, K_x)</math> and the relative complex link is <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}^\pi = \coprod_x \mathcal{L}_x</math> # We show that the quotient <math display="inline">J_x/K_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension <math display="inline">\leq 2n - d - 1</math> # The neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> in <math display="inline">J_x</math> is homeomorphic to the cone in <math display="inline">L_x(X - \mathcal{V})</math>, and removing the point <math display="inline">x</math> increases the homotopy dimension to at most the homotopy dimension of <math display="inline">L_x</math> # <math display="inline">(J_x \cup \{x\}, K_x)</math> is homotopic to <math display="inline">(\text{cone}(\mathcal{L}_x), \mathcal{L}_x)</math> # <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # The tangential Morse data at the critical point is homotopic to the pair <math display="inline">(D^\lambda, \partial D^\lambda)</math> # Therefore, at each critical point a space has been added homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>. Theorem: If <math display="inline">X</math> is the complement in <math display="inline">\C^n</math> of a complex variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d</math> then <math display="inline">X</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546.</ref> Proof: # We build <math display="inline">X</math> by attaching cells of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> at each critical point. ## Prove that we can do this without changing the homotopy(?) ## We use Thom's Isotopy Lemma to prove that there is a strong deformation retraction, stopping only at critical points. # Prove these cells are a product of the normal and tangential Morse data. ## Normal data: <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}(S), \partial \mathcal{L}(S)) \times (D^1, \partial D^1)</math> [GM pp. 18] ## Tangential data: <math display="inline">(B_\delta \cap f^{-1}[v - \epsilon, v + \epsilon], B_\delta \cap f^{-1}(v - \epsilon))</math> for <math display="inline">f</math> restricted to <math display="inline">X</math> (or <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>?) [GM pp. 63-64] # If <math display="inline">k</math> is the dimension of the strata, then ## If <math display="inline">k = d</math> then it is a smooth point and the cell is the product of <math display="inline">S^{2(n-d)-1}</math> and the tangential data is dimension at most <math display="inline">d</math>. ## If <math display="inline">k < d</math>, ... <ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 547.</ref> == Example in one dimension == Domain with singularities v_1, v_2, ..., v_i Define our height function f... Start with our entire domain X Reduce from X to X_i+ by using Thom's Isotopy lemma to do a strong deformation retract == Thom's isotopy lemma == We present a modified version of Thom's (first) isotopy lemma, less general than the original but more obviously relevant to our situation. Theorem: Suppose <math display="inline">Z</math> is a closed subset of a smooth manifold <math display="inline">M</math> which admits a Whitney stratification and <math display="inline">h : M \to \R</math> is a proper Morse function which has no critical values on <math display="inline">Z</math>. Then, the level sets of <math display="inline">Z</math> are homeomorphic by a homeomorphism that preserves the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>For various versions of the full statement of the theorem, see Mather 2012, pp. 499, Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 41, or Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 541.</ref> Proof: # Construct control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. ## [Prop 7.1] If <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an abstract stratified set and <math display="inline">f</math> a controlled submersion. # A controlled submersion has, for any smooth vector field on <math display="inline">\R</math>, a controlled vector field on <math display="inline">Z</math> (a "lift"?)<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> # A controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">h</math> a locally trivial fibration. [Prop 10.2]<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 499.</ref> Control data: A system of '''control data''' for <math display="inline">Z</math> consists of, for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, * a '''tubular neighbourhood''' <math display="inline">T_X</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> * a '''tubular projection function''' <math display="inline">\pi_X: T_X \to X</math>, and * a '''tubular distance function''' <math display="inline">\rho_X: T_X \to \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho_X^{-1}(0) = X</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 42.</ref> [illustration] such that if <math display="inline">X < Y</math> are strata in <math display="inline">Z</math>, then <math display="block">\pi_X \pi_Y(m) = \pi_X(m),</math> <math display="block">\rho_X \pi_Y(m) = \rho_X(m)</math> for all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X| \cap |T_Y|</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi_Y(m) \in |T_X|</math>. If, for all strata <math display="inline">X</math> and all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X|</math>, we have <math display="inline">h \pi_X(m) = h(m)</math>, then this control data will be said to be compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488, prop 7.1.</ref> Let <math display="inline">Z_k</math> be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. We prove by induction on <math display="inline">k</math>. To construct the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_X</math> of a stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. For <math display="inline">l \leq k</math>, let <math display="inline">U_l</math> denote the union of all <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> for <math display="inline">Y < X</math> and <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l</math>. Let <math display="inline">X_l = U_l \cap X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> For <math display="inline">l = k</math>, <math display="inline">X_k = \empty</math>. Assume by induction that <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> has been constructed and that if <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l + 1</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{l+1} = \pi_{T_{l+1}}</math>) then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489-490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We wish to construct a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> of <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X</math> whose restriction to <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X_{l+1}</math> is isomorphic to the restriction of <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> such that if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{X,Y}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y} = \pi_{T_{X,Y}}</math>) then <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> By shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> if necessary, this relation is already satisfied if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> with <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}</math>. By the definition, if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}|</math> then there exists <math display="inline">Z < X</math> with <math display="inline">\dim Z > l</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Z|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Z|</math>. We have that <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y| \cap |T_Z|</math> and therefore <math display="inline">Y < Z</math>. Therefore<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We can prove that, by shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math>, <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X \to \R \times Y</math> is a submersion [prop 7.3?] and that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y) \pi_{X,Y}(m) = (\rho_Y, \pi_Y)(m)</math>(?). To prove it is a submersion, for the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T = (E, \epsilon, \psi)</math> there exists a smooth positive function <math display="inline">\epsilon'</math> such that <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): Y \cap |T|_{\epsilon'}^0 \to \R \times X,</math> where <math display="inline">|T|_{\epsilon'}^0 = \psi(B_\epsilon \cap B_{\epsilon'})</math>, is a submersion. If <math display="inline">\Sigma</math> is the set <math display="inline">y \in |T|</math> such that the rank of <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): T \cap |T| \to \R \times X</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is less than <math display="inline">\dim(\R \times X)</math>. We need to prove that for any <math display="inline">x \in X</math> there exists a neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> which does not intersect with <math display="inline">\Sigma</math>, i.e. the map is not a submersion in this neighbourhood. It follows from [lemma 7.2] that it is enough to prove for <math display="inline">M = \R^m</math>, <math display="inline">X = \R^{m-c} \times 0_c</math> and <math display="inline">T</math> is the '''standard tubular neighbourhood'''.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> By standard tubular neighbourhood, we mean the trivial bundle with base <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math> and fibre <math display="inline">\R^c</math> where <math display="inline">\pi: \R^m \to \R^{m-c}</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> For <math display="inline">y \in |T| - \R^{m-c}</math>, the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is the orthogonal complement of <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> in <math display="inline">\R^m</math>. By the Whitney conditions, we have that for <math display="inline">y</math> near <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> is close to the set of <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> planes in <math display="inline">m-</math>space to an <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> plane in <math display="inline">TY_y</math>. Therefore, for <math display="inline">y</math> near enough to <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">TY_y</math> is transverse to the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> and, therefore, is a submersion when restricted to <math display="inline">Y</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> To prove that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> Therefore, there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_0</math> of <math display="inline">X_0</math> satisfying <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_0(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_0(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> From this we can prove that <math display="inline">T_0</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. Replacing <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a smaller tubular neighbourhood if necessary we can assume <math display="inline">m \in |T_0|</math> such that for some <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_0(m) \in |T_Y|</math>, then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">h \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y(m) = h(m).</math> By the generalised tubular neighourhood theorem [prop 7.2?], we can replace <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. This completes the construction of <math display="inline">T_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491.</ref> This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an '''abstract stratified set''' with axioms...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491-492.</ref> This also makes <math display="inline">h</math> a '''controlled submersion''' because # <math display="inline">h|X: X \to \R</math> is a smooth submersion on each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, and # for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> there is a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_X</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_X(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in T'_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> The core of this is the concept of a '''vector field'''. A vector field is a function which assigns, for each point <math display="inline">p</math> in a space, a '''vector''', which can be represented by an arrow whose tail starts at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 33.</ref> [picture] Imagine we have a vector field <math display="inline">v(x)</math> defined in a space and draw a line through our space. At each point along this line the vector field assigns a vector. If we move each point in this line along the arrow defined by this vector in the direction of the arrow head. This "flows" the entire line along the vectors. [picture] We define a '''stratified vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a family of smooth vector fields <math display="inline">\eta_X</math>, one for each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> We define a '''controlled vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a stratified vector field such that for any strata <math display="inline">Y</math> there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_Y</math> such that for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and any <math display="inline">v \in T'_X \cap X</math><ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> <math display="block">\eta_X \rho_{Y,X}(v) = 0,</math> <math display="block">(\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) = \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)).</math> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is a controlled submersion then, for any smooth vector field <math display="inline">\zeta</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math> there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> such that <math display="inline">h_* \eta(v) = \zeta(h(v))</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> Proceeding by induction on the maximum dimension of the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we define <math display="inline">Z_k</math> to be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>. The tubular neighbourhood of <math display="inline">Z_k</math> is the intersection of the tubular neighbourhoods of each strata in <math display="inline">Z_k</math> with <math display="inline">Z</math>. The projection and distance functions are the restrictions of the respective functions of <math display="inline">Z</math>. It is trivially true when the maximum dimension of strata in <math display="inline">Z</math> is zero. Assume it is true for <math display="inline">k</math> and construct each <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> separately for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension <math display="inline">k + 1</math>. By the assumption that we have controlled vector fields for all strata <math display="inline">Y</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>, we have the two control conditions defined above for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and that there is a neighbourhood <math display="inline">T^1_Y</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_Y(v)</math> for <math display="inline">v \in T^1_Y</math>. We want to prove that for all <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, the control conditions are satisfied for all <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math> and that <math display="inline">h_*\eta_X(v) = \zeta(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in X</math>. Take a point <math display="inline">x \in X</math> and define the set <math display="inline">S_v</math> of strata <math display="inline">Y < X</math> such that <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math>. <math display="inline">S_v</math> is totally ordered since if <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_2</math> are not comparable then <math display="inline">T^2_{Y_1} \cap T^2_{Y_2} = \empty</math>. Therefore, there is a largest member <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Assume the control conditions hold for <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Then they hold for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. For, either <math display="inline">Y_i = Y</math> or <math display="inline">Y_i < Y</math>. In the latter case, <math display="inline">\pi_Y(v) \in T^1_{Y_i}</math> (by the choice of <math display="inline">T^2_Y</math>'s [is this why?]. Then <math display="block">\begin{align} \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,X}(v) &= \eta_X \rho_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= \eta_Y(\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= 0 \end{align}</math> and <math display="block">\begin{align} (\pi_{Y_i,X})_* \eta_X(v) &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* \eta_Y(v) (\pi_{Y,X}) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,X}(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, condition holds for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. Also, <math display="block">\begin{align} h_* \eta_X(v) &= (h \circ \pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= h_* \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \zeta(f(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, the conclusion of the theorem holds at <math display="inline">v</math>. This shows we can construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> satisfying the control conditions when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is non-empty and satisfying the theorem when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is empty. The set of vectors satisfying these conditions is convex in <math display="inline">TX_v</math>, and so we construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> globally via a partition of unity.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493-495.</ref> Finally, we prove that a controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, this combines Proposition 10.1 and Corollary 10.2 on pp. 496 and 497, respectively.</ref> For each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> generates a unique smooth local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> of diffeomorphisms of <math display="inline">X</math> (by standard results of differential geometry), such that <math display="inline">\frac{d}{dt} \alpha(t, v)|_{t=0} = \eta_X(v)</math>, <math display="inline">J_X</math> is an open subset of <math display="inline">\R \times Z</math>, ... If we define <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> by <math display="block">J = \bigcup_{X \in S} J_X</math> <math display="block">\alpha = \bigcup_{X \in S} \alpha_X</math> we can prove that this is a local one-parameter family of homeomorphisms.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> Firstly, it is clear that # <math display="inline">0 \times Z \subseteq J</math> and <math display="inline">\alpha(0, v) = v</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> then <math display="inline">J_v = J \cap (\R \times v) \subseteq \R</math> is an open interval <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math>, possibly infinite at one or both ends. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and <math display="inline">t, s, t + s</math> are in <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> then <math display="inline">\alpha(t + s, v) = \alpha(t, \alpha(s, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> Secondly, it is clear that <math display="inline">\eta</math> generates <math display="inline">\alpha</math> because # Each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math> is invariant under <math display="inline">\alpha</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\alpha[J \cap (\R \times X)] \subseteq X</math>. # For each <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>, the map <math display="inline">t \to \alpha(t, v)</math> of <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> into the stratum which contains <math display="inline">v</math> is <math display="inline">C^1</math>. # For any <math display="inline">(t, v) \in Z</math>(?) we have <math display="inline">d/dt \alpha(t, v) = \eta(\alpha(t, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> It is unique because each <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> is unique. We just need to prove that <math display="inline">J</math> is open, <math display="inline">\alpha</math> is continuous, and for any <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and any compact set <math display="inline">K \subseteq Z</math> there exists <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> such that <math display="inline">\alpha(t, v) \notin K</math> if <math display="inline">t \in (a_v, a_v + \epsilon) \cup (b_v - \epsilon, b_v)</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> For the latter-most condition, if it did not hold then there exists...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496-497.</ref> We prove there is a homeomorphism <math display="inline">f: Z \to h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>, where <math display="inline">\pi: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to \R</math> is projection to the second factor. For the coordinate vector field <math display="inline">\partial</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math>, by [prop 9.1] there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> such that <math display="inline">f_* \tilde\partial(v) = \partial(h(v))</math> for <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. By [prop 10.1], <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> generates a local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> such that <math display="block">h(\alpha(t,v)) = h(v) + t</math> <math display="inline">h</math> is proper and [d] holds, so <math display="inline">J = \R \times Z</math>. If we define <math display="inline">f</math> as <math display="block">f(v) = (\alpha(-t, v), h(v))</math> then <math display="inline">f</math> maps <math display="inline">Z</math> into <math display="inline">h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> and <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>. If we define <math display="inline">\bar f: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to Z</math> as <math display="block">\bar f(v, t) = \alpha(t, v)</math> then <math display="inline">f \bar f = \bar f f = Id</math> and <math display="inline">f</math> is a homeomorphism.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 497.</ref> == Topology at critical points == Theorem: If there is a critical point <math display="inline">p</math> in the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> with critical value <math display="inline">v \in (a, b)</math> then the space <math display="inline">X_{\leq b}</math> is homotopic to<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> <math display="block">X_{\leq a} \cup [(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)].</math> Proof:<ref>Proof outline comes from Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> # <math display="inline">(X_{\leq b}, X_{\leq a})</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(X_{\leq v + \epsilon}, X_{\leq v -\epsilon})</math>. We can prove this by "moving wall" or Thom's Isotopy Lemma.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 90-91, 120.</ref> # <math display="inline">X_{\leq v + \epsilon}</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">X_{\leq v - \epsilon} \cup (J, K)</math>, where the latter is the local Morse data for <math display="inline">h</math> at <math display="inline">p</math>. We do this by moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96, 120-121.</ref> # <math display="inline">(J, K)</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math> (tangential data, normal data). Again, moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65-66, chapter 8, 121.</ref> # The normal Morse data depends only on the differential <math display="inline">df(p)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 93.</ref> # The normal Morse data has the homotopy type of <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 169.</ref> === Step 1 === We get this immediately(?) by Thom's Isotopy Lemma. === Step 2 === <ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, complex case on pp. 120-121 is extension of real case on pp. 95-96.</ref> Step 1 works because <math display="inline">h</math> is a submersion at each point of the regions we are homeomorphing. This is not the case at critical points. We need some way by which a homeomorphism can pass through a critical point. To prove a homeomorphism between two subsets <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we project <math display="inline">Z</math> to some other space <math display="inline">N</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\R^n</math>) using some function <math display="inline">F</math>. We take subsets <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> of <math display="inline">N</math> such that <math display="inline">A = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_0)</math> and <math display="inline">B = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_1)</math>. We need to prove <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> are connected by a one-parameter family of regions <math display="inline">Y_t</math> [explain one-parameter family]. The criterion for such a family to exist is that the '''characteristic covectors''' of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 70.</ref> At each point <math display="inline">x \in M</math> and <math display="inline">y \in N</math> there are '''tangent spaces''' <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and <math display="inline">T_yN</math>, a vector space whose zero is at the point <math display="inline">x</math> or <math display="inline">y</math> (resp.) [picture of various tangent spaces] In the case the <math display="inline">N = \R</math>, the tangent space <math display="inline">T_x\R</math> is just <math display="inline">\R</math> but whose origin is at <math display="inline">x</math>. [picture of T_x\R] Say <math display="inline">F(x) = y</math>, then the differential of the map <math display="inline">F</math> can be seen as a function whose input is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and whose output is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_yM</math>. [If I move this far on the tangent space of M how do I move in the tangent space of N?] [picture] [example for M = \R and N = \R?] A function which takes as input a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> (say) and outputs a scalar (usually <math display="inline">\R</math>) is called a '''covector'''. The set of all covectors on <math display="inline">T_xM</math> is called the dual space of <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and is denoted <math display="inline">T^*_xM</math>. There are only a limited number of ways to express a covectors. For example, if our tangent space is two-dimensional then all covectors are of the form <math display="inline">ax + by</math> where <math display="inline">(x, y) \in T_xM</math>. We take our space <math display="inline">M</math> and map it onto <math display="inline">\R^2</math> with the map <math display="inline">F(z) = (r(z), h(z))</math>, where <math display="inline">z \in M</math> and <math display="inline">r</math> is the square of the distance of <math display="inline">z</math> to the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. [graph of mapping] In this case, the covectors on the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> are of the form <math display="inline">adf(x) + bdr(x)</math> (in this case <math display="inline">df</math> and <math display="inline">dr</math> are maps to <math display="inline">\R</math>) and on <math display="inline">T_y\R^2</math> are of the form <math display="inline">cu + dv</math> (for <math display="inline">(u, v) \in \R^2</math>). A covector <math display="inline">cu + dv \in T^*_{(u, v)}\R^2</math> is called a '''characteristic covector''' of <math display="inline">F</math> if <math display="inline">F(x) = (u, v)</math> and <math display="inline">cdf(x) + ddr(x) = 0</math> for all vectors in the tangent space of the stratum containing <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> [explain adf(x) + bdr(x) in terms of this being a function which takes a vector input] [example of where covectors do and do not vanish on a stratified space, pp. 71?] What we want is a homeomorphism in <math display="inline">M</math> between the space <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon}</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B</math>, where <math display="inline">B</math> is a small region of the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. The '''local Morse data''' is <math display="block">((B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}[v-\epsilon, v+\epsilon], (B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}(v-\epsilon))</math> where <math display="inline">B_\delta</math> is a closed disc in <math display="inline">M</math> of radius <math display="inline">\delta</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 63-64.</ref> Observe that this is the pair <math display="inline">(F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon)), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon)))</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 91.</ref> [explain Box, Bottom, etc.] [picture of the two subspaces of Z in M] We use our map <math display="inline">F</math> to convert these two subspaces to subspaces of <math display="inline">\R^2</math> which are of the form <math display="inline">Y_1 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq \epsilon\}</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq -\epsilon\} \cup \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | x \leq \delta, y \leq \epsilon\}</math>, such that <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} = F^{-1}(Y_1)</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B = F^{-1}(Y_0)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96.</ref> We use a homeomorphism between <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0</math> using the technique of "moving the wall" and Thom's Isotopy Lemma. Such a homeomorphism exists when the characteristic covectors of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, chapter 4, particularly pp. 71-72.</ref> Given a smooth mapping between manifolds <math display="inline">F: M \to N</math> (for example, in our case we could have <math display="inline">N = \R^2</math>) and that <math display="inline">F|Z: Z \to N</math> is proper. Let <math display="inline">Y \subset N \times \R</math> be a closed Whitney stratified subset such that the projection to the second factor <math display="inline">\pi: Y \to \R</math> is a proper stratified submersion.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 71.</ref> Suppose for each <math display="inline">t \in \R</math>, for each <math display="inline">p \in F(Z) \cap Y_t</math>, and for each nonzero characteristic covector <math display="inline">\lambda \in T^*_pN</math> of <math display="inline">F|Z</math>, the restriction of <math display="inline">\lambda</math> to the subspace <math display="inline">T_pS_t = \ker(d\pi(p)) \cap T_pS</math> is nonzero, where <math display="inline">S</math> is a stratum of <math display="inline">Y</math> which contains <math display="inline">(p, t)</math> and <math display="inline">S_t = \pi^{-1}(t) \cap S</math> is the stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t = \pi^{-1}(t) \cap Y</math> which contains <math display="inline">p</math>. This is equivalent to the statement that, for each <math display="inline">t \in \R</math>, the restriction <math display="inline">F|Z</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 71-72.</ref> For the composition <math display="block">Z \times \R \subset M \times \R \to_{F \times I} Y \subset \R^2 \times \R \to_{\pi} \R</math> where <math display="inline">Y(t, z) = Y_t(z)</math>, <math display="inline">I</math> is the identity and <math display="inline">\pi</math> is projection to the second factor. <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(F \times I)^{-1}(Y)</math>... The composition <math display="inline">\pi \circ (F \times I): Z \times \R \cap (F \times I)^{-1}(Y) \to \R</math> is a stratified submersion... Therefore, we can apply Thom's Isotopy Lemma which says there is a homeomorphism between the level sets of <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math>...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 72.</ref> === Step 3 === We prove there is a stratum preserving homeomorphism between<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65.</ref> <math display="block">\text{Local Morse Data} \cong (\text{Tangential Morse Data}) \times (\text{Normal Morse Data})</math> We first prove that there is a homeomorphism between the product of the normal and tangential Morse data and the '''realisation''' of the following diagram [diagram from pp. 102] where realisation means <math display="block">Z \cap (g_1, h_1)^{-1}(P_a) \cap (g_2, h_2)^{-1}(P_b)</math> where all the intersections of strata (of <math display="inline">Z</math>?) are transverse.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-102.</ref> The realisation of the above diagram is equal to <math display="block">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2) = (V_1 \cap W_1, V_1 \cap W_2 \cup V_2 \cap W_1)</math> where <math display="block">V_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f(z) - f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">V_2 = \{ z \in Z : f(z) - f\pi(z) = -\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f\pi(z)| \leq 3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : f\pi(z) = -3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> where <math display="inline">\pi</math> is the projection from the tubular neighbourhood to <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">r(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> and <math display="inline">\rho(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and <math display="inline">\pi(z)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-101.</ref> <math display="inline">\epsilon \ll \delta</math> are chosen so that <math display="inline">(\delta, \epsilon)</math> is in the set <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> which consists of <math display="inline">A_6 \subset \R^+ \times \R^+</math> with the properties that for <math display="inline">(\epsilon, \delta) \in A_6</math> and <math display="inline">z</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">r\pi(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">|f(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> and <math display="inline">|f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> then the covectors <math display="inline">d\rho(z)</math>, <math display="inline">dr\pi(z)</math>, <math display="inline">df(z)</math> and <math display="inline">df\pi(z)</math> are linearly independent when restricted to <math display="inline">T_zY</math> (where <math display="inline">Y</math> is the stratum containing <math display="inline">z</math>). We can prove such a set exists.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 89.</ref> <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> is this plus its reflection about the <math display="inline">x</math> axis.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> Let <math display="inline">D = \{ x \in X | r(x) \leq \delta \}</math> for stratum <math display="inline">X</math>. We will show there is a local trivial fibration of the configuration: <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math> fibres over <math display="inline">D</math> and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">D \times (\text{normal Morse data})</math> (V_1, V_2) -> D \times (normal Morse data) | / --> D <--- and that <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2)</math> fibres over the tangential Morse data and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(\text{tangential Morse data}) \times (\text{normal slice})</math>. For <math display="inline">Z_1 = \{ z \in Z : r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math>, the map <math display="inline">F(z): Z_1 \to \R^2 = (\rho(z), f(z) - f\pi(z))</math> is transverse to each stratum of <math display="inline">\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)</math>, [list], [by lemma 6.5]. <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) = F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math>. For each stratum <math display="inline">S</math> of Box and each <math display="inline">x \in D</math>, we have transverse intersection <math display="inline">F^{-1}(S) \pitchfork \pi^{-1}(x)</math>. Therefore, <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(S)</math> is a submersion and by Thom's isotopy lemma the projection <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4): F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)) \to X</math> is a stratified fibre bundle over <math display="inline">D</math>. The fibre over the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> is <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(p) \cap (F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> and is equal to the normal Morse data...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101.</ref> Take <math display="inline">G: X \to \R^2 = (r(x), f(x))</math>. <math display="inline">\delta</math> and <math display="inline">\epsilon</math> have been chosen so that <math display="inline">(G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), G^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is the tangential Morse data for <math display="inline">f</math> and is contained in the region <math display="inline">D</math> over which <math display="inline">\pi|(V_1, V_2)</math> is a stratified fibre bundle. Therefore, <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2) = \pi^{-1} G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101-102.</ref> Finally, this means that <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2)</math> is homeomorphic (by stratum preserving homeomorphism) to <math display="inline">(\pi^{-1}(p), \cap (V_1, V_2)) \times \pi(W_1, W_2)</math>, the product of normal and tangential Morse data.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 102.</ref> We use a succession of such diagrams to interpolate between the box diagram which defines local Morse data [explain] and the above diagram whose realisation we have just proven is <math display="inline">(\text{normal Morse data}) \times (\text{tangential Morse data})</math>. [diagram_d0.py] The realisation is the local Morse data. This is equal to the realisation of the diagram below.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 103, 106.</ref> [diagram_d11.py] == Morse theory == Steps(?) * Explain topology * Every point of a stratum is locally like a product structure (proved by Thom's Isotopy Lemma) [GM pp. 41-42] ** Including those around critical points, which are the product of normal and tangential Morse data (these are our quasi-local cycles?) * Thom's Isotopy Lemma proves a strong deformation retraction (which only stops at critical points) [PWM pp. 541-542] === Homotopy === We want to replace our domain of convergence <math display="inline">M</math>, which is the complement of our singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, with an "equivalent" space <math display="inline">M'</math> which has better understood properties. We say "equivalent" because there are several different things we could mean by "equivalent" in this context. The equivalence we are referring to in this section is called '''homotopy'''. Imagine two subspaces <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> of a space <math display="inline">Y</math> which are defined respectively by smooth functions <math display="inline">f, g: X \to Y</math>. If there exists a smooth function <math display="inline">h_s: X \times [0, 1] \to Y</math>, called a homotopy, such that <math display="inline">h_0 = f</math>, <math display="inline">h_1 = g</math> and for any <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> there exists a <math display="inline">\delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">\delta_b</math> such that when <math display="inline">|s - s_0| < \delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">|x - x_0| < \delta_b</math> we have <math display="inline">|h_s(x) - h_{s_0}(x_0)| < \epsilon</math>, then we say <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are '''homotopic'''.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 251-252.</ref> Below is an example where <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are one-dimensional curves and <math display="inline">H(t, s) = h_s(t)</math>. [[File:Homotopy_curves.png|300px]] In [[#Homotopy_equivalence|Appendix A]], we formally prove that we can construct an equivalent space <math display="inline">M'</math>. We provide only an example to give some intuition before describing how to construct the space <math display="inline">M'</math> in terms of local cycles around critical points. === Motivating example === Imagine a torus and a height function which is just the z value of the point. [[File:3D-Leveltorus.png|200px]] It has four critical points: two at the top and bottom of the outer circle (<math display="inline">p_1, p_4</math>) and two at the top and bottom of the inner circle (<math display="inline">p_2, p_3</math>). [picture] When the height is between the <math display="inline">p_1</math> and <math display="inline">p_2</math>, the space is a two-cell, which can be retracted to a point. [picture] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_2</math> and <math display="inline">p_3</math>, the space is a cylinder, which can be retracted to a two-cell with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_and_disk_with_handle.png|200px]] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_3</math> and <math display="inline">p_4</math>, the space is a torus with a disc removed, which can be retracted to a cylinder with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_with_handle_and_torus_with_hole.png|200px]] When the height is greater than <math display="inline">p_4</math>, then the full torus is constructed by attaching a two-cell. [Explain in terms of Morse data and Morse index?] === Morse data and quasi-local cycles === As in the above example, we start at the "bottom" of <math display="inline">M</math> and build upwards until just before we reach our first critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. ;Smooth points :This is a tube around a <math display="inline">(d-1)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> where the height function <math display="inline">h</math> is maximised at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223.</ref> :For example, if <math display="inline">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math> then <math display="inline">\lambda = 1</math> and <math display="inline">B^\lambda</math> is an arc reaching its highest point at <math display="inline">p</math>. :The normal plane <math display="inline">N</math> at <math display="inline">p</math> is a plane orthogonal to <math display="inline">B^1</math>(?). :Its normal link <math display="inline">L(S)</math> is a circle with two points missing where it intersects <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. :We make our quasi-local cycle out of the product of the arc and circle joined to <math display="inline">M_-</math> at points below <math display="inline">M_-</math>. :With the exception of degenerate points, such as monkey saddles...<ref>e.g. Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 211.</ref> ;Transverse multiple points :This is the product of a <math display="inline">k</math>-torus and a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math>. The torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in the complex normal space to each strata which intersects <math display="inline">p</math>. The chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> is supported in the stratum which is the common intersection of the varieties defined by the factors vanishing at <math display="inline">p</math>, and achieves its maximum height at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223-224.</ref> ;Arrangement multiple point :This is the product of a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> and several <math display="inline">k</math>-tori, one for each pair of sheets which intersect transversely, where the torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in each sheet.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 226.</ref> ;Cone point :A cone point is zero-dimensional so there is no <math display="inline">\gamma</math>, just a <math display="inline">d</math>-torus about <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 227.</ref> == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last1=Goresky | first1=Mark | last2=MacPherson | first2=Robert | title=Stratified Morse Theory | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1988 | url=https://www.math.ias.edu/~goresky/pdf/SMT.djvu }} * {{cite book | last=Henle | first1=Michael | title=A Combinatorial Introduction to Topology | publisher=Dover Publications Inc. New York | year=1979 }} * {{citation | last=Mather | first=John | title=Notes on Topological Stability | year=2012 | journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society | volume=49 | number=4 | pages=475-506 | url=https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2012-49-04/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6.pdf }}. * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} eyrwjzc33ytcfklda04pmbqmla7hlxd 4673993 4673991 2026-10-04T08:05:49Z Dom walden 3209423 /* Step 2 */ 4673993 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Morse theory tells us that the topology of M only changes at its critical points. The "Morse data" tells us the topology at each critical point. Attaching this Morse data together gives us a space which is homopotically eqivalent to M. This space is a "cell complex", which has an easy to calculate homology. Theorem: Our domain of convergence is homotopic to a cell complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>This is theorem D.23 in Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546. Also theorem in section 1.2*/5.2* in SMT pp. 200.</ref> Proof: # <math display="inline">X</math> is our entire domain, <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> our variety # Project our entire domain to complex projective space <math display="inline">Z = \pi(X) \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n - H</math> [define H] # Define a linear subspace <math display="inline">G \subset \C\mathbb{P}^n</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d - 1</math> # Define a Morse function on <math display="inline">f: \C\mathbb{P}^n \to \R</math> which approximates the distance from <math display="inline">G</math> and such that <math display="inline">f^{-1}(0) = G</math> and <math display="inline">f^{-1}(1) = H</math> # We "build" <math display="inline">X - \mathcal{V}</math> from <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(G \cap Z) \cap (X - \mathcal{V})</math> by attaching CW complexes at critical points which are of at most dimension <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # At a critical point, the normal Morse data is <math display="inline">(J, K) = \coprod_x (J_x, K_x)</math> and the relative complex link is <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}^\pi = \coprod_x \mathcal{L}_x</math> # We show that the quotient <math display="inline">J_x/K_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension <math display="inline">\leq 2n - d - 1</math> # The neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> in <math display="inline">J_x</math> is homeomorphic to the cone in <math display="inline">L_x(X - \mathcal{V})</math>, and removing the point <math display="inline">x</math> increases the homotopy dimension to at most the homotopy dimension of <math display="inline">L_x</math> # <math display="inline">(J_x \cup \{x\}, K_x)</math> is homotopic to <math display="inline">(\text{cone}(\mathcal{L}_x), \mathcal{L}_x)</math> # <math display="inline">\mathcal{L}_x</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> # The tangential Morse data at the critical point is homotopic to the pair <math display="inline">(D^\lambda, \partial D^\lambda)</math> # Therefore, at each critical point a space has been added homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>. Theorem: If <math display="inline">X</math> is the complement in <math display="inline">\C^n</math> of a complex variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> of dimension <math display="inline">d</math> then <math display="inline">X</math> is homotopic to a CW complex of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 546.</ref> Proof: # We build <math display="inline">X</math> by attaching cells of dimension at most <math display="inline">2n - d - 1</math> at each critical point. ## Prove that we can do this without changing the homotopy(?) ## We use Thom's Isotopy Lemma to prove that there is a strong deformation retraction, stopping only at critical points. # Prove these cells are a product of the normal and tangential Morse data. ## Normal data: <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}(S), \partial \mathcal{L}(S)) \times (D^1, \partial D^1)</math> [GM pp. 18] ## Tangential data: <math display="inline">(B_\delta \cap f^{-1}[v - \epsilon, v + \epsilon], B_\delta \cap f^{-1}(v - \epsilon))</math> for <math display="inline">f</math> restricted to <math display="inline">X</math> (or <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>?) [GM pp. 63-64] # If <math display="inline">k</math> is the dimension of the strata, then ## If <math display="inline">k = d</math> then it is a smooth point and the cell is the product of <math display="inline">S^{2(n-d)-1}</math> and the tangential data is dimension at most <math display="inline">d</math>. ## If <math display="inline">k < d</math>, ... <ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 547.</ref> == Example in one dimension == Domain with singularities v_1, v_2, ..., v_i Define our height function f... Start with our entire domain X Reduce from X to X_i+ by using Thom's Isotopy lemma to do a strong deformation retract == Thom's isotopy lemma == We present a modified version of Thom's (first) isotopy lemma, less general than the original but more obviously relevant to our situation. Theorem: Suppose <math display="inline">Z</math> is a closed subset of a smooth manifold <math display="inline">M</math> which admits a Whitney stratification and <math display="inline">h : M \to \R</math> is a proper Morse function which has no critical values on <math display="inline">Z</math>. Then, the level sets of <math display="inline">Z</math> are homeomorphic by a homeomorphism that preserves the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>For various versions of the full statement of the theorem, see Mather 2012, pp. 499, Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 41, or Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 541.</ref> Proof: # Construct control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. ## [Prop 7.1] If <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an abstract stratified set and <math display="inline">f</math> a controlled submersion. # A controlled submersion has, for any smooth vector field on <math display="inline">\R</math>, a controlled vector field on <math display="inline">Z</math> (a "lift"?)<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> # A controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> # This makes <math display="inline">h</math> a locally trivial fibration. [Prop 10.2]<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 499.</ref> Control data: A system of '''control data''' for <math display="inline">Z</math> consists of, for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, * a '''tubular neighbourhood''' <math display="inline">T_X</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> * a '''tubular projection function''' <math display="inline">\pi_X: T_X \to X</math>, and * a '''tubular distance function''' <math display="inline">\rho_X: T_X \to \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho_X^{-1}(0) = X</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 42.</ref> [illustration] such that if <math display="inline">X < Y</math> are strata in <math display="inline">Z</math>, then <math display="block">\pi_X \pi_Y(m) = \pi_X(m),</math> <math display="block">\rho_X \pi_Y(m) = \rho_X(m)</math> for all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X| \cap |T_Y|</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi_Y(m) \in |T_X|</math>. If, for all strata <math display="inline">X</math> and all <math display="inline">m \in |T_X|</math>, we have <math display="inline">h \pi_X(m) = h(m)</math>, then this control data will be said to be compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is smooth on <math display="inline">Z</math> and is a submersion for each strata then there exists a family of control data for <math display="inline">Z</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488, prop 7.1.</ref> Let <math display="inline">Z_k</math> be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. We prove by induction on <math display="inline">k</math>. To construct the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_X</math> of a stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension less than <math display="inline">k</math>. For <math display="inline">l \leq k</math>, let <math display="inline">U_l</math> denote the union of all <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> for <math display="inline">Y < X</math> and <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l</math>. Let <math display="inline">X_l = U_l \cap X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> For <math display="inline">l = k</math>, <math display="inline">X_k = \empty</math>. Assume by induction that <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> has been constructed and that if <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">\dim Y \geq l + 1</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{l+1} = \pi_{T_{l+1}}</math>) then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489-490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We wish to construct a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> of <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X</math> whose restriction to <math display="inline">|T_Y| \cap X_{l+1}</math> is isomorphic to the restriction of <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> such that if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{X,Y}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> (<math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y} = \pi_{T_{X,Y}}</math>) then <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{X,Y}(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> By shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math> if necessary, this relation is already satisfied if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}| \cap |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y|</math> with <math display="inline">T_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}</math> in place of <math display="inline">\pi_{X,Y}</math>. By the definition, if <math display="inline">m \in |T_{l+1}|</math> then there exists <math display="inline">Z < X</math> with <math display="inline">\dim Z > l</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Z|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Z|</math>. We have that <math display="inline">\pi_{l+1}(m) \in |T_Y| \cap |T_Z|</math> and therefore <math display="inline">Y < Z</math>. Therefore<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \rho_Y \pi_Z(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z \pi_{l+1}(m) = \pi_Y \pi_Z(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> We can prove that, by shrinking <math display="inline">|T_Y|</math>, <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X \to \R \times Y</math> is a submersion [prop 7.3?] and that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y) \pi_{X,Y}(m) = (\rho_Y, \pi_Y)(m)</math>(?). To prove it is a submersion, for the tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T = (E, \epsilon, \psi)</math> there exists a smooth positive function <math display="inline">\epsilon'</math> such that <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): Y \cap |T|_{\epsilon'}^0 \to \R \times X,</math> where <math display="inline">|T|_{\epsilon'}^0 = \psi(B_\epsilon \cap B_{\epsilon'})</math>, is a submersion. If <math display="inline">\Sigma</math> is the set <math display="inline">y \in |T|</math> such that the rank of <math display="block">(\rho_T, \pi_T): T \cap |T| \to \R \times X</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is less than <math display="inline">\dim(\R \times X)</math>. We need to prove that for any <math display="inline">x \in X</math> there exists a neighbourhood of <math display="inline">x</math> which does not intersect with <math display="inline">\Sigma</math>, i.e. the map is not a submersion in this neighbourhood. It follows from [lemma 7.2] that it is enough to prove for <math display="inline">M = \R^m</math>, <math display="inline">X = \R^{m-c} \times 0_c</math> and <math display="inline">T</math> is the '''standard tubular neighbourhood'''.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> By standard tubular neighbourhood, we mean the trivial bundle with base <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math> and fibre <math display="inline">\R^c</math> where <math display="inline">\pi: \R^m \to \R^{m-c}</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 488.</ref> For <math display="inline">y \in |T| - \R^{m-c}</math>, the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> at <math display="inline">y</math> is the orthogonal complement of <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> in <math display="inline">\R^m</math>. By the Whitney conditions, we have that for <math display="inline">y</math> near <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">(\R^{m-c} \times 0_c) \oplus \stackrel{\frown}{y \pi_T(y)}</math> is close to the set of <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> planes in <math display="inline">m-</math>space to an <math display="inline">m - c + 1</math> plane in <math display="inline">TY_y</math>. Therefore, for <math display="inline">y</math> near enough to <math display="inline">\R^{m-c}</math>, <math display="inline">TY_y</math> is transverse to the kernal of the differential of <math display="inline">(\pi_T, \rho_T)</math> and, therefore, is a submersion when restricted to <math display="inline">Y</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 489.</ref> To prove that <math display="inline">T_{X,Y}</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">(\rho_Y, \pi_Y): |T_Y| \cap X_{l+1} \to \R \times Y</math>...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> Therefore, there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T_0</math> of <math display="inline">X_0</math> satisfying <math display="block">\rho_Y \pi_0(m) = \rho_Y(m),</math> <math display="block">\pi_Y \pi_0(m) = \pi_Y(m).</math> From this we can prove that <math display="inline">T_0</math> is compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. Replacing <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a smaller tubular neighbourhood if necessary we can assume <math display="inline">m \in |T_0|</math> such that for some <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, <math display="inline">m \in |T_Y|</math> and <math display="inline">\pi_0(m) \in |T_Y|</math>, then<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 490.</ref> <math display="block">h \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y \pi_0(m) = h \pi_Y(m) = h(m).</math> By the generalised tubular neighourhood theorem [prop 7.2?], we can replace <math display="inline">T_0</math> with a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T</math> of <math display="inline">X</math> compatible with <math display="inline">h</math>. This completes the construction of <math display="inline">T_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491.</ref> This makes <math display="inline">Z</math> an '''abstract stratified set''' with axioms...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 491-492.</ref> This also makes <math display="inline">h</math> a '''controlled submersion''' because # <math display="inline">h|X: X \to \R</math> is a smooth submersion on each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, and # for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> there is a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_X</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_X(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in T'_X</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> The core of this is the concept of a '''vector field'''. A vector field is a function which assigns, for each point <math display="inline">p</math> in a space, a '''vector''', which can be represented by an arrow whose tail starts at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 33.</ref> [picture] Imagine we have a vector field <math display="inline">v(x)</math> defined in a space and draw a line through our space. At each point along this line the vector field assigns a vector. If we move each point in this line along the arrow defined by this vector in the direction of the arrow head. This "flows" the entire line along the vectors. [picture] We define a '''stratified vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a family of smooth vector fields <math display="inline">\eta_X</math>, one for each strata <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> We define a '''controlled vector field''' <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> to be a stratified vector field such that for any strata <math display="inline">Y</math> there exists a tubular neighbourhood <math display="inline">T'_Y</math> such that for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and any <math display="inline">v \in T'_X \cap X</math><ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> <math display="block">\eta_X \rho_{Y,X}(v) = 0,</math> <math display="block">(\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) = \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)).</math> We prove that if <math display="inline">h</math> is a controlled submersion then, for any smooth vector field <math display="inline">\zeta</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math> there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\eta</math> on <math display="inline">Z</math> such that <math display="inline">h_* \eta(v) = \zeta(h(v))</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493.</ref> Proceeding by induction on the maximum dimension of the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we define <math display="inline">Z_k</math> to be the union of strata of <math display="inline">Z</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>. The tubular neighbourhood of <math display="inline">Z_k</math> is the intersection of the tubular neighbourhoods of each strata in <math display="inline">Z_k</math> with <math display="inline">Z</math>. The projection and distance functions are the restrictions of the respective functions of <math display="inline">Z</math>. It is trivially true when the maximum dimension of strata in <math display="inline">Z</math> is zero. Assume it is true for <math display="inline">k</math> and construct each <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> separately for each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of dimension <math display="inline">k + 1</math>. By the assumption that we have controlled vector fields for all strata <math display="inline">Y</math> of dimension at most <math display="inline">k</math>, we have the two control conditions defined above for any <math display="inline">X > Y</math> and that there is a neighbourhood <math display="inline">T^1_Y</math> such that <math display="inline">h(v) = h \pi_Y(v)</math> for <math display="inline">v \in T^1_Y</math>. We want to prove that for all <math display="inline">Y < X</math>, the control conditions are satisfied for all <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math> and that <math display="inline">h_*\eta_X(v) = \zeta(v)</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in X</math>. Take a point <math display="inline">x \in X</math> and define the set <math display="inline">S_v</math> of strata <math display="inline">Y < X</math> such that <math display="inline">v \in T^2_Y</math>. <math display="inline">S_v</math> is totally ordered since if <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_2</math> are not comparable then <math display="inline">T^2_{Y_1} \cap T^2_{Y_2} = \empty</math>. Therefore, there is a largest member <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Assume the control conditions hold for <math display="inline">Y = Y_v</math>. Then they hold for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. For, either <math display="inline">Y_i = Y</math> or <math display="inline">Y_i < Y</math>. In the latter case, <math display="inline">\pi_Y(v) \in T^1_{Y_i}</math> (by the choice of <math display="inline">T^2_Y</math>'s [is this why?]. Then <math display="block">\begin{align} \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,X}(v) &= \eta_X \rho_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= \eta_Y(\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \rho_{Y_i,Y} \\ &= 0 \end{align}</math> and <math display="block">\begin{align} (\pi_{Y_i,X})_* \eta_X(v) &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* (\pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= (\pi_{Y_i,Y})_* \eta_Y(v) (\pi_{Y,X}) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,Y} \pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \eta_{Y_i}(\pi_{Y_i,X}(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, condition holds for all <math display="inline">Y_i \in S_v</math>. Also, <math display="block">\begin{align} h_* \eta_X(v) &= (h \circ \pi_{Y,X})_* \eta_X(v) \\ &= h_* \eta_Y (\pi_{Y,X}(v)) \\ &= \zeta(f(v)) \end{align}</math> and, therefore, the conclusion of the theorem holds at <math display="inline">v</math>. This shows we can construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> satisfying the control conditions when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is non-empty and satisfying the theorem when <math display="inline">S_v</math> is empty. The set of vectors satisfying these conditions is convex in <math display="inline">TX_v</math>, and so we construct <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> globally via a partition of unity.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 493-495.</ref> Finally, we prove that a controlled vector field has a unique one-parameter family of homeomorphisms of <math display="inline">Z</math> which commute with <math display="inline">h</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, this combines Proposition 10.1 and Corollary 10.2 on pp. 496 and 497, respectively.</ref> For each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">\eta_X</math> generates a unique smooth local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> of diffeomorphisms of <math display="inline">X</math> (by standard results of differential geometry), such that <math display="inline">\frac{d}{dt} \alpha(t, v)|_{t=0} = \eta_X(v)</math>, <math display="inline">J_X</math> is an open subset of <math display="inline">\R \times Z</math>, ... If we define <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> by <math display="block">J = \bigcup_{X \in S} J_X</math> <math display="block">\alpha = \bigcup_{X \in S} \alpha_X</math> we can prove that this is a local one-parameter family of homeomorphisms.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496.</ref> Firstly, it is clear that # <math display="inline">0 \times Z \subseteq J</math> and <math display="inline">\alpha(0, v) = v</math> for all <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> then <math display="inline">J_v = J \cap (\R \times v) \subseteq \R</math> is an open interval <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math>, possibly infinite at one or both ends. # If <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and <math display="inline">t, s, t + s</math> are in <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> then <math display="inline">\alpha(t + s, v) = \alpha(t, \alpha(s, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> Secondly, it is clear that <math display="inline">\eta</math> generates <math display="inline">\alpha</math> because # Each stratum <math display="inline">X</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math> is invariant under <math display="inline">\alpha</math>, i.e. <math display="inline">\alpha[J \cap (\R \times X)] \subseteq X</math>. # For each <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>, the map <math display="inline">t \to \alpha(t, v)</math> of <math display="inline">(a_v, b_v)</math> into the stratum which contains <math display="inline">v</math> is <math display="inline">C^1</math>. # For any <math display="inline">(t, v) \in Z</math>(?) we have <math display="inline">d/dt \alpha(t, v) = \eta(\alpha(t, v))</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> It is unique because each <math display="inline">(J_X, \alpha_X)</math> is unique. We just need to prove that <math display="inline">J</math> is open, <math display="inline">\alpha</math> is continuous, and for any <math display="inline">v \in Z</math> and any compact set <math display="inline">K \subseteq Z</math> there exists <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> such that <math display="inline">\alpha(t, v) \notin K</math> if <math display="inline">t \in (a_v, a_v + \epsilon) \cup (b_v - \epsilon, b_v)</math>.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 495.</ref> For the latter-most condition, if it did not hold then there exists...<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 496-497.</ref> We prove there is a homeomorphism <math display="inline">f: Z \to h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> such that <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>, where <math display="inline">\pi: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to \R</math> is projection to the second factor. For the coordinate vector field <math display="inline">\partial</math> on <math display="inline">\R</math>, by [prop 9.1] there is a controlled vector field <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> such that <math display="inline">f_* \tilde\partial(v) = \partial(h(v))</math> for <math display="inline">v \in Z</math>. By [prop 10.1], <math display="inline">\tilde\partial</math> generates a local one-parameter group <math display="inline">(J, \alpha)</math> such that <math display="block">h(\alpha(t,v)) = h(v) + t</math> <math display="inline">h</math> is proper and [d] holds, so <math display="inline">J = \R \times Z</math>. If we define <math display="inline">f</math> as <math display="block">f(v) = (\alpha(-t, v), h(v))</math> then <math display="inline">f</math> maps <math display="inline">Z</math> into <math display="inline">h^{-1}(0) \times \R</math> and <math display="inline">\pi \circ f = h</math>. If we define <math display="inline">\bar f: h^{-1}(0) \times \R \to Z</math> as <math display="block">\bar f(v, t) = \alpha(t, v)</math> then <math display="inline">f \bar f = \bar f f = Id</math> and <math display="inline">f</math> is a homeomorphism.<ref>Mather 2012, pp. 497.</ref> == Topology at critical points == Theorem: If there is a critical point <math display="inline">p</math> in the singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math> with critical value <math display="inline">v \in (a, b)</math> then the space <math display="inline">X_{\leq b}</math> is homotopic to<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> <math display="block">X_{\leq a} \cup [(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)].</math> Proof:<ref>Proof outline comes from Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 174.</ref> # <math display="inline">(X_{\leq b}, X_{\leq a})</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(X_{\leq v + \epsilon}, X_{\leq v -\epsilon})</math>. We can prove this by "moving wall" or Thom's Isotopy Lemma.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 90-91, 120.</ref> # <math display="inline">X_{\leq v + \epsilon}</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">X_{\leq v - \epsilon} \cup (J, K)</math>, where the latter is the local Morse data for <math display="inline">h</math> at <math display="inline">p</math>. We do this by moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96, 120-121.</ref> # <math display="inline">(J, K)</math> is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(D^{\lambda+1}, \partial D^{\lambda+1}) \times (\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math> (tangential data, normal data). Again, moving the wall...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65-66, chapter 8, 121.</ref> # The normal Morse data depends only on the differential <math display="inline">df(p)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 93.</ref> # The normal Morse data has the homotopy type of <math display="inline">(\mathcal{L}_X, \partial \mathcal{L}_X)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 169.</ref> === Step 1 === We get this immediately(?) by Thom's Isotopy Lemma. === Step 2 === <ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, complex case on pp. 120-121 is extension of real case on pp. 95-96.</ref> Step 1 works because <math display="inline">h</math> is a submersion at each point of the regions we are homeomorphing. This is not the case at critical points. We need some way by which a homeomorphism can pass through a critical point. To prove a homeomorphism between two subsets <math display="inline">A</math> and <math display="inline">B</math> of <math display="inline">Z</math>, we project <math display="inline">Z</math> to some other space <math display="inline">N</math> (in our case <math display="inline">\R^n</math>) using some function <math display="inline">F</math>. We take subsets <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> of <math display="inline">N</math> such that <math display="inline">A = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_0)</math> and <math display="inline">B = Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_1)</math>. We need to prove <math display="inline">Y_0</math> and <math display="inline">Y_1</math> are connected by a one-parameter family of regions <math display="inline">Y_t</math> [explain one-parameter family]. The criterion for such a family to exist is that the '''characteristic covectors''' of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 70.</ref> At each point <math display="inline">x \in M</math> and <math display="inline">y \in N</math> there are '''tangent spaces''' <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and <math display="inline">T_yN</math>, a vector space whose zero is at the point <math display="inline">x</math> or <math display="inline">y</math> (resp.) [picture of various tangent spaces] In the case the <math display="inline">N = \R</math>, the tangent space <math display="inline">T_x\R</math> is just <math display="inline">\R</math> but whose origin is at <math display="inline">x</math>. [picture of T_x\R] Say <math display="inline">F(x) = y</math>, then the differential of the map <math display="inline">F</math> can be seen as a function whose input is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and whose output is a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_yM</math>. [If I move this far on the tangent space of M how do I move in the tangent space of N?] [picture] [example for M = \R and N = \R?] A function which takes as input a vector in the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> (say) and outputs a scalar (usually <math display="inline">\R</math>) is called a '''covector'''. The set of all covectors on <math display="inline">T_xM</math> is called the dual space of <math display="inline">T_xM</math> and is denoted <math display="inline">T^*_xM</math>. There are only a limited number of ways to express a covectors. For example, if our tangent space is two-dimensional then all covectors are of the form <math display="inline">ax + by</math> where <math display="inline">(x, y) \in T_xM</math>. We take our space <math display="inline">M</math> and map it onto <math display="inline">\R^2</math> with the map <math display="inline">F(z) = (r(z), h(z))</math>, where <math display="inline">z \in M</math> and <math display="inline">r</math> is the square of the distance of <math display="inline">z</math> to the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. [graph of mapping] In this case, the covectors on the tangent space <math display="inline">T_xM</math> are of the form <math display="inline">adf(x) + bdr(x)</math> (in this case <math display="inline">df</math> and <math display="inline">dr</math> are maps to <math display="inline">\R</math>) and on <math display="inline">T_y\R^2</math> are of the form <math display="inline">cu + dv</math> (for <math display="inline">(u, v) \in \R^2</math>). A covector <math display="inline">cu + dv \in T^*_{(u, v)}\R^2</math> is called a '''characteristic covector''' of <math display="inline">F</math> if <math display="inline">F(x) = (u, v)</math> and <math display="inline">cdf(x) + ddr(x) = 0</math> for all vectors in the tangent space of the stratum containing <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> [explain adf(x) + bdr(x) in terms of this being a function which takes a vector input] [example of where covectors do and do not vanish on a stratified space, pp. 71?] What we want is a homeomorphism in <math display="inline">M</math> between the space <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon}</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B</math>, where <math display="inline">B</math> is a small region of the critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. The '''local Morse data''' is <math display="block">((B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}[v-\epsilon, v+\epsilon], (B_\delta \cap Z) \cap f^{-1}(v-\epsilon))</math> where <math display="inline">B_\delta</math> is a closed disc in <math display="inline">M</math> of radius <math display="inline">\delta</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 63-64.</ref> Observe that this is the pair <math display="inline">(F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon)), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon)))</math><ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 91.</ref> [explain Box, Bottom, etc.] [picture of the two subspaces of Z in M] We use our map <math display="inline">F</math> to convert these two subspaces to subspaces of <math display="inline">\R^2</math> which are of the form <math display="inline">Y_1 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq \epsilon\}</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0 = \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | y \leq -\epsilon\} \cup \{(x,y) \in \R^2 | x \leq \delta, y \leq \epsilon\}</math>, such that <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} = F^{-1}(Y_1)</math> and <math display="inline">Z_{\leq \epsilon} \cup B = F^{-1}(Y_0)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 95-96.</ref> We use a homeomorphism between <math display="inline">Y_1</math> and <math display="inline">Y_0</math> using the technique of "moving the wall" and Thom's Isotopy Lemma. Such a homeomorphism exists when the characteristic covectors of <math display="inline">F</math> are all nonzero on each stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, chapter 4, particularly pp. 71-72.</ref> Given a smooth mapping between manifolds <math display="inline">F: M \to N</math> (for example, in our case we could have <math display="inline">N = \R^2</math>) and that <math display="inline">F|Z: Z \to N</math> is proper. Let <math display="inline">Y \subset N \times \R</math> be a closed Whitney stratified subset such that the projection to the second factor <math display="inline">\pi: Y \to \R</math> is a proper stratified submersion.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 71.</ref> Suppose for each <math display="inline">t \in \R</math>, for each <math display="inline">p \in F(Z) \cap Y_t</math>, and for each nonzero characteristic covector <math display="inline">\lambda \in T^*_pN</math> of <math display="inline">F|Z</math>, the restriction of <math display="inline">\lambda</math> to the subspace <math display="inline">T_pS_t = \ker(d\pi(p)) \cap T_pS</math> is nonzero, where <math display="inline">S</math> is a stratum of <math display="inline">Y</math> which contains <math display="inline">(p, t)</math> and <math display="inline">S_t = \pi^{-1}(t) \cap S</math> is the stratum of <math display="inline">Y_t = \pi^{-1}(t) \cap Y</math> which contains <math display="inline">p</math>. This is equivalent to the statement that, for each <math display="inline">t \in \R</math>, the restriction <math display="inline">F|Z</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">Y_t</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 71-72.</ref> This means that, for each <math display="inline">t \in \R</math>, <math display="inline">Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_t)</math> is stratified by its intersection with the strata of <math display="inline">Z</math>... We finally prove there is a homeomorphism between <math display="inline">Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_0) \cong Z \cap F^{-1}(Y_1)</math> which preserves the Whitney stratification of both sides and is smooth on each stratum. For the composition <math display="block">Z \times \R \subset M \times \R \to_{F \times I} Y \subset \R^2 \times \R \to_{\pi} \R</math> where <math display="inline">Y(t, z) = Y_t(z)</math>, <math display="inline">I</math> is the identity and <math display="inline">\pi</math> is projection to the second factor. <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(F \times I)^{-1}(Y)</math>... The composition <math display="inline">\pi \circ (F \times I): Z \times \R \cap (F \times I)^{-1}(Y) \to \R</math> is a stratified submersion because <math display="inline">\pi</math> is a submersion and so for any <math display="inline">v \in T\R</math> we can choose <math display="inline">(x, y) \in T(Z \times \R)</math> such that <math display="inline">d\pi(y) = v</math>... Therefore, we can apply Thom's Isotopy Lemma which says there is a homeomorphism between the level sets of <math display="inline">Z \times \R</math>...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 72.</ref> === Step 3 === We prove there is a stratum preserving homeomorphism between<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 65.</ref> <math display="block">\text{Local Morse Data} \cong (\text{Tangential Morse Data}) \times (\text{Normal Morse Data})</math> We first prove that there is a homeomorphism between the product of the normal and tangential Morse data and the '''realisation''' of the following diagram [diagram from pp. 102] where realisation means <math display="block">Z \cap (g_1, h_1)^{-1}(P_a) \cap (g_2, h_2)^{-1}(P_b)</math> where all the intersections of strata (of <math display="inline">Z</math>?) are transverse.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-102.</ref> The realisation of the above diagram is equal to <math display="block">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2) = (V_1 \cap W_1, V_1 \cap W_2 \cup V_2 \cap W_1)</math> where <math display="block">V_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f(z) - f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">V_2 = \{ z \in Z : f(z) - f\pi(z) = -\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta, \rho(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : |f\pi(z)| \leq 3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> <math display="block">W_1 = \{ z \in Z : f\pi(z) = -3\epsilon/4, r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math> where <math display="inline">\pi</math> is the projection from the tubular neighbourhood to <math display="inline">Z</math>, <math display="inline">r(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> and <math display="inline">\rho(z)</math> is the square of the distance between <math display="inline">z</math> and <math display="inline">\pi(z)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 100-101.</ref> <math display="inline">\epsilon \ll \delta</math> are chosen so that <math display="inline">(\delta, \epsilon)</math> is in the set <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> which consists of <math display="inline">A_6 \subset \R^+ \times \R^+</math> with the properties that for <math display="inline">(\epsilon, \delta) \in A_6</math> and <math display="inline">z</math> such that <math display="inline">\rho(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">r\pi(z) = \delta</math>, <math display="inline">|f(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> and <math display="inline">|f\pi(z)| \leq \epsilon</math> then the covectors <math display="inline">d\rho(z)</math>, <math display="inline">dr\pi(z)</math>, <math display="inline">df(z)</math> and <math display="inline">df\pi(z)</math> are linearly independent when restricted to <math display="inline">T_zY</math> (where <math display="inline">Y</math> is the stratum containing <math display="inline">z</math>). We can prove such a set exists.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 89.</ref> <math display="inline">A^\flat_6</math> is this plus its reflection about the <math display="inline">x</math> axis.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 82.</ref> Let <math display="inline">D = \{ x \in X | r(x) \leq \delta \}</math> for stratum <math display="inline">X</math>. We will show there is a local trivial fibration of the configuration: <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math> fibres over <math display="inline">D</math> and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">D \times (\text{normal Morse data})</math> (V_1, V_2) -> D \times (normal Morse data) | / --> D <--- and that <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2)</math> fibres over the tangential Morse data and is homeomorphic to <math display="inline">(\text{tangential Morse data}) \times (\text{normal slice})</math>. For <math display="inline">Z_1 = \{ z \in Z : r\pi(z) \leq \delta \}</math>, the map <math display="inline">F(z): Z_1 \to \R^2 = (\rho(z), f(z) - f\pi(z))</math> is transverse to each stratum of <math display="inline">\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)</math>, [list], [by lemma 6.5]. <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) = F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math>. For each stratum <math display="inline">S</math> of Box and each <math display="inline">x \in D</math>, we have transverse intersection <math display="inline">F^{-1}(S) \pitchfork \pi^{-1}(x)</math>. Therefore, <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(S)</math> is a submersion and by Thom's isotopy lemma the projection <math display="inline">\pi|F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4): F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4)) \to X</math> is a stratified fibre bundle over <math display="inline">D</math>. The fibre over the critical point <math display="inline">p</math> is <math display="inline">\pi^{-1}(p) \cap (F^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), F^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> and is equal to the normal Morse data...<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101.</ref> Take <math display="inline">G: X \to \R^2 = (r(x), f(x))</math>. <math display="inline">\delta</math> and <math display="inline">\epsilon</math> have been chosen so that <math display="inline">(G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), G^{-1}(\text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is the tangential Morse data for <math display="inline">f</math> and is contained in the region <math display="inline">D</math> over which <math display="inline">\pi|(V_1, V_2)</math> is a stratified fibre bundle. Therefore, <math display="inline">(W_1, W_2) = \pi^{-1} G^{-1}(\text{Box}(\delta, \epsilon/4), \text{Bottom}(\delta, \epsilon/4))</math> is transverse to <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2)</math>.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 101-102.</ref> Finally, this means that <math display="inline">(V_1, V_2) \cap (W_1, W_2)</math> is homeomorphic (by stratum preserving homeomorphism) to <math display="inline">(\pi^{-1}(p), \cap (V_1, V_2)) \times \pi(W_1, W_2)</math>, the product of normal and tangential Morse data.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 102.</ref> We use a succession of such diagrams to interpolate between the box diagram which defines local Morse data [explain] and the above diagram whose realisation we have just proven is <math display="inline">(\text{normal Morse data}) \times (\text{tangential Morse data})</math>. [diagram_d0.py] The realisation is the local Morse data. This is equal to the realisation of the diagram below.<ref>Goresky and MacPherson 1988, pp. 103, 106.</ref> [diagram_d11.py] == Morse theory == Steps(?) * Explain topology * Every point of a stratum is locally like a product structure (proved by Thom's Isotopy Lemma) [GM pp. 41-42] ** Including those around critical points, which are the product of normal and tangential Morse data (these are our quasi-local cycles?) * Thom's Isotopy Lemma proves a strong deformation retraction (which only stops at critical points) [PWM pp. 541-542] === Homotopy === We want to replace our domain of convergence <math display="inline">M</math>, which is the complement of our singular variety <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>, with an "equivalent" space <math display="inline">M'</math> which has better understood properties. We say "equivalent" because there are several different things we could mean by "equivalent" in this context. The equivalence we are referring to in this section is called '''homotopy'''. Imagine two subspaces <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> of a space <math display="inline">Y</math> which are defined respectively by smooth functions <math display="inline">f, g: X \to Y</math>. If there exists a smooth function <math display="inline">h_s: X \times [0, 1] \to Y</math>, called a homotopy, such that <math display="inline">h_0 = f</math>, <math display="inline">h_1 = g</math> and for any <math display="inline">\epsilon > 0</math> there exists a <math display="inline">\delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">\delta_b</math> such that when <math display="inline">|s - s_0| < \delta_a</math> and <math display="inline">|x - x_0| < \delta_b</math> we have <math display="inline">|h_s(x) - h_{s_0}(x_0)| < \epsilon</math>, then we say <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are '''homotopic'''.<ref>Henle 1979, pp. 251-252.</ref> Below is an example where <math display="inline">\gamma_0</math> and <math display="inline">\gamma_1</math> are one-dimensional curves and <math display="inline">H(t, s) = h_s(t)</math>. [[File:Homotopy_curves.png|300px]] In [[#Homotopy_equivalence|Appendix A]], we formally prove that we can construct an equivalent space <math display="inline">M'</math>. We provide only an example to give some intuition before describing how to construct the space <math display="inline">M'</math> in terms of local cycles around critical points. === Motivating example === Imagine a torus and a height function which is just the z value of the point. [[File:3D-Leveltorus.png|200px]] It has four critical points: two at the top and bottom of the outer circle (<math display="inline">p_1, p_4</math>) and two at the top and bottom of the inner circle (<math display="inline">p_2, p_3</math>). [picture] When the height is between the <math display="inline">p_1</math> and <math display="inline">p_2</math>, the space is a two-cell, which can be retracted to a point. [picture] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_2</math> and <math display="inline">p_3</math>, the space is a cylinder, which can be retracted to a two-cell with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_and_disk_with_handle.png|200px]] When the height is between <math display="inline">p_3</math> and <math display="inline">p_4</math>, the space is a torus with a disc removed, which can be retracted to a cylinder with a one-cell attached. [[File:3D-Cylinder_with_handle_and_torus_with_hole.png|200px]] When the height is greater than <math display="inline">p_4</math>, then the full torus is constructed by attaching a two-cell. [Explain in terms of Morse data and Morse index?] === Morse data and quasi-local cycles === As in the above example, we start at the "bottom" of <math display="inline">M</math> and build upwards until just before we reach our first critical point <math display="inline">p</math>. ;Smooth points :This is a tube around a <math display="inline">(d-1)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> where the height function <math display="inline">h</math> is maximised at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223.</ref> :For example, if <math display="inline">F(x, y) = \frac{1}{1 - x - y}</math> then <math display="inline">\lambda = 1</math> and <math display="inline">B^\lambda</math> is an arc reaching its highest point at <math display="inline">p</math>. :The normal plane <math display="inline">N</math> at <math display="inline">p</math> is a plane orthogonal to <math display="inline">B^1</math>(?). :Its normal link <math display="inline">L(S)</math> is a circle with two points missing where it intersects <math display="inline">\mathcal{V}</math>. :We make our quasi-local cycle out of the product of the arc and circle joined to <math display="inline">M_-</math> at points below <math display="inline">M_-</math>. :With the exception of degenerate points, such as monkey saddles...<ref>e.g. Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 211.</ref> ;Transverse multiple points :This is the product of a <math display="inline">k</math>-torus and a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math>. The torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in the complex normal space to each strata which intersects <math display="inline">p</math>. The chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> is supported in the stratum which is the common intersection of the varieties defined by the factors vanishing at <math display="inline">p</math>, and achieves its maximum height at <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 223-224.</ref> ;Arrangement multiple point :This is the product of a <math display="inline">(d-k)</math>-chain <math display="inline">\gamma</math> and several <math display="inline">k</math>-tori, one for each pair of sheets which intersect transversely, where the torus is the product of circles about <math display="inline">p</math> in each sheet.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 226.</ref> ;Cone point :A cone point is zero-dimensional so there is no <math display="inline">\gamma</math>, just a <math display="inline">d</math>-torus about <math display="inline">p</math>.<ref>Pemantle, Wilson and Melczer 2024, pp. 227.</ref> == Notes == {{Reflist}} == References == * {{cite book | last1=Goresky | first1=Mark | last2=MacPherson | first2=Robert | title=Stratified Morse Theory | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1988 | url=https://www.math.ias.edu/~goresky/pdf/SMT.djvu }} * {{cite book | last=Henle | first1=Michael | title=A Combinatorial Introduction to Topology | publisher=Dover Publications Inc. New York | year=1979 }} * {{citation | last=Mather | first=John | title=Notes on Topological Stability | year=2012 | journal=Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society | volume=49 | number=4 | pages=475-506 | url=https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/2012-49-04/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6/S0273-0979-2012-01383-6.pdf }}. * {{cite book | last1=Pemantle | first1=Robin | last2=Wilson | first2=Mark C. | last3=Melczer | first3=Stephen | title=Analytic Combinatorics in Several Variables | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2024 | edition=2nd | url=https://acsvproject.com/PemantleWilsonMelczer23.pdf }} ebjliodvnlzxdqbkgmvigmau9ui8mef 110 483480 4673980 4637249 2026-10-04T07:18:33Z ~2026-51118-27 3626547 /* */ 4673980 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''D''' is for '''D'''inosaurPG13 暴力画面 [[File:Achelousaurus dinosaur.png|500px|center]] {{ {{BOOKTEMPLATE}} }} 4ca7avz8uhocgvdvsaxdzyy1s5t3qyo 4673986 4673980 2026-10-04T07:27:30Z EggRoll97 3178669 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-51118-27|~2026-51118-27]] ([[User talk:~2026-51118-27|talk]]) to last version by Xania 4637208 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''D''' is for '''D'''inosaur</div> [[File:Achelousaurus dinosaur.png|500px|center]] {{ {{BOOKTEMPLATE}} }} r579x9vuces4112s8svtq4x3u6ilspc 0 485506 4673869 4673781 2026-10-03T13:47:14Z Idavidmiller 3577687 /* Function Definition Using the := Operator */ Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4673869 wikitext text/x-wiki =Maxima Programming= Although Maxima is not a general-purpose programming language, Maxima as a CAS includes among the built-in ingredients a relatively complete set of programming expressions that are useful for the intended context. Many of the code examples of this section are intended to be illustrative of technical details relevant to Maxima programming as their purpose, and consequently are intentionally elementary in character. Learning any sort of programming language, including Maxima programming expressions, is a subjective process. In any case, it is essential to have enough technical know-how specific to the programming language in order to begin the learning process, even in cases where much positive transfer from other programming experience is involved. Much can be accomplished mathematically using Maxima without having to resort to in-depth knowledge and proficiency in the technical details of Maxima programming expressions. However, Maxima programming expressions are frequently essential for the purpose of defining functions, both in the programming sense of the term, but also more relevantly, for the mathematical sense. For that reason alone, familiarity and sufficient proficiency with Maxima programming expressions should be given some attention. One way to begin the learning process is to become familiar with enough of the programming essentials to accomplish independent efforts toward accomplishing some specific programming goal of interest. The other way is to study the many available programming expressions of others. This section is intended to provide the essentials toward learning by whatever means are chosen. The following table shows some built-in ingredients related to Maxima programming expressions: {| class="wikitable" |+Maxima Programming Category |if |unless |errcatch |prederror |- |block |for |error |return |- |catch |from |warning |throw |- |local |thru |errormsg |sstatus |- |garbage_collect |step |errormsg |status |- |do |next |go | |- |while |in | | |} Some of these programming expression ingredients can also be considered as belonging to one or more other categories than the Programming category. === Block Expressions === Arguably, the first expressions to consider in the context of Maxima programming are '''''block''''' expressions. All <code>block</code> expressions as programming ingredients come in two flavors: * <code>( expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n )</code> * <code>block ([v₁,v_2,…,v_m], expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> The first form of a <code>block</code> expression is equivalent to the second form, but without the first list argument: <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code>, as in <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code>, unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the block expression. In that, case the form <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> must be used. It should be noted that for Maxima to interpret of the syntax of the first of these forms as a block operator, there must be at least two expressions in the comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. Otherwise, Maxima will interpret the parentheses of this syntax as simply grouping related to the precedence order of operations. The purpose of the list argument, <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code> is to declare the values of identifiers of the list to be local to the <code>block</code>. If there is no need for local identifiers, the list argument can be omitted (unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the <code>block</code> expression), and either form is sufficient.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* This block expression */ (%i1) (x : 2, x^2); (%o1) 4 /* Is equivalent to this block expression */ (%i2) block (x : 2, x^2); (%o2) 4</syntaxhighlight>So, in the case where values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> of expressions are not required, then the choice of either form of the <code>block</code> expression is a matter of user preference. In both cases, the values of identifiers referenced in the <code>block</code> are global, and not local to the <code>block</code> expression. However, for the sake of clarity and consistency use of the latter form may be a better choice. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* The value 3 assigned to x is global */ (%i3) x : 3; (x) 3 /* The value 2 assigned to x in the block is global */ (%i4) (x : 2, x^2); (%o4) 4 /* The global value assigned to x in the block is 2 not 3 */ (%i5) x; (%o5) 2 </syntaxhighlight>Values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> may not be global:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* the value of identifier y is local only */ (%i6) block ([y], y : 4, y); (%o6) 4 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i7) y; (%o7) y /* the values of identifiers x and y are both local */ (%i8) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x); (%o8) 3 /* the global value of identifier x is not 3, but is 2 */ (%i9) x; (%o9) 2 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i10) y; (%o10) y</syntaxhighlight> Regardless of the form of the <code>block</code> expressions these have in common the comma-separated expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> which are evaluated each in turn from first to last (unless the evaluation sequence is modified by by the <code>go</code>, <code>throw</code>, or <code>return</code> operators), and the value of the block expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code>. The main purpose of the <code>block</code> expression, regardless of the form, is to group expressions that are related in some manner, and the value of the last expression may be the only value of interest. However, there are very few limitations imposed on the nature of the <code>block</code> expression arguments, so it might be the case that the purpose of evaluating the <code>block</code> expression has been achieved before the last expression argument is evaluated, in which case the value of the <code>block</code> expression may not necessarily be the value of the last argument expression. One way to accomplish that is to use an empty string as the last argument expression with the option flag <code>stringdisp</code> set to <code>false</code> which is the default value.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i11) stringdisp; (%o11) false (%i12) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x, ""); (%o12) (%i13) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x)$ </syntaxhighlight> The display of the value of the <code>block</code> expression may be suppressed using a <code>$</code> to end the input expression instead of a semi-colon. Either technique produces a <code>block</code> expression value, but the value is not displayed. If a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated as a argument expression, this will cause evaluation of expression arguments to end explicitly, and the value of the <code>return</code> operator becomes the value of the <code>block</code> expression.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i14) is (equal (x, 2)); (%o14) true %i15) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), " x not 2"); (%o15) 2 (%i16) x : 3; (x) 3 (%i17) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), "x not 2"); (%o17) x not 2 </syntaxhighlight>When a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated within a <code>block</code> expression the result is to stop evaluation of expressions within the enclosing <code>block</code> expression and to return the value of its argument as the value of the enclosing <code>block</code> expression. It therefore can be compared with the <code>return</code> statement found in other programming languages, but with one difference: In Maxima, the <code>return</code> operator affects only the block expression in which the <code>return</code> operator is an expression, and has no effect otherwise.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i18) test_nested_block (val) := block ( [outer_var : 10], print("Entering outer block expression"), /* inner block expression */ block( [inner_var : 20], print (" Entering inner block expression"), if val > 5 then /* another inner block expression */ block ( print (" val > 5"), print (" Returning only to inner block expression"), return (inner_var + val) /* returns only to the inner block expression */ ), /* end of another inner block expression */ print (" inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val) ), /* end of inner block expression */ print ("Back in outer block expression"), outer_var + val /* end of outer block expression */ )$ (%i19) test_nested_block (1); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression inner_var + val is 21 Back in outer block expression (%o19) 11 (%i20) test_nested_block (6); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression val > 5 Returning only to inner block expression Back in outer block expression (%o20) 16</syntaxhighlight> '''''The <code>block</code> operators''''': Each instance may define local variables and has a comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. '''''Nested blocks''''': There are three <code>block</code> operators used in the right-hand side of the function definition expression named <code>test_nested_block (val</code>. There is an outer <code>block</code> expression that has an inner <code>block</code> expression as an argument,and there is a third <code>block</code> expression that is an argument of the inner <code>block</code> expression. '''''The <code>return</code> operator''''': If <code>val > 5</code> is <code>true</code> then the return operator of the most inner <code>block</code> expression is evaluated and evaluation of remaining expressions of that block expression does not occur. The value of that most inner <code>block</code> expression is the value of the argument of the return operator – <code>inner_var + val</code>. Evaluation of expressions continues with the first expression of the inner <code>block</code> expression after the end of the most inner <code>block</code> expression – which is <code>print ("   inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val)</code>. The value of the <code>print</code> operator is the value of <code>inner_var + val</code>. However, while that value is the value of the inner <code>block</code> expression it is effectively lost, as it is not the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> sequence of expressions. That value is the value of <code>outer_var + val</code>, which, being the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> is always the value of the function. ==== Block Expression Evaluation Sequence Modifications ==== <code>block</code> expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> are generally evaluated each in turn from first to last, and the value of the <code>block</code> expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code> unless this sequence is modified by some means. One way to modify the first-to-last expression evaluation sequence of a <code>block</code> expression is by way of a <code>go</code> operator with a ''label'' (or ''"tag"'') argument ( the ''"go to"'') as the following exemplifies:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i18) sum_to_n (n) := block ( [i : 1, total : 0], loop, total : total + i, i : i + 1, if i <= n then go (loop), total)$ (%i19) sum_to_n(25); (%o19) 325 (%i20) n; (%o20) n (%i21) i; (%o21) i (%i22) total; (%o22) total </syntaxhighlight> Note the following: * <code>'''block ([ i : 1,total : 0], ...)'''</code>: The list argument creates a local environment with local identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code>. The function argument <code>n</code> is also a local identifier. * <code>'''loop'''</code>: This label serves as a target inside the <code>block</code> expression to where <code>go (loop)</code> can jump. * <code>'''if i <= n then go (loop)'''</code>: This conditional expression causes the <code>go (loop)</code> operator to be evaluated if the condition is <code>true</code>. * <code>'''total'''</code>: The value of this local identifier is the returned value of the <code>block</code> expression. It should also be worth noting that the identifiers <code>n</code>, <code>i</code>, and <code>total</code> have local values assigned within the <code>block</code> expression, but their global values are themselves. Also notice that the identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code> were both declared local and assigned initial values within the <code>block</code> list argument. The ''go-to'' label argument of the <code>go</code> operator must be the name of a tag appearing within the same block expression. The <code>go</code> operator cannot be used to go to a tag in a different <code>block</code> expression. There is nothing special about the <code>loop</code> identifier name used for the go-to tag in this example. Other identifiers could be used, but they must be atomic. Another way to modify a <code>block</code> expression evaluation sequence is by way of the <code>throw</code> operator.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i32) /* Define a function using a block expression that searches for a specific condition and a throw value to catch */ find_element (target_list, threshold) := block ( [found_val : false], /* local identifier value */ catch( for x in target_list do ( if x > threshold then ( /* Immediately exit the block and return this value */ throw (x) ) ), /* This string is returned only if the do loop finishes without a throw to catch */ "No element exceeded the threshold" ) )$ (%i31) /* Test the block */ find_element ( [10, 20, 55, 80], 50 ); (%o31) 55</syntaxhighlight>This example unpacks as follows: <code>'''catch (...)'''</code>: This expression creates a target scope that ''"catches"'' the value of any <code>throw</code> expression evaluated within that scope. <code>'''throw (x)'''</code>: When Maxima encounters this operator, it immediately stops evaluation of the <code>do</code> loop expression '''''and the rest of the''''' <code>block</code> '''''expression.''''' It jumps directly out of the scope of the <code>catch</code> expression, returning the value of <code>x</code> as the value of the entire <code>catch</code> expression. ==== Nested Block Expressions ==== <code>block</code> operators may appear within other block expressions as arguments – '''''nested''''' <code>block</code> expressions. A local environment with local identifiers may be created for nested block expressions. Local values for identifiers, if declared by a first <code>block</code> operator list argument, are created each time a nested <code>block</code> is evaluated. However, identifiers with global values that have not been declared as local within any <code>block</code> expressions, are global values for nested <code>block</code> expressions as well as enclosing <code>block</code> expressions. Likewise, local identifiers of any enclosing <code>block</code> expression have values that are global within any enclosed blocks, if not declared as local within the enclosed block. If the value of an identifier is not local in a <code>block</code> expression, its value is the value most recently assigned by an enclosing <code>block</code> expression, if any value has been assigned. Otherwise, it is the value of the identifier in the global environment. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) z : 2^(1/3); (z) 2^(1/3) (%i24) /* Outer block starts */ block ( [x : 10, y : 20], /* values of x and y declared local to outer block */ /* Inner block starts */ block ( [y : 99, z : 100], /* values of y and z declared local to inner block */ print ("Inside inner block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the local value of y of outer block"), print("z =", z, "is the local value of z of inner block") ), /* Inner block ends */ /* Outer block resumes */ print ("Back in outer block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the restored value of y of the outer block"), print ("z =", z, "is the value of z global to both blocks") /* Outer block ends */ )$ Inside inner block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 99 is the local value of y of outer block z = 100 is the local value of z of inner block Back in outer block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 20 is the restored value of y of the outer block z = 2^(1/3) is the value of z global to both blocks </syntaxhighlight> ==== Values, Properties, and the <code>local</code> Operator ==== The expression <code>local (v₁, v₂, ... , v_m)</code> within a <code>block</code> expression saves the '''''properties''''' associated with the symbols <code>v₁, v₂, ... , v_m</code>, removes any properties before evaluating other expressions, and restores any saved properties on exit from the block. Because Maxima is an application based on the Common Lisp programming language, it utilizes Lisp '''''symbol''''' structure. Lisp symbols are objects that carry their own "dictionary" of attributes. A Lisp symbol's internal property list (''plist'') is a built-in data structure attached directly to a symbol. Maxima uses this underlying Lisp symbol structure to associate '''''properties''''' with Maxima identifiers. Properties of identifiers can be ''declared explicitly'' by users. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) declare (x, real); (%o23) done </syntaxhighlight> However, some identifier property declarations are ''implemented implicitly'' as properties of a symbol, including <code>:=</code>, <code>array</code>, <code>dependencies</code>, <code>atvalue</code>, <code>matchdeclare</code>, <code>atomgrad</code>, <code>constant</code>, <code>nonscalar</code>, <code>assume</code>, and some others. Below is a description of how each of those specific declarations is implemented as a property under the hood: ====== Functions and Arrays ====== * '''<code>:=</code> (Function Definition):''' When you define a function using <code>f(x) := x^2</code>, the actual expression (<code>x^2</code>) and its argument list (<code>x</code>) are stored as a property of the symbol <code>f</code>. * '''<code>array</code>:''' When you declare or use a subscripted array (like <code>a[i]</code>), the array type, dimensions, and memory pointer are attached as a property to the symbol <code>a</code>. This differentiates it from a standard scalar variable. ====== Calculus and Dependencies ====== * '''<code>dependencies</code>:''' If you declare <code>depends(y, x)</code>, Maxima attaches a dependency list property to <code>y</code> noting that it functionally depends on <code>x</code>. This tells the <code>diff</code> (differentiation) engine not to treat <code>y</code> as a constant relative to <code>x</code>. * '''<code>atvalue</code>:''' When you define a specific value for an expression at a boundary point (e.g., <code>atvalue(y, x=0, 1)</code>), this boundary constraint is stored as an evaluation property on the symbol <code>y</code>. * '''<code>atomgrad</code>:''' This assigns a specific gradient or derivative to an atomic identifier (e.g., telling Maxima what (df/dx) is explicitly). Maxima saves this rule as a gradient property on that symbol. ====== Pattern Matching and Rules ====== * '''<code>matchdeclare</code>:''' Used in Maxima's pattern-matching system (like <code>tellsimp</code>). When you type <code>matchdeclare(x, freeof(a))</code>, Maxima attaches a predicate property to <code>x</code>. When a pattern rule runs, Maxima looks at property list of <code>x</code> to see what conditions a matching expression must meet. ====== Mathematical and Evaluation Attributes ====== * '''<code>constant</code>:''' Declaring <code>declare(c, constant)</code> places a "constant" flag on property list of <code>c</code>. Core routines (like integration and differentiation) check this flag to know they can pull <code>c</code> out of integrals or differentiate it to zero. * '''<code>nonscalar</code>:''' Tells Maxima to treat a symbol as a matrix or vector rather than a regular number. This property changes how operators like <code>.</code> (non-commutative multiplication) treat the symbol. * '''<code>assume</code>:''' When an expression such as <code>assume(x > 0)</code> is used, Maxima's database system (<code>context</code>) assigns facts and properties (like <code>pos</code> or <code>nonnegative</code>) to the symbol <code>x</code>, allowing the simplifier to safely reduce expressions like <code>sqrt(x^2)</code> to <code>x</code>. The effect of the <code>local</code> operator is to make such declarations effective only within a <code>block</code> expression. Otherwise, declarations within a <code>block</code> expression are considered to be global declarations. So what does all of this mean to the typical Maxima user? It means that the list of identifiers that is the first argument of a <code>block</code> expression only declares the '''''values''''' of those identifiers as local to the <code>block</code> expression in which the list is an argument. Any properties of identifiers are not declared local by this means. In order to declare '''''properties''''' of identifiers to be local to a <code>block</code> expression, the <code>local</code> operator must be used as an expression within the <code>block</code> expression. At the point where the local operator is evaluated as an argument of a <code>block</code> expression, the properties of the identifiers that are arguments to the <code>local</code> operator become local to the block. It is not an unfair criticism that perhaps the <code>local</code> operator should have been named something like <code>local_properties</code>. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i25) f (s) := cos (s); (%o25) f(s):=cos(s) (%i26) f (%pi/6); (%o26) sqrt(3)/2 (%i27) block (local (f), f (s) := sin (s), f (%pi/6)); (%o27) 1/2 (%i28) f (s); (%o28) cos(s) </syntaxhighlight>In the above example, the '''''properties''''' of identifier <code>f</code> were declared to be local in the <code>block</code> expression using the <code>local</code> operator. However, global properties of the identifier <code>f</code> were not affected by the local function definition of <code>f</code> in the <code>block</code> expression. The global definition expression of <code>f</code> which is <code>cos (s)</code> and the argument <code>s</code> were not affected by the local definition of <code>f</code> because the properties of <code>f</code> were declared local to the <code>block</code> expression. <code>block</code> expressions can be used for different purposes in the Maxima programming context. <code>block</code> expressions can be used in a stand-alone fashion or as part of an expression. However, <code>block</code> expressions are commonly used in expressions that define '''''functions''''', which is the topic that follows. === Functions === As a technical term '''''function''''' is aptly characterized as being overloaded. In the context of Maxima as a CAS, it has both a programming meaning and a mathematical meaning in terms of usage. In this book, the convention is to refer to what may otherwise be referred to as built-in Maxima functions as ''operators'' including those of built-in packages. By this convention, the term '''''function''''' in this book refers exclusively to expressions composed by the user by way of the <code>:=</code> or <code>define</code> operators. As has been mentioned elsewhere in this book, what are conventionally termed ''operators'' that are built-in to Maxima, are at the level of underlying expression construction, Lisp procedures of one type or another. So it makes sense to simply refer to built-in Maxima functions and operators simply as operators one and all. This convention obviates the need for the repetitious use of qualifiers such as ''built-in Maxima'' and ''user-defined'' functions. There are two operators used to define functions as follows: # The <code>''''':='''''</code> operator # The <code>'''define'''</code> operator <var><code>f (x₁, x_2, ..., x_n) ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n] ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n](y₁, y₂, ..., y_m) ''':=''' expr</code></var> <code>define (f</code> <code>(x₁, x_2, …, x_n), expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n], expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n](y₁, y_2, …, y_m), expr)</code> <code>define (funmake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (arraymake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (ev (</code><code>expr₁, expr₂))</code> where <code>expr</code> is some Maxima expression that is commonly referred to as the ''function body''. As can be concluded from the above, each of these operators has different forms of syntax that can be used. In any case, the most significant differences between these two operators are in terms of the evaluation of the function body and the composition and identification of functions dynamically. * '''Evaluation:''' ** The <code>:=</code> operator '''suppresses (quotes)''' the evaluation of the function body when this operator is first evaluated. It does not evaluate or simplify the function body until the function identifier itself is evaluated with arguments. ** The <code>define()</code> operator '''evaluates''' the function body when this operator is first evaluated. If the function body involves intermediate computations, substituted values, or extracted parts of expressions (like <code>rhs()</code> or derivative results), the <code>define()</code> operator includes the evaluated results of those directly into the function body. * '''Dynamic Function Composition and Identifiers:''' ** Function identifiers cannot easily be composed dynamically on the left-hand side of the <code>:=</code> operator when used inside programmatic loop expressions or in scripts. ** The <code>define()</code> operator accepts expressions like <code>funmake</code> or evaluated symbols as its first argument, allowing the composition and identification of functions dynamically during evaluation. So, there are in general two different operators that can be used to define and evaluate functions. The choice by the Maxima user between these two operators depends on the purpose and context. ==== Function Definition Using the <code>:=</code> Operator ==== For the purpose of understanding the two ways of defining functions, consider the following example which is elementary, but in terms of clarification is not merely simple:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* "kill" all previously used identifier and values */ (%i29) kill (all); (%o0) done /* assign identifier x the global value of 5 */ (%i1) x : 5; (x) 5 /* define f as a function with local argument x */ (%i2) f (x) := x; (%o2) f(x):=x /* evaluate f at local value of x is 3 */ (%i3) f (3); (%o3) 3 /* the global value of x is not affected */ (%i4) x; (%o4) 5 /* show the definition expression of the function named f */ (%i5) fundef (f); (%o5) f(x):=x</syntaxhighlight>'''Function Definition Using the''' '''<code>define</code> Operator'''<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a function with identifier g with a local argument y and with a function body of identifier x */ (%i3) define (g('x), x); (%o3) g(x):=5 /* identifier x of the function body is evaluated */ /* identifier x as an argument of g is local in scope */ (%i4) fundef (g); (%o4) g(x):=5 /* the same identifier x used in three different roles */ /* used as the global name of a function x */ /* used as a local argument of a function */ /* used as an unevaluated expression for a function body */ (%i7) x(x) := x; (%o7) x(x):=x (%i9) x(3); (%o9) 3 (%i10) x; (%o10) 5 (%i8) fundef (x); (%o8) x(x):=x (%i11) define (x('x), x); (%o11) x(x):=5 (%i12) fundef (x); (%o12) x(x):=5 </syntaxhighlight>The purpose of this example is not to encourage this sort of syntax as a typical choice for identifiers and function definitions. The purpose is to clarify how Maxima implicitly determines the scope and meaning of identifiers used for function definition in the absence of any explicit user stipulations. It should be noted that the <code>define</code> operator not only evaluates the expression that is the function body, it also evaluates the arguments of the function identifier that is the first argument of the <code>define</code> operator. Since there is a global value of the identifier <code>x</code> of <code>5</code>, it was necessary to suppress evaluation (quote) the argument in the expression <code>(%i12) define ('x), x);</code> as otherwise an error would be the result:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a new function named x */ (%i14) define (x('x), 'x^2); (%o14) x(x):=x^2 /* check the definition of the new function named x */ (%i15) fundef (x); (%o15) x(x):=x^2 /* the identifier x has a global value */ (%i16) values; (%o16) [x] /* the global value of identifier x is 5 */ (%i17) x; (%o17) 5 /* the suppressed global value 'x of identifier x is x */ (%i18) 'x; (%o18) x /* not quoting the global value of identifier x is an error */ (%i19) define (x(x), 'x^2); define: in definition of x, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); </syntaxhighlight>In cases such as these, the suppression of evaluation by quoting is a user stipulation as to evaluation. Users must be aware of these differences between the two operators (<code>:=</code> and <code>define</code>) for the purpose of function definition in order to achieve what is intended and to avoid errors,<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i20) f (x) := 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5; (%o20) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i21) fundef (f); (%o21) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i22) f(2); (%o22) 27 (%i23) define (f (x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); define: in definition of f, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); (%i24) define (f ('x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); (%o24) f(x):=390 (%i25) define (f ('x) , '(3*x^3 + 4*x - 5)); (%o25) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i26) fundef (f); (%o26) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i27) f(2); (%o27) 27 </syntaxhighlight>What is true in the case of these elementary examples is true in general for function definitions involving multiple arguments:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* x has a global value of 5 while y is local to g */ (%i28) g (x, y) := x^3 - y^2; (%o28) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i29) g (6,2); (%o29) 212 (%i30) define (g('x, y), 'x^3 - y^2); (%o30) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i31) values; (%o31) [x] (%i32) g (6,2); (%o32) 212 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator is a good choice in cases where an existing expression is used as the function body:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i33) /* assign an expression to identifier expr */ expr : diff('x^3, 'x); /* Returns 3*x^2 */ (expr) 3*x^2 (%i34) /* evaluate expr and define h (x) := 3*x^2 */ define (h ('x), expr); (%o34) h(x):=3*x^2 </syntaxhighlight>In cases in which functions require local variables or more than one expression for the function body, use the block operator:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i42) remvalue (x); (%o42) [x] (%i43) values; (%o43) [expr] --> power_sum (x, y) := block ( /* values of these identifiers are explicitly local to the function */ [sqx, sqy], /* unevaluated identifiers x and y are local arguments of the function and values of these identifiers are implicitly local to the function */ sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy /* the value of the function */ )$ (%i47) fundef (power_sum); (%o47) power_sum(x,y):=block([sqx,sqy],sqx:x^2,sqy:y^2,sqx+sqy) (%i48) power_sum (3,4); (%o48) 25 </syntaxhighlight> {| class="wikitable" |+Function Definition Operators and Identifiers |<code>:=</code> |<code>fundef</code> |<code>buildq</code> |- |<code>::=</code> |<code>lambda</code> |<code>macros</code> |- |<code>define</code> |<code>local</code> |<code>slice</code> |- |<code>dispfun</code> |<code>remfunction</code> | |- |<code>functions</code> |<code>setup_autoload</code> | |} === Lisp and Maxima === {{BookCat}} jy9v266rnygil1ao8okf9rrtitjrqom 4673888 4673869 2026-10-03T15:49:24Z Idavidmiller 3577687 /* Function Definition Using the := Operator */ Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4673888 wikitext text/x-wiki =Maxima Programming= Although Maxima is not a general-purpose programming language, Maxima as a CAS includes among the built-in ingredients a relatively complete set of programming expressions that are useful for the intended context. Many of the code examples of this section are intended to be illustrative of technical details relevant to Maxima programming as their purpose, and consequently are intentionally elementary in character. Learning any sort of programming language, including Maxima programming expressions, is a subjective process. In any case, it is essential to have enough technical know-how specific to the programming language in order to begin the learning process, even in cases where much positive transfer from other programming experience is involved. Much can be accomplished mathematically using Maxima without having to resort to in-depth knowledge and proficiency in the technical details of Maxima programming expressions. However, Maxima programming expressions are frequently essential for the purpose of defining functions, both in the programming sense of the term, but also more relevantly, for the mathematical sense. For that reason alone, familiarity and sufficient proficiency with Maxima programming expressions should be given some attention. One way to begin the learning process is to become familiar with enough of the programming essentials to accomplish independent efforts toward accomplishing some specific programming goal of interest. The other way is to study the many available programming expressions of others. This section is intended to provide the essentials toward learning by whatever means are chosen. The following table shows some built-in ingredients related to Maxima programming expressions: {| class="wikitable" |+Maxima Programming Category |if |unless |errcatch |prederror |- |block |for |error |return |- |catch |from |warning |throw |- |local |thru |errormsg |sstatus |- |garbage_collect |step |errormsg |status |- |do |next |go | |- |while |in | | |} Some of these programming expression ingredients can also be considered as belonging to one or more other categories than the Programming category. === Block Expressions === Arguably, the first expressions to consider in the context of Maxima programming are '''''block''''' expressions. All <code>block</code> expressions as programming ingredients come in two flavors: * <code>( expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n )</code> * <code>block ([v₁,v_2,…,v_m], expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> The first form of a <code>block</code> expression is equivalent to the second form, but without the first list argument: <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code>, as in <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code>, unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the block expression. In that, case the form <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> must be used. It should be noted that for Maxima to interpret of the syntax of the first of these forms as a block operator, there must be at least two expressions in the comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. Otherwise, Maxima will interpret the parentheses of this syntax as simply grouping related to the precedence order of operations. The purpose of the list argument, <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code> is to declare the values of identifiers of the list to be local to the <code>block</code>. If there is no need for local identifiers, the list argument can be omitted (unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the <code>block</code> expression), and either form is sufficient.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* This block expression */ (%i1) (x : 2, x^2); (%o1) 4 /* Is equivalent to this block expression */ (%i2) block (x : 2, x^2); (%o2) 4</syntaxhighlight>So, in the case where values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> of expressions are not required, then the choice of either form of the <code>block</code> expression is a matter of user preference. In both cases, the values of identifiers referenced in the <code>block</code> are global, and not local to the <code>block</code> expression. However, for the sake of clarity and consistency use of the latter form may be a better choice. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* The value 3 assigned to x is global */ (%i3) x : 3; (x) 3 /* The value 2 assigned to x in the block is global */ (%i4) (x : 2, x^2); (%o4) 4 /* The global value assigned to x in the block is 2 not 3 */ (%i5) x; (%o5) 2 </syntaxhighlight>Values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> may not be global:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* the value of identifier y is local only */ (%i6) block ([y], y : 4, y); (%o6) 4 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i7) y; (%o7) y /* the values of identifiers x and y are both local */ (%i8) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x); (%o8) 3 /* the global value of identifier x is not 3, but is 2 */ (%i9) x; (%o9) 2 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i10) y; (%o10) y</syntaxhighlight> Regardless of the form of the <code>block</code> expressions these have in common the comma-separated expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> which are evaluated each in turn from first to last (unless the evaluation sequence is modified by by the <code>go</code>, <code>throw</code>, or <code>return</code> operators), and the value of the block expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code>. The main purpose of the <code>block</code> expression, regardless of the form, is to group expressions that are related in some manner, and the value of the last expression may be the only value of interest. However, there are very few limitations imposed on the nature of the <code>block</code> expression arguments, so it might be the case that the purpose of evaluating the <code>block</code> expression has been achieved before the last expression argument is evaluated, in which case the value of the <code>block</code> expression may not necessarily be the value of the last argument expression. One way to accomplish that is to use an empty string as the last argument expression with the option flag <code>stringdisp</code> set to <code>false</code> which is the default value.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i11) stringdisp; (%o11) false (%i12) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x, ""); (%o12) (%i13) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x)$ </syntaxhighlight> The display of the value of the <code>block</code> expression may be suppressed using a <code>$</code> to end the input expression instead of a semi-colon. Either technique produces a <code>block</code> expression value, but the value is not displayed. If a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated as a argument expression, this will cause evaluation of expression arguments to end explicitly, and the value of the <code>return</code> operator becomes the value of the <code>block</code> expression.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i14) is (equal (x, 2)); (%o14) true %i15) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), " x not 2"); (%o15) 2 (%i16) x : 3; (x) 3 (%i17) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), "x not 2"); (%o17) x not 2 </syntaxhighlight>When a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated within a <code>block</code> expression the result is to stop evaluation of expressions within the enclosing <code>block</code> expression and to return the value of its argument as the value of the enclosing <code>block</code> expression. It therefore can be compared with the <code>return</code> statement found in other programming languages, but with one difference: In Maxima, the <code>return</code> operator affects only the block expression in which the <code>return</code> operator is an expression, and has no effect otherwise.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i18) test_nested_block (val) := block ( [outer_var : 10], print("Entering outer block expression"), /* inner block expression */ block( [inner_var : 20], print (" Entering inner block expression"), if val > 5 then /* another inner block expression */ block ( print (" val > 5"), print (" Returning only to inner block expression"), return (inner_var + val) /* returns only to the inner block expression */ ), /* end of another inner block expression */ print (" inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val) ), /* end of inner block expression */ print ("Back in outer block expression"), outer_var + val /* end of outer block expression */ )$ (%i19) test_nested_block (1); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression inner_var + val is 21 Back in outer block expression (%o19) 11 (%i20) test_nested_block (6); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression val > 5 Returning only to inner block expression Back in outer block expression (%o20) 16</syntaxhighlight> '''''The <code>block</code> operators''''': Each instance may define local variables and has a comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. '''''Nested blocks''''': There are three <code>block</code> operators used in the right-hand side of the function definition expression named <code>test_nested_block (val</code>. There is an outer <code>block</code> expression that has an inner <code>block</code> expression as an argument,and there is a third <code>block</code> expression that is an argument of the inner <code>block</code> expression. '''''The <code>return</code> operator''''': If <code>val > 5</code> is <code>true</code> then the return operator of the most inner <code>block</code> expression is evaluated and evaluation of remaining expressions of that block expression does not occur. The value of that most inner <code>block</code> expression is the value of the argument of the return operator – <code>inner_var + val</code>. Evaluation of expressions continues with the first expression of the inner <code>block</code> expression after the end of the most inner <code>block</code> expression – which is <code>print ("   inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val)</code>. The value of the <code>print</code> operator is the value of <code>inner_var + val</code>. However, while that value is the value of the inner <code>block</code> expression it is effectively lost, as it is not the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> sequence of expressions. That value is the value of <code>outer_var + val</code>, which, being the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> is always the value of the function. ==== Block Expression Evaluation Sequence Modifications ==== <code>block</code> expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> are generally evaluated each in turn from first to last, and the value of the <code>block</code> expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code> unless this sequence is modified by some means. One way to modify the first-to-last expression evaluation sequence of a <code>block</code> expression is by way of a <code>go</code> operator with a ''label'' (or ''"tag"'') argument ( the ''"go to"'') as the following exemplifies:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i18) sum_to_n (n) := block ( [i : 1, total : 0], loop, total : total + i, i : i + 1, if i <= n then go (loop), total)$ (%i19) sum_to_n(25); (%o19) 325 (%i20) n; (%o20) n (%i21) i; (%o21) i (%i22) total; (%o22) total </syntaxhighlight> Note the following: * <code>'''block ([ i : 1,total : 0], ...)'''</code>: The list argument creates a local environment with local identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code>. The function argument <code>n</code> is also a local identifier. * <code>'''loop'''</code>: This label serves as a target inside the <code>block</code> expression to where <code>go (loop)</code> can jump. * <code>'''if i <= n then go (loop)'''</code>: This conditional expression causes the <code>go (loop)</code> operator to be evaluated if the condition is <code>true</code>. * <code>'''total'''</code>: The value of this local identifier is the returned value of the <code>block</code> expression. It should also be worth noting that the identifiers <code>n</code>, <code>i</code>, and <code>total</code> have local values assigned within the <code>block</code> expression, but their global values are themselves. Also notice that the identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code> were both declared local and assigned initial values within the <code>block</code> list argument. The ''go-to'' label argument of the <code>go</code> operator must be the name of a tag appearing within the same block expression. The <code>go</code> operator cannot be used to go to a tag in a different <code>block</code> expression. There is nothing special about the <code>loop</code> identifier name used for the go-to tag in this example. Other identifiers could be used, but they must be atomic. Another way to modify a <code>block</code> expression evaluation sequence is by way of the <code>throw</code> operator.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i32) /* Define a function using a block expression that searches for a specific condition and a throw value to catch */ find_element (target_list, threshold) := block ( [found_val : false], /* local identifier value */ catch( for x in target_list do ( if x > threshold then ( /* Immediately exit the block and return this value */ throw (x) ) ), /* This string is returned only if the do loop finishes without a throw to catch */ "No element exceeded the threshold" ) )$ (%i31) /* Test the block */ find_element ( [10, 20, 55, 80], 50 ); (%o31) 55</syntaxhighlight>This example unpacks as follows: <code>'''catch (...)'''</code>: This expression creates a target scope that ''"catches"'' the value of any <code>throw</code> expression evaluated within that scope. <code>'''throw (x)'''</code>: When Maxima encounters this operator, it immediately stops evaluation of the <code>do</code> loop expression '''''and the rest of the''''' <code>block</code> '''''expression.''''' It jumps directly out of the scope of the <code>catch</code> expression, returning the value of <code>x</code> as the value of the entire <code>catch</code> expression. ==== Nested Block Expressions ==== <code>block</code> operators may appear within other block expressions as arguments – '''''nested''''' <code>block</code> expressions. A local environment with local identifiers may be created for nested block expressions. Local values for identifiers, if declared by a first <code>block</code> operator list argument, are created each time a nested <code>block</code> is evaluated. However, identifiers with global values that have not been declared as local within any <code>block</code> expressions, are global values for nested <code>block</code> expressions as well as enclosing <code>block</code> expressions. Likewise, local identifiers of any enclosing <code>block</code> expression have values that are global within any enclosed blocks, if not declared as local within the enclosed block. If the value of an identifier is not local in a <code>block</code> expression, its value is the value most recently assigned by an enclosing <code>block</code> expression, if any value has been assigned. Otherwise, it is the value of the identifier in the global environment. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) z : 2^(1/3); (z) 2^(1/3) (%i24) /* Outer block starts */ block ( [x : 10, y : 20], /* values of x and y declared local to outer block */ /* Inner block starts */ block ( [y : 99, z : 100], /* values of y and z declared local to inner block */ print ("Inside inner block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the local value of y of outer block"), print("z =", z, "is the local value of z of inner block") ), /* Inner block ends */ /* Outer block resumes */ print ("Back in outer block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the restored value of y of the outer block"), print ("z =", z, "is the value of z global to both blocks") /* Outer block ends */ )$ Inside inner block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 99 is the local value of y of outer block z = 100 is the local value of z of inner block Back in outer block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 20 is the restored value of y of the outer block z = 2^(1/3) is the value of z global to both blocks </syntaxhighlight> ==== Values, Properties, and the <code>local</code> Operator ==== The expression <code>local (v₁, v₂, ... , v_m)</code> within a <code>block</code> expression saves the '''''properties''''' associated with the symbols <code>v₁, v₂, ... , v_m</code>, removes any properties before evaluating other expressions, and restores any saved properties on exit from the block. Because Maxima is an application based on the Common Lisp programming language, it utilizes Lisp '''''symbol''''' structure. Lisp symbols are objects that carry their own "dictionary" of attributes. A Lisp symbol's internal property list (''plist'') is a built-in data structure attached directly to a symbol. Maxima uses this underlying Lisp symbol structure to associate '''''properties''''' with Maxima identifiers. Properties of identifiers can be ''declared explicitly'' by users. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) declare (x, real); (%o23) done </syntaxhighlight> However, some identifier property declarations are ''implemented implicitly'' as properties of a symbol, including <code>:=</code>, <code>array</code>, <code>dependencies</code>, <code>atvalue</code>, <code>matchdeclare</code>, <code>atomgrad</code>, <code>constant</code>, <code>nonscalar</code>, <code>assume</code>, and some others. Below is a description of how each of those specific declarations is implemented as a property under the hood: ====== Functions and Arrays ====== * '''<code>:=</code> (Function Definition):''' When you define a function using <code>f(x) := x^2</code>, the actual expression (<code>x^2</code>) and its argument list (<code>x</code>) are stored as a property of the symbol <code>f</code>. * '''<code>array</code>:''' When you declare or use a subscripted array (like <code>a[i]</code>), the array type, dimensions, and memory pointer are attached as a property to the symbol <code>a</code>. This differentiates it from a standard scalar variable. ====== Calculus and Dependencies ====== * '''<code>dependencies</code>:''' If you declare <code>depends(y, x)</code>, Maxima attaches a dependency list property to <code>y</code> noting that it functionally depends on <code>x</code>. This tells the <code>diff</code> (differentiation) engine not to treat <code>y</code> as a constant relative to <code>x</code>. * '''<code>atvalue</code>:''' When you define a specific value for an expression at a boundary point (e.g., <code>atvalue(y, x=0, 1)</code>), this boundary constraint is stored as an evaluation property on the symbol <code>y</code>. * '''<code>atomgrad</code>:''' This assigns a specific gradient or derivative to an atomic identifier (e.g., telling Maxima what (df/dx) is explicitly). Maxima saves this rule as a gradient property on that symbol. ====== Pattern Matching and Rules ====== * '''<code>matchdeclare</code>:''' Used in Maxima's pattern-matching system (like <code>tellsimp</code>). When you type <code>matchdeclare(x, freeof(a))</code>, Maxima attaches a predicate property to <code>x</code>. When a pattern rule runs, Maxima looks at property list of <code>x</code> to see what conditions a matching expression must meet. ====== Mathematical and Evaluation Attributes ====== * '''<code>constant</code>:''' Declaring <code>declare(c, constant)</code> places a "constant" flag on property list of <code>c</code>. Core routines (like integration and differentiation) check this flag to know they can pull <code>c</code> out of integrals or differentiate it to zero. * '''<code>nonscalar</code>:''' Tells Maxima to treat a symbol as a matrix or vector rather than a regular number. This property changes how operators like <code>.</code> (non-commutative multiplication) treat the symbol. * '''<code>assume</code>:''' When an expression such as <code>assume(x > 0)</code> is used, Maxima's database system (<code>context</code>) assigns facts and properties (like <code>pos</code> or <code>nonnegative</code>) to the symbol <code>x</code>, allowing the simplifier to safely reduce expressions like <code>sqrt(x^2)</code> to <code>x</code>. The effect of the <code>local</code> operator is to make such declarations effective only within a <code>block</code> expression. Otherwise, declarations within a <code>block</code> expression are considered to be global declarations. So what does all of this mean to the typical Maxima user? It means that the list of identifiers that is the first argument of a <code>block</code> expression only declares the '''''values''''' of those identifiers as local to the <code>block</code> expression in which the list is an argument. Any properties of identifiers are not declared local by this means. In order to declare '''''properties''''' of identifiers to be local to a <code>block</code> expression, the <code>local</code> operator must be used as an expression within the <code>block</code> expression. At the point where the local operator is evaluated as an argument of a <code>block</code> expression, the properties of the identifiers that are arguments to the <code>local</code> operator become local to the block. It is not an unfair criticism that perhaps the <code>local</code> operator should have been named something like <code>local_properties</code>. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i25) f (s) := cos (s); (%o25) f(s):=cos(s) (%i26) f (%pi/6); (%o26) sqrt(3)/2 (%i27) block (local (f), f (s) := sin (s), f (%pi/6)); (%o27) 1/2 (%i28) f (s); (%o28) cos(s) </syntaxhighlight>In the above example, the '''''properties''''' of identifier <code>f</code> were declared to be local in the <code>block</code> expression using the <code>local</code> operator. However, global properties of the identifier <code>f</code> were not affected by the local function definition of <code>f</code> in the <code>block</code> expression. The global definition expression of <code>f</code> which is <code>cos (s)</code> and the argument <code>s</code> were not affected by the local definition of <code>f</code> because the properties of <code>f</code> were declared local to the <code>block</code> expression. <code>block</code> expressions can be used for different purposes in the Maxima programming context. <code>block</code> expressions can be used in a stand-alone fashion or as part of an expression. However, <code>block</code> expressions are commonly used in expressions that define '''''functions''''', which is the topic that follows. === Functions === As a technical term '''''function''''' is aptly characterized as being overloaded. In the context of Maxima as a CAS, it has both a programming meaning and a mathematical meaning in terms of usage. In this book, the convention is to refer to what may otherwise be referred to as built-in Maxima functions as ''operators'' including those of built-in packages. By this convention, the term '''''function''''' in this book refers exclusively to expressions composed by the user by way of the <code>:=</code> or <code>define</code> operators. As has been mentioned elsewhere in this book, what are conventionally termed ''operators'' that are built-in to Maxima, are at the level of underlying expression construction, Lisp procedures of one type or another. So it makes sense to simply refer to built-in Maxima functions and operators simply as operators one and all. This convention obviates the need for the repetitious use of qualifiers such as ''built-in Maxima'' and ''user-defined'' functions. There are two operators used to define functions as follows: # The <code>''''':='''''</code> operator # The <code>'''define'''</code> operator <var><code>f (x₁, x_2, ..., x_n) ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n] ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n](y₁, y₂, ..., y_m) ''':=''' expr</code></var> <code>define (f</code> <code>(x₁, x_2, …, x_n), expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n], expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n](y₁, y_2, …, y_m), expr)</code> <code>define (funmake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (arraymake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (ev (</code><code>expr₁, expr₂))</code> where <code>expr</code> is some Maxima expression that is commonly referred to as the ''function body''. As can be concluded from the above, each of these operators has different forms of syntax that can be used. In any case, the most significant differences between these two operators are in terms of the evaluation of the function body and the composition and identification of functions dynamically. * '''Evaluation:''' ** The <code>:=</code> operator '''suppresses (quotes)''' the evaluation of the function body when this operator is first evaluated. It does not evaluate or simplify the function body until the function identifier itself is evaluated with arguments. ** The <code>define()</code> operator '''evaluates''' the function body when this operator is first evaluated. If the function body involves intermediate computations, substituted values, or extracted parts of expressions (like <code>rhs()</code> or derivative results), the <code>define()</code> operator includes the evaluated results of those directly into the function body. * '''Dynamic Function Composition and Identifiers:''' ** Function identifiers cannot easily be composed dynamically on the left-hand side of the <code>:=</code> operator when used inside programmatic loop expressions or in scripts. ** The <code>define()</code> operator accepts expressions like <code>funmake</code> or evaluated symbols as its first argument, allowing the composition and identification of functions dynamically during evaluation. So, there are in general two different operators that can be used to define and evaluate functions. The choice by the Maxima user between these two operators depends on the purpose and context. ==== Function Definition Using the <code>:=</code> Operator ==== For the purpose of understanding the two ways of defining functions, consider the following example which is elementary, but in terms of clarification is not merely simple:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* "kill" all previously used identifier and values */ (%i29) kill (all); (%o0) done /* assign identifier x the global value of 5 */ (%i1) x : 5; (x) 5 /* define f as a function with local argument x */ (%i2) f (x) := x; (%o2) f(x):=x /* evaluate f at local value of x is 3 */ (%i3) f (3); (%o3) 3 /* the global value of x is not affected */ (%i4) x; (%o4) 5 /* show the definition expression of the function named f */ (%i5) fundef (f); (%o5) f(x):=x</syntaxhighlight>'''Function Definition Using the''' '''<code>define</code> Operator'''<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a function with identifier g with a local argument y and with a function body of identifier x */ (%i3) define (g('x), x); (%o3) g(x):=5 /* identifier x of the function body is evaluated */ /* identifier x as an argument of g is local in scope */ (%i4) fundef (g); (%o4) g(x):=5 /* the same identifier x used in three different roles */ /* used as the global name of a function x */ /* used as a local argument of a function */ /* used as an unevaluated expression for a function body */ (%i7) x(x) := x; (%o7) x(x):=x (%i9) x(3); (%o9) 3 (%i10) x; (%o10) 5 (%i8) fundef (x); (%o8) x(x):=x (%i11) define (x('x), x); (%o11) x(x):=5 (%i12) fundef (x); (%o12) x(x):=5 </syntaxhighlight>The purpose of this example is not to encourage this sort of syntax as a typical choice for identifiers and function definitions. The purpose is to clarify how Maxima implicitly determines the scope and meaning of identifiers used for function definition in the absence of any explicit user stipulations. It should be noted that the <code>define</code> operator not only evaluates the expression that is the function body, it also evaluates the arguments of the function identifier that is the first argument of the <code>define</code> operator. Since there is a global value of the identifier <code>x</code> of <code>5</code>, it was necessary to suppress evaluation (quote) the argument in the expression <code>(%i12) define ('x), x);</code> as otherwise an error would be the result:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a new function named x */ (%i14) define (x('x), 'x^2); (%o14) x(x):=x^2 /* check the definition of the new function named x */ (%i15) fundef (x); (%o15) x(x):=x^2 /* the identifier x has a global value */ (%i16) values; (%o16) [x] /* the global value of identifier x is 5 */ (%i17) x; (%o17) 5 /* the suppressed global value 'x of identifier x is x */ (%i18) 'x; (%o18) x /* not quoting the global value of identifier x is an error */ (%i19) define (x(x), 'x^2); define: in definition of x, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); </syntaxhighlight> ==== Understanding the Differences Between the <code>:=</code> and <code>define</code> Operators ==== In cases such as these, the suppression of evaluation by quoting is a user stipulation as to evaluation. Users must be aware of these differences between the two operators (<code>:=</code> and <code>define</code>) for the purpose of function definition in order to achieve what is intended and to avoid errors,<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i20) f (x) := 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5; (%o20) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i21) fundef (f); (%o21) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i22) f(2); (%o22) 27 (%i23) define (f (x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); define: in definition of f, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); (%i24) define (f ('x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); (%o24) f(x):=390 (%i25) define (f ('x) , '(3*x^3 + 4*x - 5)); (%o25) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i26) fundef (f); (%o26) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i27) f(2); (%o27) 27 </syntaxhighlight>What is true in the case of these elementary examples is true in general for function definitions involving multiple arguments:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* x has a global value of 5 while y is local to g */ (%i28) g (x, y) := x^3 - y^2; (%o28) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i29) g (6,2); (%o29) 212 (%i30) define (g('x, y), 'x^3 - y^2); (%o30) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i31) values; (%o31) [x] (%i32) g (6,2); (%o32) 212 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator is a good choice in cases where an existing expression is used as the function body:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i33) /* assign an expression to identifier expr */ expr : diff('x^3, 'x); /* Returns 3*x^2 */ (expr) 3*x^2 (%i34) /* evaluate expr and define h (x) := 3*x^2 */ define (h ('x), expr); (%o34) h(x):=3*x^2 </syntaxhighlight>In cases in which functions require local variables or more than one expression for the function body, use the block operator:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i35) remvalue (x); (%o35) [x] (%i36) values; (%o36) [expr] --> power_sum (x, y) := block ( /* values of these identifiers are explicitly local to the function */ [sqx, sqy], /* unevaluated identifiers x and y are local arguments of the function and values of these identifiers are implicitly local to the function */ sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy /* the value of the function */ )$ (%i37) fundef (power_sum); (%o37) power_sum(x,y):=block([sqx,sqy],sqx:x^2,sqy:y^2,sqx+sqy) (%i38) power_sum (3,4); (%o38) 25 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator could also be used to define this function, but with different definition values as a consequence:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i39) define (power_sum (x,y), block ( [sqx,sqy], sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy ) )$ (%i40) fundef (power_sum); (%o40) power_sum(x,y):=y^2+x^2 (%i41) power_sum (3,4); (%o41) 25</syntaxhighlight>The function definition of <code>power_sum</code> is different using the <code>define</code> operator instead of the <code>:=</code> operator. The value of the function when referenced with arguments (<code>power_sum (3,4)</code>) is the same in both cases – <code>25</code>. However, in general for defining functions, this may not be the case. The choice between these two operators depends on the intention of the user. {| class="wikitable" |+Function Definition Operators and Identifiers |<code>:=</code> |<code>fundef</code> |<code>buildq</code> |- |<code>::=</code> |<code>lambda</code> |<code>macros</code> |- |<code>define</code> |<code>local</code> |<code>slice</code> |- |<code>dispfun</code> |<code>remfunction</code> | |- |<code>functions</code> |<code>setup_autoload</code> | |} === Lisp and Maxima === {{BookCat}} 2o44b5stdisk3jxzq2rqavxs0h53zuv 4673950 4673888 2026-10-03T22:28:02Z Idavidmiller 3577687 Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4673950 wikitext text/x-wiki =Maxima Programming= Although Maxima is not a general-purpose programming language, Maxima as a CAS includes among the built-in ingredients a relatively complete set of programming expressions that are useful for the intended context. Many of the code examples of this section are intended to be illustrative of technical details relevant to Maxima programming as their purpose, and consequently are intentionally elementary in character. Learning any sort of programming language, including Maxima programming expressions, is a subjective process. In any case, it is essential to have enough technical know-how specific to the programming language in order to begin the learning process, even in cases where much positive transfer from other programming experience is involved. Much can be accomplished mathematically using Maxima without having to resort to in-depth knowledge and proficiency in the technical details of Maxima programming expressions. However, Maxima programming expressions are frequently essential for the purpose of defining functions, both in the programming sense of the term, but also more relevantly, for the mathematical sense. For that reason alone, familiarity and sufficient proficiency with Maxima programming expressions should be given some attention. One way to begin the learning process is to become familiar with enough of the programming essentials to accomplish independent efforts toward accomplishing some specific programming goal of interest. The other way is to study the many available programming expressions of others. This section is intended to provide the essentials toward learning by whatever means are chosen. The following table shows some built-in ingredients related to Maxima programming expressions: {| class="wikitable" |+Maxima Programming Category |if |unless |errcatch |prederror |- |block |for |error |return |- |catch |from |warning |throw |- |local |thru |errormsg |sstatus |- |garbage_collect |step |errormsg |status |- |do |next |go | |- |while |in | | |} Some of these programming expression ingredients can also be considered as belonging to one or more other categories than the Programming category. === Block Expressions === Arguably, the first expressions to consider in the context of Maxima programming are '''''block''''' expressions. All <code>block</code> expressions as programming ingredients come in two flavors: * <code>( expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n )</code> * <code>block ([v₁,v_2,…,v_m], expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> The first form of a <code>block</code> expression is equivalent to the second form, but without the first list argument: <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code>, as in <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code>, unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the block expression. In that, case the form <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> must be used. It should be noted that for Maxima to interpret of the syntax of the first of these forms as a block operator, there must be at least two expressions in the comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. Otherwise, Maxima will interpret the parentheses of this syntax as simply grouping related to the precedence order of operations. The purpose of the list argument, <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code> is to declare the values of identifiers of the list to be local to the <code>block</code>. If there is no need for local identifiers, the list argument can be omitted (unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the <code>block</code> expression), and either form is sufficient.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* This block expression */ (%i1) (x : 2, x^2); (%o1) 4 /* Is equivalent to this block expression */ (%i2) block (x : 2, x^2); (%o2) 4</syntaxhighlight>So, in the case where values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> of expressions are not required, then the choice of either form of the <code>block</code> expression is a matter of user preference. In both cases, the values of identifiers referenced in the <code>block</code> are global, and not local to the <code>block</code> expression. However, for the sake of clarity and consistency use of the latter form may be a better choice. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* The value 3 assigned to x is global */ (%i3) x : 3; (x) 3 /* The value 2 assigned to x in the block is global */ (%i4) (x : 2, x^2); (%o4) 4 /* The global value assigned to x in the block is 2 not 3 */ (%i5) x; (%o5) 2 </syntaxhighlight>Values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> may not be global:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* the value of identifier y is local only */ (%i6) block ([y], y : 4, y); (%o6) 4 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i7) y; (%o7) y /* the values of identifiers x and y are both local */ (%i8) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x); (%o8) 3 /* the global value of identifier x is not 3, but is 2 */ (%i9) x; (%o9) 2 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i10) y; (%o10) y</syntaxhighlight> Regardless of the form of the <code>block</code> expressions these have in common the comma-separated expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> which are evaluated each in turn from first to last (unless the evaluation sequence is modified by by the <code>go</code>, <code>throw</code>, or <code>return</code> operators), and the value of the block expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code>. The main purpose of the <code>block</code> expression, regardless of the form, is to group expressions that are related in some manner, and the value of the last expression may be the only value of interest. However, there are very few limitations imposed on the nature of the <code>block</code> expression arguments, so it might be the case that the purpose of evaluating the <code>block</code> expression has been achieved before the last expression argument is evaluated, in which case the value of the <code>block</code> expression may not necessarily be the value of the last argument expression. One way to accomplish that is to use an empty string as the last argument expression with the option flag <code>stringdisp</code> set to <code>false</code> which is the default value.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i11) stringdisp; (%o11) false (%i12) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x, ""); (%o12) (%i13) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x)$ </syntaxhighlight> The display of the value of the <code>block</code> expression may be suppressed using a <code>$</code> to end the input expression instead of a semi-colon. Either technique produces a <code>block</code> expression value, but the value is not displayed. If a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated as a argument expression, this will cause evaluation of expression arguments to end explicitly, and the value of the <code>return</code> operator becomes the value of the <code>block</code> expression.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i14) is (equal (x, 2)); (%o14) true %i15) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), " x not 2"); (%o15) 2 (%i16) x : 3; (x) 3 (%i17) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), "x not 2"); (%o17) x not 2 </syntaxhighlight>When a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated within a <code>block</code> expression the result is to stop evaluation of expressions within the enclosing <code>block</code> expression and to return the value of its argument as the value of the enclosing <code>block</code> expression. It therefore can be compared with the <code>return</code> statement found in other programming languages, but with one difference: In Maxima, the <code>return</code> operator affects only the block expression in which the <code>return</code> operator is an expression, and has no effect otherwise.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i18) test_nested_block (val) := block ( [outer_var : 10], print("Entering outer block expression"), /* inner block expression */ block( [inner_var : 20], print (" Entering inner block expression"), if val > 5 then /* another inner block expression */ block ( print (" val > 5"), print (" Returning only to inner block expression"), return (inner_var + val) /* returns only to the inner block expression */ ), /* end of another inner block expression */ print (" inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val) ), /* end of inner block expression */ print ("Back in outer block expression"), outer_var + val /* end of outer block expression */ )$ (%i19) test_nested_block (1); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression inner_var + val is 21 Back in outer block expression (%o19) 11 (%i20) test_nested_block (6); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression val > 5 Returning only to inner block expression Back in outer block expression (%o20) 16</syntaxhighlight> '''''The <code>block</code> operators''''': Each instance may define local variables and has a comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. '''''Nested blocks''''': There are three <code>block</code> operators used in the right-hand side of the function definition expression named <code>test_nested_block (val</code>. There is an outer <code>block</code> expression that has an inner <code>block</code> expression as an argument,and there is a third <code>block</code> expression that is an argument of the inner <code>block</code> expression. '''''The <code>return</code> operator''''': If <code>val > 5</code> is <code>true</code> then the return operator of the most inner <code>block</code> expression is evaluated and evaluation of remaining expressions of that block expression does not occur. The value of that most inner <code>block</code> expression is the value of the argument of the return operator – <code>inner_var + val</code>. Evaluation of expressions continues with the first expression of the inner <code>block</code> expression after the end of the most inner <code>block</code> expression – which is <code>print ("   inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val)</code>. The value of the <code>print</code> operator is the value of <code>inner_var + val</code>. However, while that value is the value of the inner <code>block</code> expression it is effectively lost, as it is not the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> sequence of expressions. That value is the value of <code>outer_var + val</code>, which, being the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> is always the value of the function. ==== Block Expression Evaluation Sequence Modifications ==== <code>block</code> expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> are generally evaluated each in turn from first to last, and the value of the <code>block</code> expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code> unless this sequence is modified by some means. One way to modify the first-to-last expression evaluation sequence of a <code>block</code> expression is by way of a <code>go</code> operator with a ''label'' (or ''"tag"'') argument ( the ''"go to"'') as the following exemplifies:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i18) sum_to_n (n) := block ( [i : 1, total : 0], loop, total : total + i, i : i + 1, if i <= n then go (loop), total)$ (%i19) sum_to_n(25); (%o19) 325 (%i20) n; (%o20) n (%i21) i; (%o21) i (%i22) total; (%o22) total </syntaxhighlight> Note the following: * <code>'''block ([ i : 1,total : 0], ...)'''</code>: The list argument creates a local environment with local identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code>. The function argument <code>n</code> is also a local identifier. * <code>'''loop'''</code>: This label serves as a target inside the <code>block</code> expression to where <code>go (loop)</code> can jump. * <code>'''if i <= n then go (loop)'''</code>: This conditional expression causes the <code>go (loop)</code> operator to be evaluated if the condition is <code>true</code>. * <code>'''total'''</code>: The value of this local identifier is the returned value of the <code>block</code> expression. It should also be worth noting that the identifiers <code>n</code>, <code>i</code>, and <code>total</code> have local values assigned within the <code>block</code> expression, but their global values are themselves. Also notice that the identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code> were both declared local and assigned initial values within the <code>block</code> list argument. The ''go-to'' label argument of the <code>go</code> operator must be the name of a tag appearing within the same block expression. The <code>go</code> operator cannot be used to go to a tag in a different <code>block</code> expression. There is nothing special about the <code>loop</code> identifier name used for the go-to tag in this example. Other identifiers could be used, but they must be atomic. Another way to modify a <code>block</code> expression evaluation sequence is by way of the <code>throw</code> operator.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i32) /* Define a function using a block expression that searches for a specific condition and a throw value to catch */ find_element (target_list, threshold) := block ( [found_val : false], /* local identifier value */ catch( for x in target_list do ( if x > threshold then ( /* Immediately exit the block and return this value */ throw (x) ) ), /* This string is returned only if the do loop finishes without a throw to catch */ "No element exceeded the threshold" ) )$ (%i31) /* Test the block */ find_element ( [10, 20, 55, 80], 50 ); (%o31) 55</syntaxhighlight>This example unpacks as follows: <code>'''catch (...)'''</code>: This expression creates a target scope that ''"catches"'' the value of any <code>throw</code> expression evaluated within that scope. <code>'''throw (x)'''</code>: When Maxima encounters this operator, it immediately stops evaluation of the <code>do</code> loop expression '''''and the rest of the''''' <code>block</code> '''''expression.''''' It jumps directly out of the scope of the <code>catch</code> expression, returning the value of <code>x</code> as the value of the entire <code>catch</code> expression. ==== Nested Block Expressions ==== <code>block</code> operators may appear within other block expressions as arguments – '''''nested''''' <code>block</code> expressions. A local environment with local identifiers may be created for nested block expressions. Local values for identifiers, if declared by a first <code>block</code> operator list argument, are created each time a nested <code>block</code> is evaluated. However, identifiers with global values that have not been declared as local within any <code>block</code> expressions, are global values for nested <code>block</code> expressions as well as enclosing <code>block</code> expressions. Likewise, local identifiers of any enclosing <code>block</code> expression have values that are global within any enclosed blocks, if not declared as local within the enclosed block. If the value of an identifier is not local in a <code>block</code> expression, its value is the value most recently assigned by an enclosing <code>block</code> expression, if any value has been assigned. Otherwise, it is the value of the identifier in the global environment. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) z : 2^(1/3); (z) 2^(1/3) (%i24) /* Outer block starts */ block ( [x : 10, y : 20], /* values of x and y declared local to outer block */ /* Inner block starts */ block ( [y : 99, z : 100], /* values of y and z declared local to inner block */ print ("Inside inner block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the local value of y of outer block"), print("z =", z, "is the local value of z of inner block") ), /* Inner block ends */ /* Outer block resumes */ print ("Back in outer block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the restored value of y of the outer block"), print ("z =", z, "is the value of z global to both blocks") /* Outer block ends */ )$ Inside inner block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 99 is the local value of y of outer block z = 100 is the local value of z of inner block Back in outer block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 20 is the restored value of y of the outer block z = 2^(1/3) is the value of z global to both blocks </syntaxhighlight> ==== Values, Properties, and the <code>local</code> Operator ==== The expression <code>local (v₁, v₂, ... , v_m)</code> within a <code>block</code> expression saves the '''''properties''''' associated with the symbols <code>v₁, v₂, ... , v_m</code>, removes any properties before evaluating other expressions, and restores any saved properties on exit from the block. Because Maxima is an application based on the Common Lisp programming language, it utilizes Lisp '''''symbol''''' structure. Lisp symbols are objects that carry their own "dictionary" of attributes. A Lisp symbol's internal property list (''plist'') is a built-in data structure attached directly to a symbol. Maxima uses this underlying Lisp symbol structure to associate '''''properties''''' with Maxima identifiers. Properties of identifiers can be ''declared explicitly'' by users. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) declare (x, real); (%o23) done </syntaxhighlight> However, some identifier property declarations are ''implemented implicitly'' as properties of a symbol, including <code>:=</code>, <code>array</code>, <code>dependencies</code>, <code>atvalue</code>, <code>matchdeclare</code>, <code>atomgrad</code>, <code>constant</code>, <code>nonscalar</code>, <code>assume</code>, and some others. Below is a description of how each of those specific declarations is implemented as a property under the hood: ====== Functions and Arrays ====== * '''<code>:=</code> (Function Definition):''' When you define a function using <code>f(x) := x^2</code>, the actual expression (<code>x^2</code>) and its argument list (<code>x</code>) are stored as a property of the symbol <code>f</code>. * '''<code>array</code>:''' When you declare or use a subscripted array (like <code>a[i]</code>), the array type, dimensions, and memory pointer are attached as a property to the symbol <code>a</code>. This differentiates it from a standard scalar variable. ====== Calculus and Dependencies ====== * '''<code>dependencies</code>:''' If you declare <code>depends(y, x)</code>, Maxima attaches a dependency list property to <code>y</code> noting that it functionally depends on <code>x</code>. This tells the <code>diff</code> (differentiation) engine not to treat <code>y</code> as a constant relative to <code>x</code>. * '''<code>atvalue</code>:''' When you define a specific value for an expression at a boundary point (e.g., <code>atvalue(y, x=0, 1)</code>), this boundary constraint is stored as an evaluation property on the symbol <code>y</code>. * '''<code>atomgrad</code>:''' This assigns a specific gradient or derivative to an atomic identifier (e.g., telling Maxima what (df/dx) is explicitly). Maxima saves this rule as a gradient property on that symbol. ====== Pattern Matching and Rules ====== * '''<code>matchdeclare</code>:''' Used in Maxima's pattern-matching system (like <code>tellsimp</code>). When you type <code>matchdeclare(x, freeof(a))</code>, Maxima attaches a predicate property to <code>x</code>. When a pattern rule runs, Maxima looks at property list of <code>x</code> to see what conditions a matching expression must meet. ====== Mathematical and Evaluation Attributes ====== * '''<code>constant</code>:''' Declaring <code>declare(c, constant)</code> places a "constant" flag on property list of <code>c</code>. Core routines (like integration and differentiation) check this flag to know they can pull <code>c</code> out of integrals or differentiate it to zero. * '''<code>nonscalar</code>:''' Tells Maxima to treat a symbol as a matrix or vector rather than a regular number. This property changes how operators like <code>.</code> (non-commutative multiplication) treat the symbol. * '''<code>assume</code>:''' When an expression such as <code>assume(x > 0)</code> is used, Maxima's database system (<code>context</code>) assigns facts and properties (like <code>pos</code> or <code>nonnegative</code>) to the symbol <code>x</code>, allowing the simplifier to safely reduce expressions like <code>sqrt(x^2)</code> to <code>x</code>. The effect of the <code>local</code> operator is to make such declarations effective only within a <code>block</code> expression. Otherwise, declarations within a <code>block</code> expression are considered to be global declarations. So what does all of this mean to the typical Maxima user? It means that the list of identifiers that is the first argument of a <code>block</code> expression only declares the '''''values''''' of those identifiers as local to the <code>block</code> expression in which the list is an argument. Any properties of identifiers are not declared local by this means. In order to declare '''''properties''''' of identifiers to be local to a <code>block</code> expression, the <code>local</code> operator must be used as an expression within the <code>block</code> expression. At the point where the local operator is evaluated as an argument of a <code>block</code> expression, the properties of the identifiers that are arguments to the <code>local</code> operator become local to the block. It is not an unfair criticism that perhaps the <code>local</code> operator should have been named something like <code>local_properties</code>. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i25) f (s) := cos (s); (%o25) f(s):=cos(s) (%i26) f (%pi/6); (%o26) sqrt(3)/2 (%i27) block (local (f), f (s) := sin (s), f (%pi/6)); (%o27) 1/2 (%i28) f (s); (%o28) cos(s) </syntaxhighlight>In the above example, the '''''properties''''' of identifier <code>f</code> were declared to be local in the <code>block</code> expression using the <code>local</code> operator. However, global properties of the identifier <code>f</code> were not affected by the local function definition of <code>f</code> in the <code>block</code> expression. The global definition expression of <code>f</code> which is <code>cos (s)</code> and the argument <code>s</code> were not affected by the local definition of <code>f</code> because the properties of <code>f</code> were declared local to the <code>block</code> expression. <code>block</code> expressions can be used for different purposes in the Maxima programming context. <code>block</code> expressions can be used in a stand-alone fashion or as part of an expression. However, <code>block</code> expressions are commonly used in expressions that define '''''functions''''', which is the topic that follows. === Functions === {| class="wikitable" |+Function Definition Operators and Identifiers |<code>:=</code> |<code>fundef</code> |<code>buildq</code> |- |<code>::=</code> |<code>lambda</code> |<code>macros</code> |- |<code>define</code> |<code>local</code> |<code>slice</code> |- |<code>dispfun</code> |<code>remfunction</code> | |- |<code>functions</code> |<code>setup_autoload</code> | |} As a technical term '''''function''''' is aptly characterized as being overloaded. In the context of Maxima as a CAS, it has both a programming meaning and a mathematical meaning in terms of usage. In this book, the convention is to refer to what may otherwise be referred to as built-in Maxima functions as ''operators'' including those of built-in packages. By this convention, the term '''''function''''' in this book refers exclusively to expressions composed by the user by way of the <code>:=</code> or <code>define</code> operators. As has been mentioned elsewhere in this book, what are conventionally termed ''operators'' that are built-in to Maxima, are at the level of underlying expression construction, Lisp procedures of one type or another. So it makes sense to simply refer to built-in Maxima functions and operators simply as operators one and all. This convention obviates the need for the repetitious use of qualifiers such as ''built-in Maxima'' and ''user-defined'' functions. There are two operators used to define functions as follows: # The <code>''''':='''''</code> operator # The <code>'''define'''</code> operator <var><code>f (x₁, x_2, ..., x_n) ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n] ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n](y₁, y₂, ..., y_m) ''':=''' expr</code></var> <code>define (f</code> <code>(x₁, x_2, …, x_n), expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n], expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n](y₁, y_2, …, y_m), expr)</code> <code>define (funmake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (arraymake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (ev (</code><code>expr₁, expr₂))</code> where <code>expr</code> is some Maxima expression that is commonly referred to as the ''function body''. As can be concluded from the above, each of these operators has different forms of syntax that can be used. In any case, the most significant differences between these two operators are in terms of the evaluation of the function body and the composition and identification of functions dynamically. * '''Evaluation:''' ** The <code>:=</code> operator '''suppresses (quotes)''' the evaluation of the function body when this operator is first evaluated. It does not evaluate or simplify the function body until the function identifier itself is evaluated with arguments. ** The <code>define()</code> operator '''evaluates''' the function body when this operator is first evaluated. If the function body involves intermediate computations, substituted values, or extracted parts of expressions (like <code>rhs()</code> or derivative results), the <code>define()</code> operator includes the evaluated results of those directly into the function body. * '''Dynamic Function Composition and Identifiers:''' ** Function identifiers cannot easily be composed dynamically on the left-hand side of the <code>:=</code> operator when used inside programmatic loop expressions or in scripts. ** The <code>define()</code> operator accepts expressions like <code>funmake</code> or evaluated symbols as its first argument, allowing the composition and identification of functions dynamically during evaluation. So, there are in general two different operators that can be used to define and evaluate functions. The choice by the Maxima user between these two operators depends on the purpose and context. ==== Function Definition Using the <code>:=</code> Operator ==== For the purpose of understanding the two ways of defining functions, consider the following example which is elementary, but in terms of clarification is not merely simple:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* "kill" all previously used identifier and values */ (%i29) kill (all); (%o0) done /* assign identifier x the global value of 5 */ (%i1) x : 5; (x) 5 /* define f as a function with local argument x */ (%i2) f (x) := x; (%o2) f(x):=x /* evaluate f at local value of x is 3 */ (%i3) f (3); (%o3) 3 /* the global value of x is not affected */ (%i4) x; (%o4) 5 /* show the definition expression of the function named f */ (%i5) fundef (f); (%o5) f(x):=x</syntaxhighlight>'''Function Definition Using the''' '''<code>define</code> Operator'''<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a function with identifier g with a local argument y and with a function body of identifier x */ (%i3) define (g('x), x); (%o3) g(x):=5 /* identifier x of the function body is evaluated */ /* identifier x as an argument of g is local in scope */ (%i4) fundef (g); (%o4) g(x):=5 /* the same identifier x used in three different roles */ /* used as the global name of a function x */ /* used as a local argument of a function */ /* used as an unevaluated expression for a function body */ (%i7) x(x) := x; (%o7) x(x):=x (%i9) x(3); (%o9) 3 (%i10) x; (%o10) 5 (%i8) fundef (x); (%o8) x(x):=x (%i11) define (x('x), x); (%o11) x(x):=5 (%i12) fundef (x); (%o12) x(x):=5 </syntaxhighlight>The purpose of this example is not to encourage this sort of syntax as a typical choice for identifiers and function definitions. The purpose is to clarify how Maxima implicitly determines the scope and meaning of identifiers used for function definition in the absence of any explicit user stipulations. It should be noted that the <code>define</code> operator not only evaluates the expression that is the function body, it also evaluates the arguments of the function identifier that is the first argument of the <code>define</code> operator. Since there is a global value of the identifier <code>x</code> of <code>5</code>, it was necessary to suppress evaluation (quote) the argument in the expression <code>(%i12) define ('x), x);</code> as otherwise an error would be the result:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a new function named x */ (%i14) define (x('x), 'x^2); (%o14) x(x):=x^2 /* check the definition of the new function named x */ (%i15) fundef (x); (%o15) x(x):=x^2 /* the identifier x has a global value */ (%i16) values; (%o16) [x] /* the global value of identifier x is 5 */ (%i17) x; (%o17) 5 /* the suppressed global value 'x of identifier x is x */ (%i18) 'x; (%o18) x /* not quoting the global value of identifier x is an error */ (%i19) define (x(x), 'x^2); define: in definition of x, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); </syntaxhighlight> ==== Understanding the Differences Between the <code>:=</code> and <code>define</code> Operators ==== In cases such as these, the suppression of evaluation by quoting is a user stipulation as to evaluation. Users must be aware of these differences between the two operators (<code>:=</code> and <code>define</code>) for the purpose of function definition in order to achieve what is intended and to avoid errors,<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i20) f (x) := 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5; (%o20) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i21) fundef (f); (%o21) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i22) f(2); (%o22) 27 (%i23) define (f (x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); define: in definition of f, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); (%i24) define (f ('x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); (%o24) f(x):=390 (%i25) define (f ('x) , '(3*x^3 + 4*x - 5)); (%o25) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i26) fundef (f); (%o26) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i27) f(2); (%o27) 27 </syntaxhighlight>What is true in the case of these elementary examples is true in general for function definitions involving multiple arguments:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* x has a global value of 5 while y is local to g */ (%i28) g (x, y) := x^3 - y^2; (%o28) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i29) g (6,2); (%o29) 212 (%i30) define (g('x, y), 'x^3 - y^2); (%o30) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i31) values; (%o31) [x] (%i32) g (6,2); (%o32) 212 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator is a good choice in cases where an existing expression is used as the function body:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i33) /* assign an expression to identifier expr */ expr : diff('x^3, 'x); /* Returns 3*x^2 */ (expr) 3*x^2 (%i34) /* evaluate expr and define h (x) := 3*x^2 */ define (h ('x), expr); (%o34) h(x):=3*x^2 </syntaxhighlight>In cases in which functions require local variables or more than one expression for the function body, use the block operator:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i35) remvalue (x); (%o35) [x] (%i36) values; (%o36) [expr] --> power_sum (x, y) := block ( /* values of these identifiers are explicitly local to the function */ [sqx, sqy], /* unevaluated identifiers x and y are local arguments of the function and values of these identifiers are implicitly local to the function */ sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy /* the value of the function */ )$ (%i37) fundef (power_sum); (%o37) power_sum(x,y):=block([sqx,sqy],sqx:x^2,sqy:y^2,sqx+sqy) (%i38) power_sum (3,4); (%o38) 25 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator could also be used to define this function, but with different definition values as a consequence:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i39) define (power_sum (x,y), block ( [sqx,sqy], sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy ) )$ (%i40) fundef (power_sum); (%o40) power_sum(x,y):=y^2+x^2 (%i41) power_sum (3,4); (%o41) 25</syntaxhighlight>The function definition of <code>power_sum</code> is different using the <code>define</code> operator instead of the <code>:=</code> operator. The value of the function when referenced with arguments (<code>power_sum (3,4)</code>) is the same in both cases – <code>25</code>. However, in general for defining functions, this may not be the case. The choice between these two operators depends on the intentions of the user. ==== Practical Considerations Related to Function Composition ==== ==== Memoizing Functions ==== ==== Special Forms of the <code>define</code> Operator ==== ==== Some Techniques for Function Composition ==== === Lisp and Maxima === {{BookCat}} r6rzc22uqwxcy0v7oj0rzl1mvy4w1z4 3 485786 4673997 4671766 2026-10-04T10:31:20Z MathXplore 3097823 /* Reporting User:AAASecurityGuard */ move from [[User talk:MathXplore]] ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4673997 wikitext text/x-wiki == User messages.. == Could you have a another look at how these are formatted? Quite a lot of the misnesting Lint errors, appear to be from messages left on user talk pages? (Specifically a Strong tag that's has a line feed within it). [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 19:33, 15 March 2026 (UTC) : The messages left on user talk pages are [[Template:Test]], [[Template:Test2]], but I'm not familiar enough with the misnesting Lint errors. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:21, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:~2026-16316-77&diff=prev&oldid=4622944 is what I refer to as example. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:27, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|Codename Noreste|JJPMaster}} Can you fix this Lint error? [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 11:30, 16 March 2026 (UTC) : I know what to fix, what I don't know is which template substitution is responsible. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 11:34, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::This should be {{fixed}}. The template is [[User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) :::[[File:Symbol watching blue lashes.svg|20px]] '''Courtesy ping'''{{#if:ShakespeareFan00|<nowiki>:</nowiki> {{U|ShakespeareFan00}}|}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 16 March 2026 (UTC) ::::I did also go back and retroactively fix these using my bot: [https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3AContributions%2FJJPMaster_%28bot%29&target=JJPMaster+%28bot%29&offset=20260316135259001&limit=322 322 edits]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:55, 16 March 2026 (UTC) == Reporting [[User:AAASecurityGuard]] == Hello MathXplore, Just a heads up that I had already reported AAASecurityGuard to the Administrators' noticeboard, therefore there are duplicates. Just a reminder that if a person has already reported a person, you don't need to make another report. Thank you. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:02, 22 September 2026 (UTC) : Sorry, didn't notice the other report. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:06, 22 September 2026 (UTC) hv5pl8dl0nrukafh5b15jf0d57rcmmx 0 485923 4673970 4672922 2026-10-04T05:38:24Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 /* Adverbs */ 4673970 wikitext text/x-wiki An '''adverb''' (μέτοχος) is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, other adverbs, or various other types of words, phrases, or clauses. For example, quickly and very are adverbs, as in "I run '''very quickly''';" Greek participles can also be adverbs. :: Ἐγέλᾰσᾰ '''κοιμησᾰ́μενος'''. — I laughed, '''sleeping'''. :: '''Καὶ δὲ''' τρέχω '''πολῠ̀ τᾰχέως'''. — However, I also run very quickly. ==Forms of Adverbs== ===Adverbs of Time=== These describe when an action happens. :: '''Ἐχθὲς''' ἐδούλευσᾰ. — I worked '''yesterday'''. ===Adverbs of Manner=== ===Adverbs of Place/Location=== ===Adverbs of Degree=== ===Numerical Adverbs=== {{BookCat}} gqvpw09066qgslbs9tqd789c1sihtng 0 485979 4673954 4673622 2026-10-04T01:28:52Z DVD206 724793 plus/minus one 4673954 wikitext text/x-wiki The non-commutative generalization of golden ratio identities for Fibonacci genealogy: 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21... <math> F_n=\frac{\phi^{n}-\psi^{n}}{\phi-\psi}, \phi \psi = \pm 1. </math> <math> \phi=1+\frac{1}{1+...}=\lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}\frac{F_{n+1}}{F_{n}}=\lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}\frac{\phi^{n+1}-\psi^{n+1}}{\phi^n-\psi^n}. </math> Every fifth Fibonacci number divides 5, every seventh divides 13... (e.g. 13 divides 377, 5 divides 55...) The identity <math> \frac{\phi^{n+1}-\psi^{n+1}}{\phi^n-\psi^n}=(\phi+\psi)+\frac{\phi^{n-1}-\psi^{n-1}}{\phi^n-\psi^n}. </math> produces the continues fraction form for the golden ratio... {{BookCat}} c7dqb0mic0p373kyvpaenll4lskk2ux 4673955 4673954 2026-10-04T01:30:50Z DVD206 724793 alteration/alternation... 4673955 wikitext text/x-wiki The non-commutative and alternating generalization of golden ratio identities for Fibonacci genealogy: 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21... <math> F_n=\frac{\phi^{n}-\psi^{n}}{\phi-\psi}, \phi \psi = \pm 1. </math> <math> \phi=1+\frac{1}{1+...}=\lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}\frac{F_{n+1}}{F_{n}}=\lim_{n\rightarrow\infty}\frac{\phi^{n+1}-\psi^{n+1}}{\phi^n-\psi^n}. </math> Every fifth Fibonacci number divides 5, every seventh divides 13... (e.g. 13 divides 377, 5 divides 55...) The identity <math> \frac{\phi^{n+1}-\psi^{n+1}}{\phi^n-\psi^n}=(\phi+\psi)+\frac{\phi^{n-1}-\psi^{n-1}}{\phi^n-\psi^n} </math> produces the continues fraction form for the golden ratio... {{BookCat}} qifw7edulzwr3ayakum400777k5dk82 0 485995 4673882 4673776 2026-10-03T15:14:56Z DVD206 724793 F_4=5 4673882 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based on Golden ratio divine proportion for regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the diagonal corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_4=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... {{BookCat}} qwwzmtdu1fbdm33mnyqnxtv7dn67bks 4673953 4673882 2026-10-04T01:24:07Z DVD206 724793 detail on alternation formula 4673953 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based by alternation on Golden ratio divine proportion for the regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the diagonal corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_5=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... {{BookCat}} h4cpch1lzjdervilj53dp6pbkfgiyki 4673956 4673953 2026-10-04T01:34:17Z DVD206 724793 reciprocal of phi 4673956 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based by alternation on Golden ratio divine proportion for the regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the diagonal corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_5=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... and the corner entry of the inverse of the matrix tends to <math>1/\phi</math>with the size of the matrix tending to infinity... {{BookCat}} 197erfpch21wsfuzt7hmh5i9nzso8gn 4673957 4673956 2026-10-04T01:34:45Z DVD206 724793 4673957 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based by alternation on Golden ratio divine proportion for the regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the diagonal corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_5=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... and the corner entry of the inverse of the matrix tends to <math>1/\phi</math> with the size of the matrix tending to infinity... {{BookCat}} pmru7hf7ls58qct44eau9ucactd2fb3 4673958 4673957 2026-10-04T01:36:27Z DVD206 724793 4673958 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based by alternation on Golden ratio divine proportion for the regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the inverse of the diagonal lower corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_5=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... and the corner entry of the inverse of the matrix tends to <math>1/\phi</math> with the size of the matrix tending to infinity... {{BookCat}} 45yllnwpxzd9976m9prlik3dvdlue48 4673967 4673958 2026-10-04T05:10:57Z DVD206 724793 Chebyshev polynomials 4673967 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based by alternation on Golden ratio divine proportion for the regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the inverse of the diagonal lower corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_5=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... and the corner entry of the inverse of the matrix tends to <math>1/\phi</math> with the size of the matrix tending to infinity... The eigenvalues of the matrix minus identity are purely imaginary and, since the determinant is the product of eigenvalues of a matrix: <math>F_n = \prod_k^{n-1}(1+2i\cos(\frac{k\pi}{n}).</math> {{BookCat}} 75rep37gebk8rjhrtnsxp9ndobx6asu 4673968 4673967 2026-10-04T05:12:10Z DVD206 724793 4673968 wikitext text/x-wiki The geometry of network conductivities for self-dual response matrix: [[File:Pentagon.gif|thumb|]] is based by alternation on Golden ratio divine proportion for the regular polygons... Let <math>\begin{pmatrix} a & 1 & 0 \\ -1 & b & 1 \\ 0 & -1 & c \end{pmatrix}</math> then the inverse of the diagonal lower corner entry of the inverse matrix is a ratio of two determinants, given by continued fraction: <math>c+\cfrac{1}{b+\cfrac{1}{a}}</math> is the response of the network Spiderweb with conductivities a,b and c. Therefore, for example <math>F_5=\det\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ -1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & -1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}=5</math> for the Fibonacci number... and the corner entry of the inverse of the matrix tends to <math>1/\phi</math> with the size of the matrix tending to infinity... The eigenvalues of the matrix minus identity are purely imaginary and, since the determinant is the product of eigenvalues of a matrix: <math>F_n = \prod_{k=1}^{n-1}(1+2i\cos(\frac{k\pi}{n})).</math> {{BookCat}} i6nvobuv7nn0nj7ngq3j521ai2yad51 0 486010 4673901 4673753 2026-10-03T17:23:50Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4673901 wikitext text/x-wiki == 3...e5? Arctic Gambit == After '''1. d4 d5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Nf3''', Black plays '''3...e5?''', immediately challenging White's center and offering a gambit idea. Main Line is '''4. dxe5.''' Downside: The main drawback of '''3...e5?''' is that Black sacrifices a central pawn before completing development, and it unseats the Knight. An independent line is '''1. d4 d5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Nf3 e5?''' '''4. dxe5 Ne4''', when Black develops actively and puts pressure on White's position. Black Also Loses by +2.0 ('''?'''). (not a real opening name). {{BookCat}} ogj50e6lujyshijnr7uahn30t1y8hlr 0 486011 4673900 4673752 2026-10-03T17:23:25Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4673900 wikitext text/x-wiki == 4. e4?! — Reverse Arctic Gambit == After '''1. d4 d5 2. Nc3 Nf6 3. Nf3 Nc6''', White plays '''4. e4?!''', sacrificing the e-pawn to gain activity and force Black's knight to move. '''4...Nxe4''' accepts the pawn sacrifice, with Black's knight capturing the e5-pawn. '''4...dxe4''' accepts the pawn sacrifice,also the best move '''Downsides:''' The main problem with '''4. e4?!''' is that White deliberately offers the e-pawn before completing development. If Black can safely capture it, White may simply be left a pawn down. Loses By -0.9 (?!) (not a real opening name) {{BookCat}} t2smmvoee41xz1j2ph19f7yb2mx8g3m 0 486021 4673895 4673742 2026-10-03T16:42:59Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 /* 3. Bf4?! — Boyard Gambit */ 4673895 wikitext text/x-wiki == 3. Bf4?! — Boyard Gambit == '''3. Bf4?!''' develops the bishop to f4 instead of immediately recapturing the pawn, offering the '''Boyard Gambit'''. === (Its a custom opening) ====== Responses: === '''3...d5''' strengthens Black's center and supports further development. '''3...Nc6''' develops a knight and defends the d4 pawn. '''Downsides:''' White voluntarily delays recovering the d4-pawn, allowing Black to consolidate the extra material and develop with an advantage if White cannot generate enough activity. An independent line is '''1. e4 e5 2. d4 exd4 3. Bf4?! Nc6'''. The '''Boyard Gambit''' is characterized by '''1. e4 e5 2. d4 exd4 3. Bf4?!'''. (unknown origin - not officially named yet) An independent line is '''1. e4 e5 2. d4 exd4 3. Bf4?! Nc6 4. Nf3 Bb4+ 5. Nbd2 Nf6 6. Bd3 O-O 7. O-O''' where White has rapid development and active pieces but Black has successfully retained the extra pawn. === Why it is dubious: === The '''Boyard Gambit''' is considered '''dubious''' because White gives Black a clear material advantage without an immediate tactical justification. White hopes that the lead in development and active pieces will provide enough compensation for the pawn, but Black can often consolidate the extra material with accurate play. The central problem with '''3.Bf4?!''' is that White's compensation is uncertain. In the normal development of the position, White would usually prefer to recover the d4-pawn or use the tempo to create an immediate tactical threat. '''Bf4''' does neither directly. The '''Boyard Gambit''' is an offbeat and '''dubious''' gambit characterized by '''1. e4 e5 2. d4 exd4 3. Bf4?!''', where White sacrifices the immediate recovery of the d4-pawn in exchange for development and attacking chances. {{BookCat}} gexd11fwuvqcd6uivj5wkh4m18ygihb 0 486034 4673878 4673798 2026-10-03T14:40:25Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 flag 4673878 wikitext text/x-wiki {{AI-suspected|reason=Inconsistent formatting, unformatted and collapsed lists, attempted markdown formatting}} Pronouns 1. What Is a Pronoun? A pronoun is a form used to refer to a participant, person, thing, or group without naming that participant with a full noun phrase. For example: - "Chukwu bịara." — “Chukwu came.” - "Ọ bịara." — “He/She came.” In the second sentence, "ọ" refers to the participant previously identified as "Chukwu". A pronoun therefore does more than simply “replace a noun.” It allows a speaker to refer to an already identifiable participant without repeating the full noun phrase. This distinction is important because pronouns are primarily about reference. A full noun phrase can identify a participant: «"nwoke ahụ" — “that/the man”» A pronoun can refer to that participant without repeating the noun: «"ọ" — “he/she/it”» The exact interpretation of a pronoun depends on its context and its relationship to the rest of the sentence. --- 2. Personal Pronouns Igbo personal pronouns distinguish person and number. The basic personal pronouns are: Person| Singular| Plural First person| "m" — I/me| "anyị" — we/us Second person| "ị" — you| "unu" — you Third person| "ọ" — he/she/it| "ha" — they/them First person The first person refers to the speaker or to a group including the speaker. - "m" — “I/me” - "anyị" — “we/us” Second person The second person refers to the person or people being addressed. - "ị" — “you” singular - "unu" — “you” plural Third person The third person refers to someone or something other than the speaker and addressee. - "ọ" — “he/she/it” - "ha" — “they/them” The third-person singular form does not itself distinguish English he, she, and it. For example: «"Ọ bịara."» Depending on context, this may mean: - “He came.” - “She came.” - “It came.” The surrounding context identifies what "ọ" refers to. --- 3. Person and Number Two important grammatical ideas are involved in the personal-pronoun system. Person First person = the speaker Second person = the person being addressed Third person = someone or something other than the speaker and addressee Number Singular = one participant Plural = more than one participant Thus: «"m" = first-person singular "anyị" = first-person plural» and: «"ị" = second-person singular "unu" = second-person plural» and: «"ọ" = third-person singular "ha" = third-person plural» The distinction between singular and plural is therefore part of the basic reference system. --- 4. Pronouns as Participants in Sentences A pronoun can refer to a participant in an event just as a noun phrase can. Consider: «"Nwoke ahụ bịara." “The man came.”» The participant who came is introduced as: «"nwoke ahụ"» The same participant can subsequently be referred to with a pronoun: «"Ọ bịara." “He came.”» The structure has changed, but the participant being referred to can remain the same. A useful way to think about this is: «Noun phrase → identifies or describes a participant Pronoun → refers to an identifiable participant» This does not mean that every pronoun must have an explicitly stated noun immediately before it. A participant can be identifiable from: - previous speech, - the physical situation, - shared knowledge, - the action being discussed, - or other contextual information. For example, if two people are discussing a particular person, "ọ" may be completely understandable even though the person's name has not just been spoken. --- 5. Pronouns and Sentence Position Pronouns participate in sentences according to the same kinds of participant relationships that noun phrases do. A pronoun can refer to a participant performing an action: «"Ọ bịara." “He/She came.”» It can also refer to a participant receiving or undergoing an action: «"Ha kpọrọ m." “They called me.”» Here: - "ha" refers to the participants carrying out the calling. - "m" refers to the participant being called. The pronoun therefore cannot be understood in isolation from the verb and the rest of the construction. A useful descriptive pattern is: «Participant → Verb → Participant» The forms used for the participants can be full noun phrases or pronouns. For example: «"Nwoke ahụ kpọrọ m." “The man called me.”» versus: «"Ọ kpọrọ m." “He/She called me.”» The first participant is expressed with a noun phrase in the first sentence and a pronoun in the second. --- 6. Subject Pronouns A pronoun can identify the participant presented as carrying out an action. Examples include: «"M bịara." “I came.”» «"Ị bịara." “You came.”» «"Ọ bịara." “He/She/It came.”» «"Anyị bịara." “We came.”» «"Unu bịara." “You came.”» «"Ha bịara." “They came.”» The verb remains central to understanding the event. The pronoun identifies the participant associated with the action. Structure For descriptive purposes: «"[Pronoun] + [Verb]"» For example: «"[PRON m] [V bịara]"» «"[PRON ọ] [V bịara]"» The brackets are analytical labels only. They are not part of the Igbo sentence. --- 7. Object Pronouns Pronouns can also refer to participants that occur as objects of an action. For example: «"Ọ kpọrọ m." “He/She called me.”» Here "m" refers to the participant toward whom the action of calling is directed. Other examples include: «"Ọ hụrụ ya." “He/She saw him/her/it.”» «"Ọ hụrụ gị." “He/She saw you.”» «"Ha hụrụ anyị." “They saw us.”» «"Ha hụrụ unu." “They saw you.”» The pronoun therefore does not have to be the participant carrying out the action. --- 8. The Same Pronoun Can Refer to Different Participant Relationships A form such as "m" should not automatically be assigned one English-style “case” merely because English translates it differently in different sentences. For example: «"M bịara." “I came.”» Here "m" refers to the participant carrying out the action. But: «"Ọ kpọrọ m." “He/She called me.”» Here "m" refers to the participant toward whom the action is directed. The important distinction is therefore not that "m" has somehow changed into a completely different word. Rather, its relationship to the verb and the event has changed. This follows the same principle used elsewhere in this book: «Meaning → participant relationship → Igbo construction» English may describe the two forms as “I” and “me,” but an analysis of Igbo should first examine what relationship the pronoun has within the Igbo sentence. --- 9. Pronouns and Full Noun Phrases A pronoun can occupy a position where a full noun phrase could otherwise occur. Compare: «"Nwoke ahụ bịara." “The man came.”» «"Ọ bịara." “He came.”» In the first sentence: "nwoke ahụ" identifies the participant. In the second: "ọ" refers to that participant. This can be represented descriptively as: «"[NP nwoke ahụ]" → full noun phrase» «"[PRON ọ]" → pronoun» The pronoun is therefore not itself a shortened version of the words "nwoke ahụ". It is a different referring expression. --- 10. Pronouns Do Not Always Refer to a Previously Mentioned Noun A common beginner assumption is: «“A pronoun must always refer to a noun that appeared earlier.”» That is too restrictive. A speaker can use a pronoun when the referent is already identifiable from the situation. For example, if a person enters a room and everyone knows who is being discussed, a speaker may say: «"Ọ bịara." “He/She came.”» The referent may be understood without the person's name occurring immediately beforehand. Reference can therefore come from context, not only from the previous sentence. This becomes especially important when interpreting: - "ọ" - "ha" - "ya" - "m" - "gị" - "anyị" - "unu" A pronoun's meaning is often partly supplied by the surrounding situation. --- 11. Third-Person Singular "ọ" The third-person singular pronoun "ọ" can refer to a singular person or thing. Depending on context, English may require: - he - she - it Igbo does not necessarily require the speaker to encode that distinction in the pronoun itself. For example: «"Ọ bịara."» may refer to: «“He came.”» or: «“She came.”» or, where appropriate: «“It came.”» The context determines the intended referent. This is an important difference between the Igbo and English reference systems. Do not automatically assume that "ọ" has a single English equivalent. --- 12. Third-Person Plural "ha" "ha" refers to more than one third-person participant: «"Ha bịara." “They came.”» However, "ha" can also participate in broader interpretations when the identity of the actor is not important or is not specified. For example: «"Ha kpọrọ m."» Depending on context, this may mean: - “They called me.” - “Someone called me.” - “I was called.” The exact interpretation depends on how the speaker is presenting the event and whether the actor is identified, generalized, unknown, or simply irrelevant. This is especially important in Igbo constructions that can receive impersonal or passive-like interpretations. The form "ha" itself still means “they/them.” It does not become a special passive marker. Rather, its plural reference can allow the actor to remain broad or unspecified. --- 13. Pronouns and Passive-Like or Impersonal Interpretations Consider: «"Ha kpọrọ m."» A straightforward interpretation is: «“They called me.”» But if the identity of the callers is unknown or irrelevant, English may naturally express the same event as: «“Someone called me.”» Or: «“I was called.”» The Igbo sentence has not necessarily changed form. The interpretation changes because of how the participants are understood in context. This is an important principle: «A sentence's interpretation is not always determined by a single word.» The speaker's choice of participant, the verb, the context, and the listener's knowledge all contribute to the interpretation. This is discussed more fully in the chapters on Voice and Perspective and Pragmatics. --- 14. Possessive Pronouns Personal-pronoun forms can also occur in possessive relationships. For example: «"akwụkwọ m" “my book”» «"akwụkwọ gị" “your book”» «"akwụkwọ ya" “his/her/its book”» «"akwụkwọ anyị" “our book”» «"akwụkwọ unu" “your book”» «"akwụkwọ ha" “their book”» The relationship can be represented as: «"[N akwụkwọ] [PRON m]"» The noun comes first, followed by the participant associated with it. This follows the broader noun-phrase pattern discussed in Nouns and Noun Phrases: «thing possessed → possessor» Thus: «"akwụkwọ John" “John's book”» and: «"akwụkwọ m" “my book”» belong to the same broad structural pattern. The difference is that "John" is a full noun phrase/name, while "m" is a pronoun. --- 15. Pronouns in Kinship Relationships The same relationship can occur with kinship nouns. For example: «"nwanne m" “my sibling”» «"nwanne gị" “your sibling”» «"nwanne ya" “his/her sibling”» This is structurally comparable to: «"nwanne John" “John's sibling”» Again, the pronoun occupies the possessor/associated-participant position. The relationship is therefore not created by a special English-style possessive ending. It is established by the structure of the noun phrase. --- 16. Pronouns and Demonstratives A pronoun and a demonstrative do different jobs. A demonstrative such as: «"a"» or: «"ahụ"» can identify or locate a noun phrase in relation to the discourse or situation. A pronoun such as: «"ọ"» refers to a participant without naming that participant as a full noun phrase. Compare: «"nwoke ahụ" “that/the man”» with: «"ọ" “he”» The first expression contains a noun and an identifying element. The second is a pronoun. A speaker can therefore move from: «"Nwoke ahụ bịara."» to: «"Ọ bịara."» The first expression identifies the participant more explicitly; the second simply refers back to that participant. --- 17. Pronouns and "onwe" "onwe" is used in constructions involving self-reference, emphasis, or reflexive meaning. It should not be treated as though it were simply an Igbo equivalent of the English suffix "-self". English has forms such as: - myself - yourself - himself - herself - ourselves - yourselves - themselves Igbo expresses related meanings through constructions involving "onwe" and the relevant pronoun. Examples include: «"onwe m" — “myself”» «"onwe gị" — “yourself”» «"onwe ya" — “himself/herself/itself”» «"onwe anyị" — “ourselves”» «"onwe unu" — “yourselves”» «"onwe ha" — “themselves”» But the exact interpretation depends on the construction. "onwe" can contribute either emphasis or reflexive meaning, and these should not automatically be treated as identical. --- 18. Emphatic Use of "onwe" A speaker may use "onwe" to emphasize that the participant personally carried out an action or was personally involved. For example, a construction containing: «"onwe ya"» can emphasize: «“he himself” “she herself”» The important point is that the emphasis is not simply a mechanical replacement of an English "-self" form. The whole construction establishes the intended emphasis. For example, a sentence can present a participant normally and then use "onwe ya" to reinforce that the participant personally carried out or experienced something. The placement of "onwe" therefore needs to be learned from actual constructions rather than by inserting it immediately after every pronoun. --- 19. Reflexive Meaning "onwe" can also participate in reflexive constructions, where the participant performing an action and the participant affected by that action are the same. Conceptually: «Participant → action → same participant» English expresses this with forms such as: «“He hurt himself.”» Igbo expresses the relationship through an appropriate construction involving the pronoun and "onwe". The important semantic relationship is: «Actor = affected participant» This is different from ordinary emphasis. For example, emphasizing a participant does not necessarily mean that the participant acted upon themselves. Therefore: «emphatic meaning ≠ automatically reflexive meaning» Context and construction determine which interpretation is intended. --- 20. Pronouns and Context Pronouns are particularly dependent on context. Consider: «"Ọ hụrụ ya."» A literal structural analysis can identify: - "ọ" = third-person singular pronoun - "hụrụ" = verb - "ya" = third-person singular pronoun But the sentence alone does not necessarily tell us: - who "ọ" refers to, - who "ya" refers to, - whether they are male or female, - whether "ya" refers to a person or thing, - or whether the participants have already been established in conversation. The surrounding discourse supplies this information. For example: «"Chika hụrụ Emeka. Ọ kpọrọ ya."» The listener must use context to determine who "ọ" and "ya" refer to. This is one reason pronouns cannot be studied as isolated vocabulary items. --- 21. Pronouns and Information Structure Speakers do not always choose between a noun phrase and a pronoun randomly. A full noun phrase can be useful when the speaker wants to: - introduce a participant, - identify a participant, - distinguish one participant from another, - clarify who is being discussed, - or re-establish a participant in the conversation. A pronoun is often useful when the participant is already identifiable. This creates a useful discourse pattern: «Introduce or identify → refer» For example: «"Nwoke ahụ bịara. Ọ nọdụrụ ala."» “The man came. He sat down.” The first sentence identifies the participant. The second sentence can refer to the same participant economically with "ọ". This is one of the major functions of pronouns in connected speech. --- 22. Pronouns Are Not Just Shorter Nouns It is tempting to describe a pronoun as: «“a word that replaces a noun.”» That definition is useful for beginners, but incomplete. A better description is: «A pronoun is a referring expression that identifies a participant without naming or describing that participant with a full noun phrase in the same way.» This matters because a pronoun can refer to: - a person, - an animal, - an object, - a group, - or another participant whose identity is supplied by context. The important property is reference, not simply substitution. --- 23. Pronouns and Participant Relationships The participant framework used throughout this book can also be applied to pronouns. Instead of asking only: «“What case is this pronoun?”» ask: «“What participant is this pronoun referring to, and what relationship does that participant have to the event?”» For example: Actor «"Ọ bịara."» "ọ" refers to the participant who came. Object / affected participant «"Ha kụrụ ya."» "ya" refers to the participant toward whom the action is directed. Recipient Where a transfer construction contains a pronoun referring to the person receiving something, that pronoun represents the recipient participant. Possessor «"akwụkwọ ya"» "ya" identifies the participant associated with the book as its possessor. Reflexive participant A construction involving "onwe" can establish a relationship in which the participant performing an action is also the participant affected by it. The pronoun itself does not need a separate morphological “case ending” for each of these relationships. The relationship comes from the construction in which the pronoun occurs. --- 24. Pronouns and Verbs Pronouns are closely connected with verbs because the verb determines many of the participant relationships available in a sentence. Compare: «"Ọ bịara."» with: «"Ọ kpọrọ m."» The first verb requires or presents a participant who comes. The second verb presents an additional participant toward whom the action is directed. Therefore, when analysing a pronoun, examine the verb as well. A useful method is: 1. Identify the pronoun. 2. Identify the verb. 3. Ask what participants the verb involves. 4. Determine what role the pronoun has in the event. 5. Use context to determine who or what the pronoun refers to. --- 25. Pronouns in Questions Pronouns can occur naturally in questions. For example, a speaker may ask whether a person has done something, whether someone has arrived, or whether something has happened. The pronoun identifies the participant while the question construction establishes the information being requested. The same principle applies: «Pronoun = reference to participant Question construction = request for information» Do not assume that the pronoun itself creates the question. The question comes from the broader sentence construction. --- 26. Pronouns and Negation Pronouns can also occur in negative constructions. The negative construction changes the status of the event, while the pronoun continues to identify the relevant participant. Thus, when analysing a negative sentence, distinguish: - the pronoun, - the verb, - the negative element or construction, - and the participant relationship. Do not treat the pronoun as though it has become a “negative pronoun.” --- 27. Pronouns in Commands Commands can also involve reference to participants. The addressee may be understood directly from the command construction, and pronouns may occur when another participant is mentioned. This illustrates an important point: «Pronouns do not determine the overall sentence type.» A sentence can be: - declarative, - interrogative, - negative, - imperative, - or part of a larger construction while still containing pronouns. The pronoun contributes reference; the larger construction contributes the sentence's broader function. --- 28. Pronouns and Ambiguity Because pronouns depend on context, a sentence containing pronouns can sometimes be grammatically clear while still leaving the identity of the participants unclear. Consider: «"Ọ gwara ya."» The construction contains two third-person singular pronouns: - "ọ" — the participant who carried out the telling - "ya" — the participant to whom the information was conveyed However, the sentence by itself does not necessarily tell us who either participant is. The listener may need information from the surrounding conversation to determine: - who "ọ" refers to, - who "ya" refers to, - whether the two pronouns refer to different participants, - and what kind of participants they are. This is not necessarily a grammatical problem. Natural speech regularly depends on shared context. If the identity of a participant needs to be made clearer, the speaker can use a fuller noun phrase. The important distinction is therefore: «Grammatical structure tells us how the participants are related. Context tells us who the participants are.» --- 29. Pronoun Reference Across Discourse A pronoun does not have to refer to a participant in the immediately preceding sentence. A participant can remain active in a conversation while the speaker continues referring to that participant with a pronoun. For example: «"Nwoke ahụ bịara n'ụtụtụ. Ọ nọdụrụ ala. Mgbe e mesịrị, ọ pụrụ."» “The man came in the morning. He sat down. Later, he left.” The first sentence introduces the participant as: «"nwoke ahụ"» The following sentences refer to the same participant with: «"ọ"» The participant can therefore remain identifiable even though the full noun phrase is no longer repeated. This can be represented as a reference chain: «"nwoke ahụ" → "ọ" → "ọ"» The pronoun helps maintain reference to the same participant throughout the discourse. --- 30. When a Full Noun Phrase Is Used Again A speaker does not have to use a pronoun every time a participant has already been introduced. A full noun phrase may be used again when the speaker wants to: - identify the participant more clearly, - distinguish the participant from another participant, - shift attention back to that participant, - resolve possible ambiguity, - or simply refer to the participant in a fuller way. For example, if several people are being discussed, repeatedly using "ọ" may make it difficult to know which person is intended. A fuller noun phrase can re-establish the participant. Thus natural discourse can move between: «full noun phrase → pronoun → full noun phrase → pronoun» The choice is therefore not simply a matter of avoiding repetition. It is also a matter of reference and information structure. --- 31. Pronouns and Information Structure The choice between a full noun phrase and a pronoun can affect how information is presented. A full noun phrase can make a participant more explicit: «"Nwoke ahụ bịara."» A pronoun can continue referring to an already identifiable participant: «"Ọ nọdụrụ ala."» The first expression helps establish or identify the participant. The second assumes that the participant is already sufficiently identifiable. This gives a useful general pattern: «Identify → continue referring» Pronouns therefore play an important role in maintaining continuity in discourse. They allow speakers to continue talking about an established participant without repeatedly giving the participant's full description. --- 32. Pronouns and Participant Relationships A pronoun should not be analysed only by asking what English pronoun translates it. Instead, identify the participant relationship established by the construction. Consider: «"Ọ bịara."» Here "ọ" refers to the participant who came. Now consider: «"Ọ kpọrọ m."» Here: - "ọ" refers to the participant carrying out the calling; - "m" refers to the participant toward whom the calling is directed. The difference comes from the construction and the verb, not from the existence of a special English-style case ending on the pronouns. The same principle applies to other relationships. A pronoun may refer to a: - participant carrying out an action, - participant affected by an action, - recipient, - beneficiary, - addressee, - target, - possessor, - accompanying participant, - or another participant established by the verb or construction. The exact relationship must therefore be determined from the sentence as a whole. --- 33. Pronouns and Verbs Verbs are particularly important when analysing pronouns because verbs establish relationships between participants. Consider: «"Ọ bịara."» The verb "bịara" presents a coming event involving the participant represented by "ọ". Now compare: «"Ọ kpọrọ m."» The verb "kpọrọ" establishes a relationship between two participants: «participant → calling → participant» The pronouns identify those participants. This gives a useful method for analysing unfamiliar sentences: 1. Identify the pronoun. 2. Identify the verb. 3. Determine what participants the verb involves. 4. Determine what relationship each participant has to the event. 5. Determine what the pronoun refers to from context. The pronoun should therefore be studied together with the construction in which it occurs. --- 34. Pronouns Inside Noun Phrases A pronoun can form a complete referring expression by itself, but it can also occur as an element inside a larger noun phrase. For example: «"akwụkwọ m"» “my book” can be represented as: «"[NP [N akwụkwọ] [PRON m]]"» Here: - "akwụkwọ" is the noun; - "m" identifies the participant associated with the book as its possessor. Similarly: «"nwanne ya"» “his/her sibling” can be represented as: «"[NP [N nwanne] [PRON ya]]"» The pronoun is therefore not replacing the noun. Instead, it is part of the larger noun phrase. This distinction is important: «A pronoun can stand as a referring expression by itself.» and: «A pronoun can also occur as one element within a larger noun phrase.» --- 35. Pronouns and Possession Personal pronouns can participate in possessive relationships. Examples include: «"akwụkwọ m" — “my book”» «"akwụkwọ gị" — “your book”» «"akwụkwọ ya" — “his/her book”» «"akwụkwọ anyị" — “our book”» «"akwụkwọ unu" — “your book”» «"akwụkwọ ha" — “their book”» The structure follows the broader noun-phrase pattern discussed in Nouns and Noun Phrases: «thing possessed → possessor» For example: «"[NP [N akwụkwọ] [PRON m]]"» The same general relationship can occur with a full noun phrase: «"akwụkwọ John"» “John's book” Thus: «"John"» and: «"m"» occupy the same broad relational position, even though one is a name/full noun phrase and the other is a pronoun. The construction, rather than an English possessive ending, establishes the relationship. --- 36. Pronouns and Kinship The same structure can occur with kinship nouns. For example: «"nwanne m" “my sibling”» «"nwanne gị" “your sibling”» «"nwanne ya" “his/her sibling”» These can be compared with: «"nwanne John" “John's sibling”» The relationship is: «kinship relation → associated person» The pronoun identifies the person associated with the kinship relationship. This is another reason not to treat all such constructions as simple English “possessives.” The semantic relationship may be kinship rather than ownership. --- 37. Pronouns and "onwe" "onwe" occurs in constructions involving self-reference and emphasis. It should not be treated as though it were simply an Igbo equivalent of the English suffix "-self". English forms such as: - myself - yourself - himself - herself - ourselves - yourselves - themselves combine the pronoun and the self-related meaning into a single word. Igbo instead uses constructions involving "onwe" and the relevant pronoun. For example: «"onwe m" — “myself”» «"onwe gị" — “yourself”» «"onwe ya" — “himself/herself/itself”» «"onwe anyị" — “ourselves”» «"onwe unu" — “yourselves”» «"onwe ha" — “themselves”» However, these expressions should not automatically be interpreted as reflexive every time they occur. "onwe" can contribute emphasis, self-reference, or reflexive meaning, depending on the construction and context. The structure therefore matters. --- 38. Emphasis and Reflexive Meaning Are Not the Same Two meanings involving "onwe" must be kept distinct. Emphasis An emphatic construction highlights the participant's personal involvement or identity. Conceptually: «“He himself did it.”» The emphasis is on the participant. Reflexive meaning A reflexive construction identifies the participant who performs an action with the participant affected by that action. Conceptually: «Participant → action → same participant» English expresses this distinction with forms such as: «“He himself did it.”» versus: «“He hurt himself.”» The two sentences contain "himself", but the semantic relationships are different. The first is primarily emphatic. The second is reflexive. Igbo should likewise be analysed according to the meaning and construction rather than by simply translating every occurrence of "onwe" as English "-self". --- 39. The Position of "onwe" The placement of "onwe" should be learned from the construction in which it occurs. It should not be assumed that "onwe" can simply be inserted immediately after a pronoun in every sentence. For example, an emphatic or reflexive construction may involve: «"ya ... onwe ya"» rather than treating "onwe" as though it were simply a second pronoun placed directly after "ya". The exact arrangement is therefore part of the construction. This is especially important because changing the position of "onwe" can change the naturalness or interpretation of the sentence. A useful principle is: «Learn "onwe" constructions as constructions, not as a mechanical pronoun + "onwe" formula.» --- 40. Pronouns and Context Pronouns are strongly dependent on context. Consider: «"Ọ hụrụ ya."» The sentence contains two third-person singular pronouns: - "ọ" - "ya" But the sentence alone may not tell us exactly who either one refers to. The surrounding discourse may establish: - who the first participant is, - who the second participant is, - whether the participants are people or things, - whether they are the same participant or different participants, - and why the speaker is referring to them in this way. This means that a pronoun cannot always be fully interpreted from its dictionary meaning alone. A complete analysis requires: «form + construction + context» --- 41. Pronouns and Ambiguous Reference When more than one possible participant could match a pronoun, the listener uses context to determine the intended reference. For example: «"Chika hụrụ Emeka. Ọ kpọrọ ya."» The names establish two possible participants: «"Chika"» and: «"Emeka"» The following pronouns: «"ọ"» and: «"ya"» must be interpreted using the discourse and the intended participant relationships. If the reference is not sufficiently clear, a speaker can use a fuller noun phrase instead. This is not a defect in the pronoun system. It is a normal consequence of using a compact referring expression whose interpretation depends on context. --- 42. Pronouns in Questions Pronouns can occur in interrogative constructions. The pronoun identifies a participant, while the question construction asks for information about the event or situation. For example, a question can contain a pronoun referring to: - the person being asked about, - the person being addressed, - the person affected by an action, - or another participant. The important distinction is: «The pronoun establishes reference.» «The question construction establishes the request for information.» A pronoun does not become a “question pronoun” simply because it occurs in a question. --- 43. Pronouns in Negative Constructions Pronouns can also occur in negative sentences. The negative construction changes the status of the event or situation, while the pronoun continues to identify its participant. Thus, when analysing a negative sentence, distinguish: 1. the pronoun, 2. the verb, 3. the negative construction, 4. the participant relationship, 5. and the referent. The pronoun itself does not become a special negative form merely because the sentence is negative. --- 44. Pronouns in Commands Pronouns can occur in commands when another participant needs to be identified. The command construction establishes what the speaker wants the addressee to do, while a pronoun can identify another participant involved in that action. This illustrates a broader principle: «A pronoun contributes reference; the larger construction determines the sentence's function.» The same pronoun system can therefore occur in different kinds of sentences. --- 45. Pronouns and English Do Not Always Match One-to-One English and Igbo do not divide all pronoun meanings in exactly the same way. For example, English distinguishes: «he / she / it» while "ọ" can refer to a singular person or thing, with the intended interpretation supplied by context. English also distinguishes: «I / me» while "m" can occur in different participant relationships. Similarly, English possessive forms such as: «my, your, his, her, our, their» do not require Igbo to create a separate set of forms corresponding one-for-one to these English words. Instead, personal-pronoun forms can participate in larger constructions such as: «"akwụkwọ m"» «“my book”» The safest method is therefore: «Start with the meaning and construction in Igbo, then translate into English.» Do not begin with the English word and assume that Igbo must have an identical grammatical category. --- 46. A Practical Method for Analysing Igbo Pronouns When analysing an unfamiliar pronoun construction, use the following sequence. Step 1 — Identify the pronoun Identify the form: «"m", "ị", "ọ", "anyị", "unu", "ha", or another pronoun-related construction.» Step 2 — Identify person and number Ask: - Is it first, second, or third person? - Is it singular or plural? Step 3 — Identify the referent Ask: «Who or what does the pronoun refer to?» Do not assume that the answer must appear immediately before the pronoun. Step 4 — Identify the participant relationship Ask: «What is this participant doing in the event or situation?» For example: - carrying out an action, - being affected, - receiving something, - benefiting, - being addressed, - being targeted, - accompanying another participant, - possessing something, - or participating in another relationship established by the construction. Step 5 — Examine the verb Ask: «What participant relationships does this verb establish?» The verb is often essential for determining the role of the pronoun. Step 6 — Examine the larger construction Determine whether the pronoun occurs: - as a main participant, - inside a noun phrase, - in a possessive relationship, - in an emphatic construction, - in a reflexive construction, - in a question, - in a negative construction, - or elsewhere. Step 7 — Examine the context Finally, ask: «What does the surrounding discourse tell us about the intended referent and interpretation?» This final step is essential. --- 47. Reading Pronoun Structure The same descriptive notation used in Nouns and Noun Phrases can be used here. "[PRON ...]" means: «pronoun» For example: «"[PRON m]"» represents the pronoun "m". A simple sentence can be represented as: «"Ọ bịara."» «"[PRON ọ] [V bịara]"» A sentence containing an additional participant can be represented as: «"Ọ kpọrọ m."» «"[PRON ọ] [V kpọrọ] [PRON m]"» A possessive noun phrase can be represented as: «"akwụkwọ m"» «"[NP [N akwụkwọ] [PRON m]]"» These labels are descriptive learning tools. They are not part of the Igbo sentence itself. They are also not intended to claim that every Igbo construction must fit a single formal syntactic theory. --- 48. Common Learner Mistakes Mistake 1 — Treating "ọ" as only “he” "ọ" is a third-person singular pronoun. Depending on context, its referent may be translated as: - he, - she, - it, - or another appropriate singular reference. --- Mistake 2 — Treating "m" as only “I” "m" can participate in different participant relationships. Compare: «"M bịara." “I came.”» and: «"Ọ kpọrọ m." “He/She called me.”» The English translation changes because the participant relationship changes. --- Mistake 3 — Treating "ha" as a special passive marker "ha" remains the third-person plural pronoun. It can occur in sentences that receive broad, impersonal, or passive-like interpretations, but that does not make "ha" itself a passive marker. --- Mistake 4 — Assuming a pronoun must have an immediately preceding noun Pronoun reference can come from: - earlier discourse, - shared knowledge, - the physical situation, - or the broader context. --- Mistake 5 — Treating "onwe" as simply an English "-self" "onwe" occurs in constructions involving self-reference and emphasis, and it can participate in reflexive constructions. Its meaning and placement depend on the construction. --- Mistake 6 — Assuming every occurrence of "onwe" is reflexive Emphasis and reflexivity are not the same semantic relationship. Ask: «Is the construction highlighting the participant?» or: «Is the participant who performs the action also the participant affected by it?» --- Mistake 7 — Assuming the pronoun itself determines the participant relationship The pronoun identifies a participant. The verb and construction establish what relationship that participant has to the event. --- Mistake 8 — Translating from English first Do not assume: «English grammatical category → identical Igbo grammatical category.» Instead: «Igbo meaning → Igbo construction → English translation» --- 49. Exercises Exercise 1 — Identify the Pronouns Identify every pronoun in each sentence. 1. "M bịara." 2. "Ọ bịara." 3. "Ha bịara." 4. "Ọ kpọrọ m." 5. "Ha hụrụ ya." Answer Key 1. "m" 2. "ọ" 3. "ha" 4. "ọ", "m" 5. "ha", "ya" --- Exercise 2 — Person and Number Identify the person and number of each pronoun. 1. "m" 2. "ị" 3. "ọ" 4. "anyị" 5. "unu" 6. "ha" Answer Key Pronoun| Person| Number "m"| First| Singular "ị"| Second| Singular "ọ"| Third| Singular "anyị"| First| Plural "unu"| Second| Plural "ha"| Third| Plural --- Exercise 3 — Identify the Participant Relationship Consider: «"Ọ kpọrọ m."» Identify the relationship of each pronoun to the event. Answer - "ọ" refers to the participant carrying out the calling. - "m" refers to the participant toward whom the calling is directed. The sentence can therefore be translated as: «“He/She called me.”» --- Exercise 4 — Pronoun or Full Noun Phrase? Identify whether the relevant expression is a full noun phrase or a pronoun. 1. "Nwoke ahụ bịara." 2. "Ọ bịara." 3. "Chukwu bịara." 4. "Ha bịara." Answer Key 1. "nwoke ahụ" — full noun phrase 2. "ọ" — pronoun 3. "Chukwu" — noun phrase/name 4. "ha" — pronoun --- Exercise 5 — Possessive Relationship Analyse the pronoun in each expression. 1. "akwụkwọ m" 2. "akwụkwọ gị" 3. "akwụkwọ ya" 4. "nwanne anyị" 5. "ụlọ ha" Answer Key In each expression, the pronoun identifies the participant associated with the noun as its possessor or related participant. For example: «"akwụkwọ m"» can be represented as: «"[NP [N akwụkwọ] [PRON m]]"» --- Exercise 6 — Reference From Context Suppose a conversation has already established that "Chika" is being discussed. «"Chika bịara. Ọ nọdụrụ ala."» Who does "ọ" refer to? Answer "ọ" refers to "Chika". The participant has already been established, so the speaker can refer to that participant with a pronoun. --- Exercise 7 — Ambiguous Reference Consider: «"Ọ gwara ya."» What information may not be recoverable from the sentence alone? Answer The sentence alone may not identify: - who "ọ" refers to, - who "ya" refers to, - whether the two pronouns refer to the same participant or different participants, - or what additional contextual information is relevant to interpreting them. The surrounding discourse supplies the necessary information. --- Exercise 8 — Emphasis or Reflexive? For each English sentence, determine whether the main meaning is emphasis or reflexive action. 1. “He himself did it.” 2. “He hurt himself.” Answer Key 1. Emphasis — the participant is being highlighted. 2. Reflexive — the participant carrying out the action is also the participant affected by it. The distinction should be preserved when analysing Igbo constructions involving "onwe". --- 50. End-of-Chapter Review Core Idea «A pronoun is a referring expression used to identify a participant without naming that participant with a full noun phrase in the same way.» Basic Personal Pronouns Person| Singular| Plural First| "m"| "anyị" Second| "ị"| "unu" Third| "ọ"| "ha" Remember 1. Pronouns refer to participants. 2. Person and number are part of the basic personal-pronoun system. 3. A pronoun's participant relationship comes from the construction in which it occurs. 4. The verb is often essential for understanding that relationship. 5. "ọ" does not correspond to only one English gendered pronoun. 6. "ha" is the ordinary third-person plural pronoun, even when context allows a broad or impersonal interpretation. 7. Pronouns can occur as complete referring expressions. 8. Pronouns can also occur inside larger noun phrases. 9. Personal pronouns can participate in possessive and kinship constructions. 10. "onwe" participates in emphatic and reflexive constructions, but should not simply be treated as an English "-self" suffix. 11. Emphasis and reflexivity are different semantic relationships. 12. Pronoun reference can extend across several sentences. 13. Context can identify a pronoun's referent even when no full noun phrase immediately precedes it. 14. English pronoun categories should not automatically be imposed on Igbo. Practical Analysis When you encounter an unfamiliar Igbo pronoun construction, ask: «1. What is the pronoun?» «2. What person and number does it express?» «3. Who or what does it refer to?» «4. What participant relationship does that referent have?» «5. What does the verb contribute to that relationship?» «6. What larger construction is the pronoun part of?» «7. What does the surrounding context tell us?» The central principle is: «Reference → participant relationship → construction → context → translation» English gives us a useful translation, but the Igbo construction determines how the meaning is actually expressed. {{BookCat}} {{BOOKNAME}} bujp1h81zf06t300osgvo7wjh1vw0x0 2 486042 4673867 2026-10-03T13:44:16Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4673867 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''E''' is for Eddoe</big></big></big></big>[[File:Taro Root, Eddoe or Colocasia Esculenta.jpg|center|493x493px|Eddoe]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/D]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/F]] gow19tkakqh33a1ty2w1g494tfsd6br 2 486043 4673870 2026-10-03T13:48:37Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4673870 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''F''' is for Fava Bean</big></big></big></big>[[File:Fava beans at the Sonoma Farmer's Market - Sarah Stierch.jpg|center|542x542px|Fava Bean]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/E]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/G]] 3sxjjbxuf2mwbr8qdjyy03rdwvq42h6 3 486044 4673871 2026-10-03T13:50:24Z TechVindicator 3626296 Welcoming user with {{Welcome-belated}} 4673871 wikitext text/x-wiki == A belated welcome! == [[File:Chocolate chip cookies.jpg|thumb|The welcome may be belated, but the cookies are still warm! {{smiley}}]] Here's wishing you a belated welcome to Wikibooks, Idavidmiller! I see that you've already been around a while and wanted to thank you for [[Special:Contributions/Idavidmiller|your contributions]]. Though you seem to have been successful in finding your way around, you may still benefit from following some of the links below, which help editors get the most out of Wikibooks: * [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] * [[Wikibooks:What is Wikibooks|What is Wikibooks?]] * [[Using Wikibooks]] Need some ideas of what kind of things need doing? Try [[Wikibooks:Maintenance]]. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikibooks:Wikibookians|Wikibookian]]! Again, welcome! Keep up the good work! <!-- Template:Welcome-belated --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:50, 3 October 2026 (UTC) 9pza6b6mxx4crm8ixa39getpbsgtsyv 2 486045 4673872 2026-10-03T13:52:41Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4673872 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''G''' is for Green Bean</big></big></big></big>[[File:Macro of Fresh Green Beans Buncis.jpg|center|497x497px|Green Bean]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/C]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/E]] d4cm4p8nx8gwnydbdljmjs3b4hiuh32 4673873 4673872 2026-10-03T13:54:49Z TechVindicator 3626296 edit g to h 4673873 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''G''' is for Green Bean</big></big></big></big>[[File:Macro of Fresh Green Beans Buncis.jpg|center|497x497px|Green Bean]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/C]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/H]] n64zxlo9xffp2fa3opx19k4qw93zp6v 2 486046 4673874 2026-10-03T13:59:55Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4673874 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''H''' is for Horseradish</big></big></big></big>[[File:Kren Verkauf.jpg|center|394x394px|Horseradish]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/G]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/I]] oniiqi1c1ed2g57x4lk5jdt1ff2y5ck 3 486048 4673893 2026-10-03T16:32:41Z ~2026-40500-29 3615407 /* Akinlabi Qudus */ new section 4673893 wikitext text/x-wiki == [[Akinlabi Qudus]] == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, I see that you have left your resume on this website. Do you intend to develop this resume into a textbook? Just wondering... [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:32, 3 October 2026 (UTC) np5nmk1h6s3sh40y6qevvso9hqrv933 4673952 4673893 2026-10-04T00:31:11Z SHB 3332924 /* Akinlabi Qudus */ re 4673952 wikitext text/x-wiki == [[Akinlabi Qudus]] == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, I see that you have left your resume on this website. Do you intend to develop this resume into a textbook? Just wondering... [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:32, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :Deleted it as spam. --[[User:SHB|SHB]] ([[User talk:SHB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB|contribs]]) 00:31, 4 October 2026 (UTC) thyp8xgso8cqhm16asfo211zuntehhy 3 486049 4673894 2026-10-03T16:33:14Z Koavf 16549 Created page with "{{subst:welcome}} ~~~~" 4673894 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Welcome!== Welcome, GladTuna! {| style="background:white; border:1px solid #abd5f5;; padding:0px; border-spacing:0px; color: #000000;" ! style="background:#d0e5f5; color: #000000;" | [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Getting started]] with Wikibooks |- | style="padding:5px;" | * Wikibooks is a collection of open-source textbooks. Find out [[WB:WIW|what this means]]. * To sign your name (on discussion pages), use four tildes, like this: &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * Learn how to [[Using Wikibooks|use Wikibooks]] and learn more about the community. * [[WB:CCO|Explore]], [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]], and have fun! |} If you have any questions, you can ask in the [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|assistance reading room]] or possibly contact me personally. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:33, 3 October 2026 (UTC) irgofzcbdp9ypwakdl8cmrdrftdibr3 0 486051 4673909 2026-10-03T18:06:16Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "== 2...f5?? - Blunder == '''2...f5??''' is a serious blunder because Black weakens the kingside and neglects the immediate tactical consequences in the center." 4673909 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2...f5?? - Blunder == '''2...f5??''' is a serious blunder because Black weakens the kingside and neglects the immediate tactical consequences in the center. qbdibcp22oxaz9tvvbmcj5mm4lvackz 4673961 4673909 2026-10-04T02:33:00Z MathXplore 3097823 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 4673961 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2...f5?? - Blunder == '''2...f5??''' is a serious blunder because Black weakens the kingside and neglects the immediate tactical consequences in the center. {{BookCat}} qir7wjhb4y0s8labthpnaiylf29mhvq 0 486052 4673919 2026-10-03T19:12:09Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with " == 2...c6 — Bishop's Opening: Philidor Countergambit == '''2...c6''' is an unusual countergambit idea, preparing to challenge White's center with '''3...d5.''' '''Theory Table:''' # '''e4 e5 2. Bc4 c6'''" 4673919 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2...c6 — Bishop's Opening: Philidor Countergambit == '''2...c6''' is an unusual countergambit idea, preparing to challenge White's center with '''3...d5.''' '''Theory Table:''' # '''e4 e5 2. Bc4 c6''' sidh11fgr5epky37hkgbmgkxe9m77qt 4673920 4673919 2026-10-03T19:13:17Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4673920 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2...c6 — Bishop's Opening: Philidor Counterattack == '''2...c6''' is an unusual counterattack idea, preparing to challenge White's center with '''3...d5.''' (similar to the Ponziani Opening) '''Theory Table:''' # '''e4 e5 2. Bc4 c6''' d02jdmcm6nkl93flmivbza5f1rbpz28 4673960 4673920 2026-10-04T02:32:57Z MathXplore 3097823 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 4673960 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2...c6 — Bishop's Opening: Philidor Counterattack == '''2...c6''' is an unusual counterattack idea, preparing to challenge White's center with '''3...d5.''' (similar to the Ponziani Opening) '''Theory Table:''' # '''e4 e5 2. Bc4 c6''' {{BookCat}} 36ft5er5nlx1zekdxd65ug4y2ik6dhc 0 486053 4673922 2026-10-03T19:28:04Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with " == 4. Nd3?! — Petrov's Defense: Karklins-Martinovsky Variation == '''4. Nd3?!''' retreats the knight to d3, keeping the piece safe while avoiding the more common retreats to '''f3''' or '''c4'''. '''Downsides:''' The main drawback of '''4.Nd3?!''' is that the knight on d3 blocks the d-pawn and may interfere with White's central pawn development. '''Theory Table:''' '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 d6 4. Nd3'''" 4673922 wikitext text/x-wiki == 4. Nd3?! — Petrov's Defense: Karklins-Martinovsky Variation == '''4. Nd3?!''' retreats the knight to d3, keeping the piece safe while avoiding the more common retreats to '''f3''' or '''c4'''. '''Downsides:''' The main drawback of '''4.Nd3?!''' is that the knight on d3 blocks the d-pawn and may interfere with White's central pawn development. '''Theory Table:''' '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 d6 4. Nd3''' 75vbcdsesrc79bgfj8px4r04521jv8x 4673959 4673922 2026-10-04T02:32:52Z MathXplore 3097823 Added {{[[Template:BookCat|BookCat]]}} using [[User:1234qwer1234qwer4/BookCat.js|BookCat.js]] 4673959 wikitext text/x-wiki == 4. Nd3?! — Petrov's Defense: Karklins-Martinovsky Variation == '''4. Nd3?!''' retreats the knight to d3, keeping the piece safe while avoiding the more common retreats to '''f3''' or '''c4'''. '''Downsides:''' The main drawback of '''4.Nd3?!''' is that the knight on d3 blocks the d-pawn and may interfere with White's central pawn development. '''Theory Table:''' '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nf6 3. Nxe5 d6 4. Nd3''' {{BookCat}} ikfk4yz4e2tqzxwxf7aqgmpgo1mjw96 3 486054 4673963 2026-10-04T02:33:54Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4673963 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:User:Diiminstitute]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[User talk:Diiminstitute|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:33, 4 October 2026 (UTC) o8aix6hg3uqufj625768muhj2ez72iq 3 486055 4673990 2026-10-04T07:30:00Z EggRoll97 3178669 Warning user with {{Test1}} 4673990 wikitext text/x-wiki == October 2026 == {{tmbox|type=notice|text='''Please, can you [[Using Wikibooks|help]] improve [[WB:WIW|Wikibooks]]''' by [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-53199-47|doing future experiments]] with the [[Help:Contents|wiki software]] in the [{{fullurl:Wikibooks:Sandbox|action=edit}} sandbox] instead? Your fellow contributors consider test edits in the sandbox constructive. You can ask questions or ask for help in the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]].<br /> Thanks. }} [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:30, 4 October 2026 (UTC) e25fjl7zj2tnvttgfw4hx9ck4h4zwq0 0 486056 4673994 2026-10-04T09:05:06Z AyanshGuptagodzillapower 3627511 This book is About Positinol chess Books And i am just an 8yr Developer Who Started Devoloping Months ago 4673994 wikitext text/x-wiki '''The Permanent Advantage''' ''Positional Chess Opening Puzzles'' Welcome to '''The Permanent Advantage''', a collection of 15 positional chess opening puzzles from famous games. '''Contents''' How to Use the Book '''Part I: The Puzzles''' [[Chapter 1: Queen's Pawn Openings]] Puzzles 1–5 Chapter 2: King's Pawn Openings Puzzles 6–11 Chapter 3: More Famous Games Puzzles 12–15 '''Part II: The Solutions''' Chapter 1 Solutions Chapter 2 Solutions Chapter 3 Solutions duhv1u4g55p54znedb7vpde21cmmc05 4673999 4673994 2026-10-04T10:31:51Z MathXplore 3097823 Adding {{qr-scope}} tag 4673999 wikitext text/x-wiki {{qr-scope}} '''The Permanent Advantage''' ''Positional Chess Opening Puzzles'' Welcome to '''The Permanent Advantage''', a collection of 15 positional chess opening puzzles from famous games. '''Contents''' How to Use the Book '''Part I: The Puzzles''' [[Chapter 1: Queen's Pawn Openings]] Puzzles 1–5 Chapter 2: King's Pawn Openings Puzzles 6–11 Chapter 3: More Famous Games Puzzles 12–15 '''Part II: The Solutions''' Chapter 1 Solutions Chapter 2 Solutions Chapter 3 Solutions hp49aladguazzj4b4l5tflf77vd96kt 0 486057 4674000 2026-10-04T10:39:36Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with " = Custom Chess Theory = == Custom Chess Theory == '''Custom Chess Theory''' allows players to create, organize, and document their own chess opening lines, variations, gambits, defenses, and experimental ideas. It is especially useful for opening lines that do not already have an established name, giving players a place to document their own theory without interfering with established chess openings. For example, a player can create the custom opening: '''Miloš Defe..." 4674000 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory = == Custom Chess Theory == '''Custom Chess Theory''' allows players to create, organize, and document their own chess opening lines, variations, gambits, defenses, and experimental ideas. It is especially useful for opening lines that do not already have an established name, giving players a place to document their own theory without interfering with established chess openings. For example, a player can create the custom opening: '''Miloš Defense — 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4''' The '''Miloš Defense''' is a custom opening line beginning with '''1.d4 d6 2.Nc3 e5 3.e4'''. A Custom Chess Theory page can contain the complete move order, explanations of the opening idea, possible continuations, variations, strategic plans, tactical ideas, strengths, weaknesses, and example games. The goal is to let players build their own opening theory while keeping everything organized. Custom openings can have their own names and pages, but '''established chess openings should not be renamed'''. If a line already has a recognized name, that name should remain unchanged. Custom names should be used for genuinely custom or unnamed lines and variations. For example, '''Miloś Defense''' (named by me) can be listed as: '''Moves:''' 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4 if it's named, dont change it. If it isn't named, you can add your openings From there, players can add different continuations and variations while keeping the original starting line unchanged. This makes it possible to develop a complete theory around the opening without confusing it with existing named openings. Custom Chess Theory is therefore a place where players can '''create their own openings, document new ideas, name unnamed lines, develop variations, and build a personal chess-theory database''', while following clear rules that keep established chess theory and custom theory separate and organized. You can add your openings here: === Categories: === a3 a4 b3 b4 c3 c4 d3 d4 e3 e4 f3 f4 g3 g4 h3 h4 Na3 Nc3 Nf3 Nh3 Thanks. Owned by: ChessTheory210 206gdwpxszfp2fyuu0uniamlg5qa5rq 4674001 4674000 2026-10-04T10:40:19Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4674001 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory = == Custom Chess Theory == '''Custom Chess Theory''' allows players to create, organize, and document their own chess opening lines, variations, gambits, defenses, and experimental ideas. It is especially useful for opening lines that do not already have an established name, giving players a place to document their own theory without interfering with established chess openings. For example, a player can create the custom opening: '''Miloš Defense — 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4''' The '''Miloš Defense''' is a custom opening line beginning with '''1.d4 d6 2.Nc3 e5 3.e4'''. A Custom Chess Theory page can contain the complete move order, explanations of the opening idea, possible continuations, variations, strategic plans, tactical ideas, strengths, weaknesses, and example games. The goal is to let players build their own opening theory while keeping everything organized. Custom openings can have their own names and pages, but '''established chess openings should not be renamed'''. If a line already has a recognized name, that name should remain unchanged. Custom names should be used for genuinely custom or unnamed lines and variations. For example, '''Miloś Defense''' (named by me) can be listed as: '''Moves:''' 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4 if it's named, dont change it. If it isn't named, you can add your openings From there, players can add different continuations and variations while keeping the original starting line unchanged. This makes it possible to develop a complete theory around the opening without confusing it with existing named openings. Custom Chess Theory is therefore a place where players can '''create their own openings, document new ideas, name unnamed lines, develop variations, and build a personal chess-theory database''', while following clear rules that keep established chess theory and custom theory separate and organized. You can add your openings here: === Categories: === a3 a4 b3 b4 c3 c4 d3 [[CustomChessTheory/1.d4|d4]] e3 e4 f3 f4 g3 g4 h3 h4 Na3 Nc3 Nf3 Nh3 Thanks. Owned by: ChessTheory210 gzu23legf9lf0wn96t86ty7wwj8wzrp 4674005 4674001 2026-10-04T10:54:36Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 added links 4674005 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory = == Custom Chess Theory == '''Custom Chess Theory''' allows players to create, organize, and document their own chess opening lines, variations, gambits, defenses, and experimental ideas. It is especially useful for opening lines that do not already have an established name, giving players a place to document their own theory without interfering with established chess openings. For example, a player can create the custom opening: '''Miloš Defense — 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4''' The '''Miloš Defense''' is a custom opening line beginning with '''1.d4 d6 2.Nc3 e5 3.e4'''. A Custom Chess Theory page can contain the complete move order, explanations of the opening idea, possible continuations, variations, strategic plans, tactical ideas, strengths, weaknesses, and example games. The goal is to let players build their own opening theory while keeping everything organized. Custom openings can have their own names and pages, but '''established chess openings should not be renamed'''. If a line already has a recognized name, that name should remain unchanged. Custom names should be used for genuinely custom or unnamed lines and variations. For example, '''Miloś Defense''' (named by me) can be listed as: '''Moves:''' 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4 if it's named, dont change it. If it isn't named, you can add your openings From there, players can add different continuations and variations while keeping the original starting line unchanged. This makes it possible to develop a complete theory around the opening without confusing it with existing named openings. Custom Chess Theory is therefore a place where players can '''create their own openings, document new ideas, name unnamed lines, develop variations, and build a personal chess-theory database''', while following clear rules that keep established chess theory and custom theory separate and organized. You can add your openings here: === Categories: === [[CustomChessTheory/1.a3|a3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.a4|a4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.b3|b3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.b4|b4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.c3|c3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.c4|c4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.d3|d3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.d4|d4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.e3|e3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4|e4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.f3|f3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.f4|f4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.g3|g3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.g4|g4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.h3|h3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.h4|h4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Na3|Na3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Nc3|Nc3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Nf3|Nf3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Nh3|Nh3]] Thanks. Owned by: ChessTheory210 3z1rljlujnyrf6qwjayjl1gdpf153er 4674010 4674005 2026-10-04T11:03:18Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 /* Custom Chess Theory */ 4674010 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory = == Custom Chess Theory == '''Custom Chess Theory''' allows players to create, organize, and document their own chess opening lines, variations, gambits, defenses, and experimental ideas. It is especially useful for opening lines that do not already have an established name, giving players a place to document their own theory without interfering with established chess openings. For example, a player can create the custom opening: '''Miloš Defense — 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4''' The '''Miloš Defense''' is a custom opening line beginning with '''1.d4 d6 2.Nc3 e5 3.e4'''. A Custom Chess Theory page can contain the complete move order, explanations of the opening idea, possible continuations, variations, strategic plans, tactical ideas, strengths, weaknesses, and example games. The goal is to let players build their own opening theory while keeping everything organized. Custom openings can have their own names and pages, but '''established chess openings should not be renamed'''. If a line already has a recognized name, that name should remain unchanged. Custom names should be used for genuinely custom or unnamed lines and variations. For example, '''Miloś Defense''' (named by me) can be listed as: '''Moves:''' 1. d4 d6 2. Nc3 e5 3. e4 if it's named, dont change it. If it isn't named, you can add your openings From there, players can add different continuations and variations while keeping the original starting line unchanged. This makes it possible to develop a complete theory around the opening without confusing it with existing named openings. Custom Chess Theory is therefore a place where players can '''create their own openings, document new ideas, name unnamed lines, develop variations, and build a personal chess-theory database''', while following clear rules that keep established chess theory and custom theory separate and organized. You can add your openings here: === Categories: === [[CustomChessTheory/1.a3|a3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.a4|a4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.b3|b3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.b4|b4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.c3|c3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.c4|c4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.d3|d3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.d4|d4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.e3|e3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4|e4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.f3|f3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.f4|f4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.g3|g3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.g4|g4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.h3|h3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.h4|h4]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Na3|Na3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Nc3|Nc3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Nf3|Nf3]] [[CustomChessTheory/1.Nh3|Nh3]] '''Our goal:''' Name as many unnamed openings, variations, defenses, and gambits as possible while keeping chess theory organized. '''Organization:''' When you name an opening, attach it to its first move category. If multiple names exist for the same line, such as 1.d4 d6, add both names to the same d4 page rather than creating separate categories. Thanks. Owned by: ChessTheory210 i239jjlu1yi3sbzjsmpue5r17tzz9tu 2 486058 4674002 2026-10-04T10:46:16Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674002 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''K''' is for Kale</big></big></big></big>[[File:Kale-Bundle.jpg|center|443x443px|Kale]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/J]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/L]] oeym0vqddkog7y668az8ygiff26sfgr 2 486059 4674003 2026-10-04T10:47:45Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674003 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''J''' is for Jicama</big></big></big></big>[[File:Caja con jicamas.jpg|center|394x394px|Jicama]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/I]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/K]] s9awujahxty2lrihszwjkdm4wxp17tw 0 486060 4674004 2026-10-04T10:50:52Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "=== Custom Chess Theory — 1.d4 === Create your own '''1.d4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Example:''' '''d4 d6 Nc3, d4 c6 Bf4''' '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. '''Named Categories ('''you can technically add new ones here if you dont find, be specific up to 5 moves.'''):''' d5 e5 c5 f5..." 4674004 wikitext text/x-wiki === Custom Chess Theory — 1.d4 === Create your own '''1.d4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Example:''' '''d4 d6 Nc3, d4 c6 Bf4''' '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. '''Named Categories ('''you can technically add new ones here if you dont find, be specific up to 5 moves.'''):''' d5 e5 c5 f5 g5 b5 b6 e6 g6 Nc6 Nf6 Na6 '''Unnamed Categories:''' a6 a5 h6 h5 Nh6 '''Half Named: Categories:''' d6 c6 f6 5utiyztmtf48avxysqh7vhtg6167ldb 2 486061 4674006 2026-10-04T10:55:03Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674006 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''R''' is for Rhubarb</big></big></big></big>[[File:Rheum rhabarbarum.2006-04-27.uellue.jpg|center|394x394px|Rhubarb]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Q]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/S]] q6skj6zarr8qd2qottqqz3drjrhaqpa 0 486062 4674007 2026-10-04T10:56:56Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674007 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. nqy1cssb55z4dw6tbo6lopjn6bc7w88 4674037 4674007 2026-10-04T11:36:46Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4674037 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) '''Without Links:''' k5r6awpnopqakp7tcvsqegfabrw7jjh 4674039 4674037 2026-10-04T11:38:52Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 added links 4674039 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) '''Without Links:''' k7fbsn3q16jgs4cnfyz2xre0buuomjo 4674040 4674039 2026-10-04T11:39:59Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 /* CUSTOM Openings: */ 4674040 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Bb5?! (Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation) '''Without Links:''' akxkc4h3d2dkzgve4btozayla6clqo2 4674042 4674040 2026-10-04T11:41:58Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 added link 4674042 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Bb5|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Bb5?!]] (Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation) '''Without Links:''' fhoip7xkm0mqfik9xdhbn88yum5v2td 4674043 4674042 2026-10-04T11:42:22Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 /* Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 */ 4674043 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Bb5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Bb5?!''']] (Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation) (custom) '''Without Links:''' 63dqesgyojwd05qu0k5f6v90oiblag3 4674047 4674043 2026-10-04T11:47:04Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4674047 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Bb5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Bb5?!''']] (Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Nxe5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Nxe5''']] (Radium Gambit Accepted) (custom) '''Without Links:''' 3ld9ufz0gyiqzrt5hmm1tfz83asgken 4674052 4674047 2026-10-04T11:53:05Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 /* CUSTOM Openings: */ 4674052 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Bb5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Bb5?!''']] (Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Nxe5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Nxe5''']] (Radium Gambit Accepted) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Nxe5/3...d6|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4? 3.Nxe5 d6!''']] (Radium Gambit Accepted: Triton Variation) (custom) '''Without Links:''' s6c0mib9d3umkf1i3mdedu1cm0y7kx4 4674055 4674052 2026-10-04T11:58:49Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4674055 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e4 === Create your own '''1.e4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. === CUSTOM Openings: === '''With Links:''' '''[[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4|1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?!]]''' (Radium Gambit) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Bb5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Bb5?!''']] (Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Nxe5|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Nxe5''']] (Radium Gambit Accepted) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Nxe5/3...d6|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Nxe5 d6!''']] (Radium Gambit Accepted: Triton Variation) (custom) [[CustomChessTheory/1.e4/1...e5/2.Nf3/2...Bb4/3.Nxe5/3...Nc6|'''1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Bb4?! 3.Nxe5 Nc6?!''']] (Radium Gambit Accepted: Rayford Gambit) (custom) '''Without Links:''' qzry75fpge7w2osr8pitkq70ewix7hc 2 486063 4674008 2026-10-04T10:58:08Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674008 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''L''' is for Leek</big></big></big></big>[[File:Prei met knobbel (Leek).jpg|center|520x520px|Leek]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/K]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/M]] m3xoa32j01lgk659505kh2h0b81j642 0 486064 4674009 2026-10-04T10:58:27Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nf3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nf3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nf3 === Create your own '''1.Nf3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674009 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nf3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nf3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nf3 === Create your own '''1.Nf3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. 6po17wn43kkyzv2x9ik11ey920og7j1 2 486065 4674011 2026-10-04T11:05:48Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674011 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''S''' is for Spinach</big></big></big></big>[[File:Spinach Plant Nourishment Meal Fresh Healthy Bio.jpg|center|416x416px|Spinach]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Q]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/S]] plw7hjk08f42ynpy935e0hkhgs8zxqr 4674013 4674011 2026-10-04T11:06:16Z TechVindicator 3626296 change links 4674013 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''S''' is for Spinach</big></big></big></big>[[File:Spinach Plant Nourishment Meal Fresh Healthy Bio.jpg|center|416x416px|Spinach]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/R]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/T]] 5nk7p4jx0n11pwg7gtmang8rsf883ij 0 486066 4674012 2026-10-04T11:06:09Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.c4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.c4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.c4 === Create your own '''1.c4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674012 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.c4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.c4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.c4 === Create your own '''1.c4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. oivk24bthgmyp6806btykzit9n3ptl9 0 486067 4674014 2026-10-04T11:08:50Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.e3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e3 === Create your own '''1.e3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674014 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.e3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.e3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.e3 === Create your own '''1.e3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. jwjxaqrohsddryuw9rakolpo7tx9qlv 2 486068 4674015 2026-10-04T11:11:57Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674015 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''P''' is for Parsnip</big></big></big></big>[[File:PastinakePflanzegeerntet.jpg|center|371x371px|Parsnip]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/O]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Q]] q507ndrhwh0va63z68dm4i5jr5ufrcz 0 486069 4674016 2026-10-04T11:12:16Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.g3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.g3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.g3 === Create your own '''1.g3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674016 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.g3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.g3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.g3 === Create your own '''1.g3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. kcvolakiy61o9ys6fy4ta8y1uism8u9 2 486070 4674017 2026-10-04T11:13:45Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674017 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''O''' is for Okra</big></big></big></big>[[File:Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) in a Bowl.jpg|center|407x407px|Okra]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/N]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/P]] 0c829n9cf1hwp67cgpv3tfle0ld2yv2 0 486071 4674018 2026-10-04T11:14:06Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.f4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.f4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.f4 === Create your own '''1.f4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674018 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.f4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.f4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.f4 === Create your own '''1.f4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. rk1os9vfu9aeouiii24lznzbziy21l2 0 486072 4674019 2026-10-04T11:16:28Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.f3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.f3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.f3 === Create your own '''1.f3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674019 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.f3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.f3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.f3 === Create your own '''1.f3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. hu3o1uzydqj5qz40pli3gybmlipyf7w 0 486073 4674020 2026-10-04T11:17:50Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.g4) = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.g4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.g4 === Create your own '''1.g4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674020 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.g4) = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.g4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.g4 === Create your own '''1.g4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. robckjqvjx8gfg878otgwytdgpsykv4 0 486074 4674021 2026-10-04T11:18:34Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.h3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.h3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.h3 === Create your own '''1.h3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674021 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.h3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.h3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.h3 === Create your own '''1.h3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. ryndaurwq7wn4exdrflpv4w2egedo30 0 486075 4674022 2026-10-04T11:19:43Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.h4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.h4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.h4 === Create your own '''1.h4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674022 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.h4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.h4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.h4 === Create your own '''1.h4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. 8v72f8r9lqtt5t8fzroitij5wn8yrc6 2 486076 4674023 2026-10-04T11:20:07Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674023 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''T''' is for Turnip</big></big></big></big>[[File:Turnip 2622027.jpg|center|478x478px|Turnip]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/S]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/U]] 5zmiqv3hvelos9iknxgdfj7ozglmt6y 0 486077 4674024 2026-10-04T11:21:27Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.a3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.a3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.a3 === Create your own '''1.a3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674024 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.a3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.a3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.a3 === Create your own '''1.a3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. rk5n8dszf9odaxknh8l7mfa4cggvzqw 0 486078 4674025 2026-10-04T11:22:45Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nc3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nc3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nc3 === Create your own '''1.Nc3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674025 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nc3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nc3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nc3 === Create your own '''1.Nc3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. t26hxyxrxgqvn9e9jvmuqjy7wu7rkj3 0 486079 4674026 2026-10-04T11:23:29Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.Na3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Na3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Na3 === Create your own '''1.Na3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674026 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.Na3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Na3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Na3 === Create your own '''1.Na3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. t9jquqq4dgiuw8as102nbhmzfiqrg7p 0 486080 4674027 2026-10-04T11:24:03Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nh3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nh3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nh3 === Create your own '''1.Nh3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674027 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nh3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nh3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.Nh3 === Create your own '''1.Nh3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. s4vpwtgt8xgfmg927b9xdfm9kgwk0hu 0 486081 4674028 2026-10-04T11:25:41Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.c3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.c3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.c3 === Create your own '''1.c3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674028 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.c3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.c3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.c3 === Create your own '''1.c3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. 6uipsomj79y441md0pdltvnysq74y1c 0 486082 4674029 2026-10-04T11:26:54Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 === Create your own '''1.d3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5" 4674029 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 === Create your own '''1.d3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5 b0pwghr4dyu42z9zlzp4bqebb27hmfx 4674032 4674029 2026-10-04T11:28:17Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 4674032 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.d3 === Create your own '''1.d3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. ibm5s3uamgukcrm4ghflcfvoyewdto5 2 486083 4674030 2026-10-04T11:27:07Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674030 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''U''' is for Ulluco</big></big></big></big>[[File:Ulluco.jpg|center|363x363px|Ulluco]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/T]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/V]] 8t6ktz7vcuqft8irjs2glgvhqdnqa0r 0 486084 4674031 2026-10-04T11:27:58Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.b3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.b3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.b3 === Create your own '''1.b3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674031 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.b3 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.b3 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.b3 === Create your own '''1.b3''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. 4kdouzx1l8c4mpzsl1hm2qvb1i2bu0x 0 486085 4674033 2026-10-04T11:28:57Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.a4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.a4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.a4 === Create your own '''1.a4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674033 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.a4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.a4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.a4 === Create your own '''1.a4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. 1tklfjp5zmqa7d346bg0rf19ovkfi67 0 486086 4674034 2026-10-04T11:29:40Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "= Custom Chess Theory — 1.b4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.b4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.b4 === Create your own '''1.b4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines." 4674034 wikitext text/x-wiki = Custom Chess Theory — 1.b4 = == Custom Chess Theory — 1.b4 == === Custom Chess Theory — 1.b4 === Create your own '''1.b4''' openings, defenses, gambits, and variations. Add any legal Black response, give unnamed lines custom names, and build your own theory. '''Categories:''' a6, a5, b6, b5, c6, c5, d6, d5, e6, e5, f6, f5, g6, g5, h6, h5, Na6, Nc6, Nf6, Nh6. '''Rule:''' Don't rename established openings. Use custom names for original or unnamed lines. lfy14oi1ko3ezw57842r3u2m2cbgypx 2 486087 4674035 2026-10-04T11:31:27Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674035 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''Y''' is for Yam</big></big></big></big>[[File:Fresh and big yam 🍠.jpg|center|316x316px|Yam]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/X]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Z]] h2lpfuzffbauoccqq461v9xhl40d2ao 2 486088 4674036 2026-10-04T11:34:43Z TechVindicator 3626296 Create. 4674036 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style='text-align:center'><big><big><big><big>'''W''' is for Watercress</big></big></big></big>[[File:Nasturtium officinale kz06.jpg|center|345x345px|Watercress]][[File:Farm-Fresh arrow left.png|Farm-Fresh arrow left|left|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/V]] [[File:Farm-Fresh arrow right.png|Farm-Fresh arrow right|right|64px|link={{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/X]] tsc8q0jisjmxfo83icwyhhu7wfhn1v1 0 486089 4674038 2026-10-04T11:38:15Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with " == 2...Bb4?! — Radium Gambit == After 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3, Black plays 2...Bb4?!, developing the bishop to b4 and creating an unusual position. Its a rare move in chess and considered dubious. It was not played ever in the Masters Database + Grandmaster Play. '''3. Nxe5''' can take the e5-pawn, immediately challenging Black's center (Radium Gambit Accepted). '''3. Bc4''' develops the bishop and prepares to castle. '''3. Nc3?!''' develops another piece and challenges B..." 4674038 wikitext text/x-wiki == 2...Bb4?! — Radium Gambit == After 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3, Black plays 2...Bb4?!, developing the bishop to b4 and creating an unusual position. Its a rare move in chess and considered dubious. It was not played ever in the Masters Database + Grandmaster Play. '''3. Nxe5''' can take the e5-pawn, immediately challenging Black's center (Radium Gambit Accepted). '''3. Bc4''' develops the bishop and prepares to castle. '''3. Nc3?!''' develops another piece and challenges Black's bishop, although Black can force a trade with 3... Bxc3 4. dxc3 (or bxc3). '''3. c3''' attacks the bishop and prepares to build a strong center. '''3. a3''' attacks the bishop with a flank pawn. '''3. Bb5?!''' will turn into the Radium Gambit - Mohan Variation. Bad Moves: '''3. Qe2?''' develops the queen, but it blocks the bishop on f1 and does not address Black's pressure on the e4-pawn. '''3. g3?''' prepares to fianchetto the bishop, but delays development and allows Black to maintain pressure on the center. '''3. c4?''' probably a mouse slip intended to play 3. c3 , it also delays development. Downsides: The main drawback of 2...Bb4?! is that Black develops the bishop before properly defending the e5-pawn. White can potentially exploit this with Nxe5. The Radium Gambit is an extremely unusual line and could plausibly originate from a mouse slip intended to play the Busch-Gass Gambit, where Black accidentally plays .'''..Bb4''' instead. An independent line is 1'''. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4?! 3. Nxe5 Qe7!''', when White wins the '''e5-pawn''' and Black must look for compensation through rapid development. Black Can Sometimes Get the Pawn Back if white plays: '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4?! 3. Nxe5 Qe7! 4. Nd3 Qxe4+ 5. Be2 Bd6''' '''2. 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4?! 3. Nxe5 Qe7! 4. f4 d6! 5. Nd3?! Qxe4+ 6. Be2 Nf6''' '''Theory Table: 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb5''' qvjbm1rx1kcytcqp86dv45eujc30sfo 0 486090 4674041 2026-10-04T11:41:32Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with " == 3. Bb5?! — Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation == '''3. Bb5?!''' is the Mohan Variation, with White responding by developing the bishop to '''b5.''' The two bishops face each other across the board, creating a mirrored position. '''3... c6''' attacks the Bishop. '''3... a6''' attacks the Bishop with a flank pawn. '''3...Nf6''' develops the knight and attacks White's e4-pawn. '''3...Nc6?!''' develops naturally and reinforces Black's '''e5-pawn''', but white can f..." 4674041 wikitext text/x-wiki == 3. Bb5?! — Radium Gambit, Mohan Variation == '''3. Bb5?!''' is the Mohan Variation, with White responding by developing the bishop to '''b5.''' The two bishops face each other across the board, creating a mirrored position. '''3... c6''' attacks the Bishop. '''3... a6''' attacks the Bishop with a flank pawn. '''3...Nf6''' develops the knight and attacks White's e4-pawn. '''3...Nc6?!''' develops naturally and reinforces Black's '''e5-pawn''', but white can force a trade with '''4. Bxc6 dxc6 (or 4...bxc6) 3...f6?!''' strengthens the '''e5-pawn''' and prepares further development but the center can get ''Cramped''. Downsides: White's '''3. Bb5?'''! does not immediately recover the e5-pawn or challenge Black's center. Both sides have spent developing their bishops, while the central tension remains. The Mohan Variation is characterized by creating a mirrored bishop setup within the Radium Gambit. ijft1wux3y5i9re9rjucklddpzkzavk 0 486091 4674046 2026-10-04T11:45:39Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with " == 3. Nxe5 — Radium Gambit Accepted == '''3. Nxe5''' accepts the Radium Gambit, with White's knight capturing the pawn on e5. '''3...Qe7!''' attacks the knight and prepares to recover the pawn (Main Line) '''3...d6!''' immediately attacks the knight on e5, forcing it to move (Triton Variation). '''3...Nf6''' develops a piece while putting additional pressure on the center. (Lubin Variation) '''3...Nc6?!''' The Rayford Gambit offers a knight trade, but Black giv..." 4674046 wikitext text/x-wiki == 3. Nxe5 — Radium Gambit Accepted == '''3. Nxe5''' accepts the Radium Gambit, with White's knight capturing the pawn on e5. '''3...Qe7!''' attacks the knight and prepares to recover the pawn (Main Line) '''3...d6!''' immediately attacks the knight on e5, forcing it to move (Triton Variation). '''3...Nf6''' develops a piece while putting additional pressure on the center. (Lubin Variation) '''3...Nc6?!''' The Rayford Gambit offers a knight trade, but Black gives White the option to exchange knights and potentially maintain the extra pawn. Downsides: White wins a pawn, but the knight on '''e5''' can become a target. Black gets rapid development and can use '''3...Qe7!, 3...d6!, or 3...Nf6''' to chase the knight and try to recover the pawn. The Radium Gambit Accepted is characterized by Black's unusual pawn sacrifice. 0p5vr00w9xsr51lapfz16w1mi9fmt1o 2 486092 4674049 2026-10-04T11:49:54Z Project Firecorn 3371292 Page created. 4674049 wikitext text/x-wiki [[User:Project Firecorn/Drafts/RDF Programming|RDF Programming]] kpshijwubinz0hq77tkn2lgeuypg0mb 0 486093 4674050 2026-10-04T11:50:25Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "== 3...d6! — Radium Gambit Accepted: Triton Variation == Black immediately attacks the knight on e5 and attempts to regain the sacrificed pawn while developing the position. '''4. Nf3''' retreats the knight to safety and keeps the extra pawn for the moment. '''4. Nc4''' keeps the knight to safety and maintains pressure on Black's position. Downsides: Black gives up the '''e5-pawn''' and must spend another tempo with '''...d6''' to chase the knight. White can use..." 4674050 wikitext text/x-wiki == 3...d6! — Radium Gambit Accepted: Triton Variation == Black immediately attacks the knight on e5 and attempts to regain the sacrificed pawn while developing the position. '''4. Nf3''' retreats the knight to safety and keeps the extra pawn for the moment. '''4. Nc4''' keeps the knight to safety and maintains pressure on Black's position. Downsides: Black gives up the '''e5-pawn''' and must spend another tempo with '''...d6''' to chase the knight. White can use the extra tempo to develop and potentially maintain the material advantage. The Radium Gambit Accepted: Triton Variation is characterized by '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4 3. Nxe5 d6''', with Black immediately challenging the knight instead of using '''3...Qe2'''. The Supposed Line Is '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4 3. Nxe5 d6! 4. Nc4''' 3d84sewkzl0vu4hoqpwdlfh6d1gz831 2 486094 4674051 2026-10-04T11:51:02Z Project Firecorn 3371292 Page created. 4674051 wikitext text/x-wiki * Python * JavaScript 3fd6tbsdhlcjnlcnbskixymwfb16ud3 0 486095 4674054 2026-10-04T11:57:22Z ChessTHEORY210 3627427 Created page with "== '''3...Nc6?!''' — Radium Gambit Accepted: Rayford Gambit == After '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4?! 3. Nxe5''', Black plays '''3...Nc6?!''', developing the knight and immediately challenging White's knight on e5. '''4. Nxc6''' accepts the offered knight trade, allowing White to exchange the active knight. '''4...dxc6''' recaptures and gives Black doubled c-pawns while opening the d-file. '''4...bxc6?!''' recaptures the knight with the b-pawn, restoring material while lea..." 4674054 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''3...Nc6?!''' — Radium Gambit Accepted: Rayford Gambit == After '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Bb4?! 3. Nxe5''', Black plays '''3...Nc6?!''', developing the knight and immediately challenging White's knight on e5. '''4. Nxc6''' accepts the offered knight trade, allowing White to exchange the active knight. '''4...dxc6''' recaptures and gives Black doubled c-pawns while opening the d-file. '''4...bxc6?!''' recaptures the knight with the b-pawn, restoring material while leaving Black with doubled c-pawns. '''4. Nf3''' retreats the knight and keeps the extra pawn. (Rayford Gambit Declined) '''4. Nc4''' keeps the knight active on c4 and continues to hold the extra pawn. '''Downsides:''' Black offers a knight trade while still being a pawn down, and ...dxc6 can leave Black with doubled pawns. However, Black gains development and opens lines for the pieces. The Rayford Gambit is where Black challenges White by offering a knight trade. 121hl3iry80wvkvpk6r1j5jiornfdea